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365 relations: Accessory pigment, Acid, Adenosine diphosphate, Adenosine triphosphate, Aerobic organism, Algae, Alkali, Alpha-Carotene, Amine, Amino acid, Ammonia, Amoeba, Amylopectin, Amyloplast, Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper, Apicomplexa, Apicoplast, Aqueous solution, Arabidopsis, Archaeplastida, ATP synthase, Autumn, Bacteria, Base pair, Beta-Carotene, Biocontainment, Blue-green, Brown algae, C-terminus, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation, Cactus, Carbon dioxide, Carbon fixation, Carbonic acid, Carboxylic acid, Carboxysome, Carotenoid, Carrot, Cell (biology), Cell culture, Cell division, Cell membrane, Cell nucleus, Cell wall, Cellular respiration, Chlamydomonas, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorarachniophyte, Chlorella, ..., Chlorophyll, Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, Chlorophyll c, Chlorophyll d, Chlorophyll f, Chlorophyta, Chloroplast, Chloroplast DNA, Chloroplast membrane, Chromalveolata, Chromera velia, Chromerida, Chromoplast, Chrysolaminarin, Concentric objects, Concerted evolution, Conserved sequence, Convergent evolution, Crassulacean acid metabolism, Cryptomonad, Cryptosporidium, Cyanidioschyzon merolae, Cyanobacteria, Cysteine, Cytoplasm, Cytosol, De novo synthesis, Deamination, Deciduous, Desmidiales, Diadinoxanthin, Diatom, Diffusion, Dinoflagellate, Dinophysis, Dinoxanthin, Disaccharide, Disease resistance in fruit and vegetables, DNA, DNA sequencing, Durinskia, Dynamin, Eduard Strasburger, Elaioplast, Electron, Electron microscope, Electron transport chain, Embryophyte, Endoplasmic reticulum, Endosymbiont, Energy, Enterobacteria phage T4, Enzyme, Epidermis (botany), Etioplast, Euglenid, Euglenozoa, Eukaryote, Eukaryotic ribosome (80S), Exaptation, Extracellular, Eyespot apparatus, Fatty acid, Fatty acid synthesis, Fern, Ferredoxin—NADP(+) reductase, Flagellum, Floridean starch, Flower, Flowering plant, Fructose, Fruit, FtsZ, Fucoxanthin, Gamete, Gene, Gene expression, Genetically modified crops, Genetically modified organism containment and escape, Genome size, Genus, Gerontoplast, Glaucophyte, Gloeobacter, Glucose, Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, Golden algae, Gram-negative bacteria, Green, Green algae, Ground tissue, Guard cell, Gymnosperm, Haematococcus pluvialis, Haptophyte, Helicoid, Helicosporidium, Helix, Heme, Heterokont, Histone, Homologous recombination, Homology (biology), Hornwort, Hugo von Mohl, Hybrid (biology), Hydrogen atom, Hydrogen ion, Hydron (chemistry), Hydronium, Hypersensitive response, Hypoxanthine, Immune response, Innate immune system, Intermembrane space, Intron, Ion, Iron–sulfur cluster, Isopentenyl pyrophosphate, Jasmonate, Jasmonic acid, Karenia (dinoflagellate), Karlodinium, Kleptoplasty, Konstantin Mereschkowski, Lamella (materials), Laurencia, Leaf, Leucoplast, Light-dependent reactions, Light-harvesting complex, Light-independent reactions, Linearity, Linoleic acid, Lipid, Lipid bilayer, Lipid metabolism, Malaria, Marchantiophyta, Meristem, Messenger RNA, Metabolism, Methionine, Micrasterias, Microfilament, Micrograph, Millimetre, Min System, MinD, MinE, Mitochondrial DNA, Mitochondrion, Mitosis, Mixotroph, Molecular diffusion, Monomer, Monophyly, Moss, N-terminus, Nanometre, Nicotiana, Nicotiana tabacum, Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, Nitric oxide, Nitrite, Nitrogen, Nitrogenous base, Nuclear DNA, Nucleoid, Nucleomorph, Nucleotide, Ochrophyta, Oedogonium, Olive (color), Online Etymology Dictionary, Operon, Optical microscope, Orange (colour), Order (biology), Organelle, Oxidative phosphorylation, Oxidative stress, Oxygen, Palisade cell, Paper chromatography, Paramylon, Paraphyly, Parasitism, Parenchyma, Pathogen, Paulinella, Peptide, Peptidoglycan, Peridinin, Peroxisome, PH, Phagosome, Phloem, Phosphate, Phosphorylation, Photodissociation, Photophosphorylation, Photoreceptor protein, Photorespiration, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic pigment, Photosystem, Photosystem I, Photosystem II, Phototropin, Phototropism, Phycobilin, Phycobilisome, Phycoerythrobilin, Phylum, Pigment, Pine, Plant, Plant cell, Plant stem, Plasmodium, Plastid, Plastoquinone, Pollen, Potassium, Potato, Potential energy, Prasinophyceae, Precursor (chemistry), Prochlorococcus, Programmed cell death, Prokaryote, Promoter (genetics), Protein, Protein complex, Protein folding, Protein targeting, Proteinoplast, Protist, Proton pump, Pseudogene, Purine, Pyrenoid, Pyrimidine, Radiant energy, Reactive oxygen species, Red, Red algae, Redox, Regular icosahedron, Rhizaria, Ribosomal RNA, Ribosome, Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, RNA, RNA polymerase, Root, RuBisCO, S phase, Salicylic acid, Scenedesmus, Secretion, Selection bias, Shine-Dalgarno sequence, Shoot, Signal peptide, Sirogonium, Space-filling model, Spermatozoon, Spinach, Spirogyra, Starch, Stigeoclonium, Stoma, Stroma (fluid), Stromule, Substrate (chemistry), Sucrose, Sugar, Sunlight, Surface area, Surface-area-to-volume ratio, Symbiogenesis, Synechococcus, Systemic acquired resistance, Thylakoid, TIC/TOC complex, Topology, Transfer RNA, Transgene, Translation (biology), Translocon, Transmission electron microscopy, Transplastomic plant, Unified atomic mass unit, Vallisneria, Vascular bundle, Vascular plant, Vesicle (biology and chemistry), Vestigiality, Viridiplantae, Vitamin E, Volvox, Water, Water net, Wheat, White blood cell, Xanthophyll, Yellow, Yellow-green algae, Zeaxanthin, Zygnema, Zygote, 3-Phosphoglyceric acid. 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Accessory pigment
Accessory pigments are light-absorbing compounds, found in photosynthetic organisms, that work in conjunction with chlorophyll ''a''.
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Acid
An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid).
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Adenosine diphosphate
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), also known as adenosine pyrophosphate (APP), is an important organic compound in metabolism and is essential to the flow of energy in living cells.
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Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that participates in many processes.
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Aerobic organism
An aerobic organism or aerobe is an organism that can survive and grow in an oxygenated environment.
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Algae
Algae (singular alga) is an informal term for a large, diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that are not necessarily closely related, and is thus polyphyletic.
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Alkali
In chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: al-qaly “ashes of the saltwort”) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal chemical element.
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Alpha-Carotene
α-Carotene is a form of carotene with a β-ionone ring at one end and an α-ionone ring at the opposite end.
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Amine
In organic chemistry, amines are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair.
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Amino acid
Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.
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Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3.
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Amoeba
An amoeba (rarely spelled amœba, US English spelled ameba; plural am(o)ebas or am(o)ebae), often called amoeboid, is a type of cell or organism which has the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.
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Amylopectin
Amylopectin is a water-soluble polysaccharide and highly branched polymer of α-glucose units found in plants.
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Amyloplast
Amyloplasts are non-pigmented organelles found in some plant cells.
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Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper
Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper (12 May 1856 – 9 September 1901) was a German botanist and phytogeographer who made major contributions in the fields of histology, ecology and plant geography.
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Apicomplexa
The Apicomplexa (also called Apicomplexia) are a large phylum of parasitic alveolates.
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Apicoplast
An apicoplast is a derived non-photosynthetic plastid found in most Apicomplexa, including Toxoplasma gondii, malaria parasites such as Plasmodium falciparum, but not in others such as Cryptosporidium.
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Aqueous solution
An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water.
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Arabidopsis
Arabidopsis (rockcress) is a genus in the family Brassicaceae.
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Archaeplastida
The Archaeplastida (or kingdom Plantae sensu lato) are a major group of eukaryotes, comprising the red algae (Rhodophyta), the green algae, and the land plants, together with a small group of freshwater unicellular algae called glaucophytes.
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ATP synthase
ATP synthase is an enzyme that creates the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
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Autumn
Autumn, also known as fall in American and Canadian English, is one of the four temperate seasons.
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Bacteria
Bacteria (common noun bacteria, singular bacterium) is a type of biological cell.
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Base pair
A base pair (bp) is a unit consisting of two nucleobases bound to each other by hydrogen bonds.
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Beta-Carotene
β-Carotene is an organic, strongly colored red-orange pigment abundant in plants and fruits.
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Biocontainment
The concept of biocontainment is related to laboratory biosafety and pertains to microbiology laboratories in which the physical containment of highly pathogenic organisms or agents (bacteria, viruses, and toxins) is required, usually by isolation in environmentally and biologically secure cabinets or rooms, to prevent accidental infection of workers or release into the surrounding community during scientific research.
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Blue-green
Blue-green/bottle green is a color that is a representation of the color that is between green and blue on a typical traditional old-fashioned RYB color wheel.
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Brown algae
The brown algae (singular: alga), comprising the class Phaeophyceae, are a large group of multicellular algae, including many seaweeds located in colder waters within the Northern Hemisphere.
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C-terminus
The C-terminus (also known as the carboxyl-terminus, carboxy-terminus, C-terminal tail, C-terminal end, or COOH-terminus) is the end of an amino acid chain (protein or polypeptide), terminated by a free carboxyl group (-COOH).
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C3 carbon fixation
carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis, along with c4 and CAM.
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C4 carbon fixation
C4 carbon fixation or the Hatch-Slack pathway is a photosynthetic process in some plants.
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Cactus
A cactus (plural: cacti, cactuses, or cactus) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae,Although the spellings of botanical families have been largely standardized, there is little agreement among botanists as to how these names are to be pronounced.
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Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide (chemical formula) is a colorless gas with a density about 60% higher than that of dry air.
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Carbon fixation
Carbon fixation or сarbon assimilation is the conversion process of inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide) to organic compounds by living organisms.
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Carbonic acid
Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 (equivalently OC(OH)2).
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Carboxylic acid
A carboxylic acid is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group (C(.
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Carboxysome
Carboxysomes are bacterial compartments consisting of polyhedral protein shells filled with the enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) -the predominant enzyme in carbon fixation and the rate limiting enzyme in the Calvin Cycle-and a carbonic anhydrase.
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Carotenoid
Carotenoids, also called tetraterpenoids, are organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae, as well as several bacteria and fungi.
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Carrot
The carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) is a root vegetable, usually orange in colour, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist.
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Cell (biology)
The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms.
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Cell culture
Cell culture is the process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside their natural environment.
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Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
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Cell membrane
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the extracellular space).
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Cell nucleus
In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel or seed) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells.
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Cell wall
A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just outside the cell membrane.
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Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
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Chlamydomonas
Chlamydomonas is a genus of green algae consisting of about 325 speciesSmith, G.M. 1955 Cryptogamic Botany Volume 1.
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Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a single-cell green alga about 10 micrometres in diameter that swims with two flagella.
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Chlorarachniophyte
The chlorarachniophytes are a small group of algae occasionally found in tropical oceans.
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Chlorella
Chlorella is a genus of single-celled green algae belonging to the division Chlorophyta.
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Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll (also chlorophyl) is any of several related green pigments found in cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts of algae and plants.
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Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll a is a specific form of chlorophyll used in oxygenic photosynthesis. It absorbs most energy from wavelengths of violet-blue and orange-red light. It also reflects green-yellow light, and as such contributes to the observed green color of most plants. This photosynthetic pigment is essential for photosynthesis in eukaryotes, cyanobacteria and prochlorophytes because of its role as primary electron donor in the electron transport chain. Chlorophyll a also transfers resonance energy in the antenna complex, ending in the reaction center where specific chlorophylls P680 and P700 are located.
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Chlorophyll b
Chlorophyll b is a form of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll b helps in photosynthesis by absorbing light energy. It is more soluble than chlorophyll ''a'' in polar solvents because of its carbonyl group. Its color is yellow, and it primarily absorbs blue light. In land plants, the light-harvesting antennae around photosystem II contain the majority of chlorophyll b. Hence, in shade-adapted chloroplasts, which have an increased ratio of photosystem II to photosystem I, there is a higher ratio of chlorophyll b to chlorophyll a. This is adaptive, as increasing chlorophyll b increases the range of wavelengths absorbed by the shade chloroplasts.
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Chlorophyll c
Chlorophyll c is a form of chlorophyll found in certain marine algae, including the photosynthetic Chromista (e.g. diatoms, brown algae) and dinoflagellates.
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Chlorophyll d
Chlorophyll d is a form of chlorophyll, identified by Harold Strain and Winston Manning in 1943.
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Chlorophyll f
Chlorophyll f is a type form of chlorophyll that absorbs further in the red (infrared light) than other chlorophylls.
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Chlorophyta
Chlorophyta is a division of green algae, informally called chlorophytes.
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Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are organelles, specialized compartments, in plant and algal cells.
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Chloroplast DNA
Chloroplasts have their own DNA, often abbreviated as cpDNA.
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Chloroplast membrane
Chloroplasts contain several important membranes, vital for their function.
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Chromalveolata
Chromalveolata is an eukaryote supergroup present in a major classification of 2005, then regarded as one of the six major groups within the eukaryotes.
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Chromera velia
Chromera velia, also known as a "chromerid", is a unicellular photosynthetic organism in the superphylum Alveolata.
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Chromerida
Chromerida is a phylum of alveolates, which includes photosynthetic species Chromera velia and Vitrella brassicaformis.
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Chromoplast
Chromoplasts are plastids, heterogeneous organelles responsible for pigment synthesis and storage in specific photosynthetic eukaryotes.
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Chrysolaminarin
Chrysolaminarin is a linear polymer of β(1→3) and β(1→6) linked glucose units in a ratio of 11:1.
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Concentric objects
In geometry, two or more objects are said to be concentric, coaxal, or coaxial when they share the same center or axis.
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Concerted evolution
Concerted evolution is a process that may explain the observation that paralogous genes within one species are more closely related to each other than to members of the same gene family in another species, even though the gene duplication event preceded the speciation event.
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Conserved sequence
In evolutionary biology, conserved sequences are similar or identical sequences in nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) or proteins across species (orthologous sequences) or within a genome (paralogous sequences).
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Convergent evolution
Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages.
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Crassulacean acid metabolism
Crassulacean acid metabolism, also known as CAM photosynthesis, is a carbon fixation pathway that evolved in some plants as an adaptation to arid conditions.
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Cryptomonad
The cryptomonads (or cryptophytes) are a group of algae, most of which have plastids.
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Cryptosporidium
Cryptosporidium is a genus of apicomplexan parasitic alveolates that can cause a respiratory and gastrointestinal illness (cryptosporidiosis) that primarily involves watery diarrhea (intestinal cryptosporidiosis) with or without a persistent cough (respiratory cryptosporidiosis) in both immunocompetent and immunodeficient humans.
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Cyanidioschyzon merolae
Cyanidioschyzon merolae is a small (2μm), club-shaped, unicellular haploid red alga adapted to high sulfur acidic hot spring environments (pH 1.5, 45 °C).
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Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria, also known as Cyanophyta, are a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis, and are the only photosynthetic prokaryotes able to produce oxygen.
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Cysteine
Cysteine (symbol Cys or C) is a semi-essential proteinogenic amino acid with the formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2SH.
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Cytoplasm
In cell biology, the cytoplasm is the material within a living cell, excluding the cell nucleus.
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Cytosol
The cytosol, also known as intracellular fluid (ICF) or cytoplasmic matrix, is the liquid found inside cells.
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De novo synthesis
De novo synthesis refers to the synthesis of complex molecules from simple molecules such as sugars or amino acids, as opposed to recycling after partial degradation.
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Deamination
Deamination is the removal of an amine group from a protein molecule.
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Deciduous
In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous (/dɪˈsɪdʒuəs/) means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, after flowering; and to the shedding of ripe fruit.
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Desmidiales
Desmidiales, commonly called Desmids (Gr. desmos, bond or chain), are an order in the Charophyta, a division of green algae in which the land plants (Embryophyta) emerged.
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Diadinoxanthin
Diadinoxanthin is a pigment found in phytoplankton.
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Diatom
Diatoms (diá-tom-os "cut in half", from diá, "through" or "apart"; and the root of tém-n-ō, "I cut".) are a major group of microorganisms found in the oceans, waterways and soils of the world.
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Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of high concentration (or high chemical potential) to a region of low concentration (or low chemical potential) as a result of random motion of the molecules or atoms.
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Dinoflagellate
The dinoflagellates (Greek δῖνος dinos "whirling" and Latin flagellum "whip, scourge") are a large group of flagellate eukaryotes that constitute the phylum Dinoflagellata.
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Dinophysis
Dinophysis is a genus of dinoflagellates common in tropical, temperate, coastal and oceanic watersHallegraeff, G.M., Lucas, I.A.N. 1988: The marine dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis (Dinophyceae): photosynthetic, neritic and non-photosynthetic, oceanic species.
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Dinoxanthin
Dinoxanthin is a type of xanthophyll found in dinoflagellates.
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Disaccharide
A disaccharide (also called a double sugar or bivose) is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides (simple sugars) are joined by glycosidic linkage.
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Disease resistance in fruit and vegetables
There are a number of lines of defence against pests (that, those animals that cause damage to the plants we grow) and diseases in the orchard, principal among these being the practice of good husbandry, creating healthy soil and ensuring high standards of garden hygiene.
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DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a thread-like chain of nucleotides carrying the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.
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DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule.
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Durinskia
Durinskia is a genus of dinoflagellate that can be found in freshwater and marine environments.
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Dynamin
Dynamin is a GTPase responsible for endocytosis in the eukaryotic cell.
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Eduard Strasburger
Eduard Adolf Strasburger (1 February 1844 – 18 May 1912) was a Polish-German professor and one of the most famous botanists of the 19th century.
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Elaioplast
Elaioplasts are a type of leucoplast that is specialized for the storage of lipids in plants.
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Electron
The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol or, whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge.
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Electron microscope
An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination.
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Electron transport chain
An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane.
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Embryophyte
The Embryophyta are the most familiar group of green plants that form vegetation on earth.
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Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a type of organelle found in eukaryotic cells that forms an interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs or tube-like structures known as cisternae.
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Endosymbiont
An endosymbiont or endobiont is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism in a symbiotic relationship with the host body or cell, often but not always to mutual benefit.
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Energy
In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object.
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Enterobacteria phage T4
Enterobacteria phage T4 is a bacteriophage that infects Escherichia coli bacteria.
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Enzyme
Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts.
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Epidermis (botany)
The word'epidermis' is a single layer of cells that covers the leaves, flowers, roots and stems of plants.
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Etioplast
Etioplasts are chloroplasts that have not been exposed to light.
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Euglenid
Euglenids (euglenoids, or euglenophytes, formally Euglenida/Euglenoida, ICZN, or Euglenophyceae, ICBN) are one of the best-known groups of flagellates, which are excavate eukaryotes of the phylum Euglenophyta and their cell structure is typical of that group.
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Euglenozoa
The euglenozoa are a large group of flagellate excavates.
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Eukaryote
Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes, unlike Prokaryotes (Bacteria and other Archaea).
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Eukaryotic ribosome (80S)
Ribosomes are a large and complex molecular machine that catalyzes the synthesis of proteins, referred to as translation.
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Exaptation
Exaptation (Stephen Jay Gould and Elisabeth Vrba's proposed replacement for what he considered the teleologically-loaded term "pre-adaptation") and the related term co-option describe a shift in the function of a trait during evolution.
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Extracellular
In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word extracellular (or sometimes extracellular space) means "outside the cell".
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Eyespot apparatus
The eyespot apparatus (or stigma) is a photoreceptive organelle found in the flagellate or (motile) cells of green algae and other unicellular photosynthetic organisms such as euglenids.
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Fatty acid
In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated.
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Fatty acid synthesis
Fatty acid synthesis is the creation of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and NADPH through the action of enzymes called fatty acid synthases.
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Fern
A fern is a member of a group of vascular plants that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers.
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Ferredoxin—NADP(+) reductase
In enzymology, a ferredoxin-NADP reductase abbreviated FNR, is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction The 3 substrates of this enzyme are reduced ferredoxin, NADP+, and H+, whereas its two products are oxidized ferredoxin and NADPH.
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Flagellum
A flagellum (plural: flagella) is a lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell body of certain bacterial and eukaryotic cells.
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Floridean starch
Floridean starch is a type of a storage glucan found in glaucophytes and in red algae (also known as rhodophytes), in which it is usually the primary sink for fixed carbon from photosynthesis.
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Flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also called angiosperms).
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Flowering plant
The flowering plants, also known as angiosperms, Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approximately 13,164 known genera and c. 295,383 known species.
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Fructose
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose.
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Fruit
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) formed from the ovary after flowering.
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FtsZ
FtsZ is a protein encoded by the ftsZ gene that assembles into a ring at the future site of the septum of bacterial cell division.
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Fucoxanthin
Fucoxanthin is a xanthophyll, with formula C42H58O6.
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Gamete
A gamete (from Ancient Greek γαμετή gamete from gamein "to marry") is a haploid cell that fuses with another haploid cell during fertilization (conception) in organisms that sexually reproduce.
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Gene
In biology, a gene is a sequence of DNA or RNA that codes for a molecule that has a function.
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Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product.
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Genetically modified crops
Genetically modified crops (GMCs, GM crops, or biotech crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods.
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Genetically modified organism containment and escape
Since the advent of genetic engineering in the 1970s, concerns have been raised about the dangers of the technology.
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Genome size
Genome size is the total amount of DNA contained within one copy of a single genome.
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Genus
A genus (genera) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, as well as viruses, in biology.
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Gerontoplast
A gerontoplast is a plastid that develops from a chloroplast during the senescing of plant foliage.
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Glaucophyte
The glaucophytes, also known as glaucocystophytes or glaucocystids, are a small group of rare freshwater microscopic algae.
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Gloeobacter
Gloeobacter is a genus of cyanobacteria.
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Glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6.
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Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GA3P, GADP, GAP, TP, GALP or PGAL, is the metabolite that occurs as an intermediate in several central pathways of all organisms.
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Golden algae
The Chrysophyceae, usually called chrysophytes, chrysomonads, golden-brown algae or golden algae are a large group of algae, found mostly in freshwater.
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Gram-negative bacteria
Gram-negative bacteria are bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the gram-staining method of bacterial differentiation.
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Green
Green is the color between blue and yellow on the visible spectrum.
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Green algae
The green algae (singular: green alga) are a large, informal grouping of algae consisting of the Chlorophyta and Charophyta/Streptophyta, which are now placed in separate divisions, as well as the more basal Mesostigmatophyceae, Chlorokybophyceae and Spirotaenia.
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Ground tissue
The ground tissue of plants includes all tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular.
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Guard cell
Guard cells are specialized cells in the epidermis of leaves, stems and other organs that are used to control gas exchange.
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Gymnosperm
The gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes.
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Haematococcus pluvialis
Haematococcus pluvialis is a freshwater species of Chlorophyta from the family Haematococcaceae.
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Haptophyte
The haptophytes, classified either as the Haptophyta, Haptophytina or Prymnesiophyta (named for Prymnesium), are a Division (botany) of algae.
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Helicoid
The helicoid, after the plane and the catenoid, is the third minimal surface to be known.
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Helicosporidium
Helicosporidium is a genus of green algae in the class Trebouxiophyceae.
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Helix
A helix, plural helixes or helices, is a type of smooth space curve, i.e. a curve in three-dimensional space.
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Heme
Heme or haem is a coordination complex "consisting of an iron ion coordinated to a porphyrin acting as a tetradentate ligand, and to one or two axial ligands." The definition is loose, and many depictions omit the axial ligands.
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Heterokont
The heterokonts or stramenopiles (formally, Heterokonta or Stramenopiles) are a major line of eukaryotes currently containing more than 25,000 known species.
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Histone
In biology, histones are highly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.
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Homologous recombination
Homologous recombination is a type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences are exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of DNA.
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Homology (biology)
In biology, homology is the existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes, in different taxa.
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Hornwort
Hornworts are a group of non-vascular plants constituting the division Anthocerotophyta.
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Hugo von Mohl
Hugo von Mohl FFRS HFRSE (8 April 1805 – 1 April 1872) was a German botanist from Stuttgart.
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Hybrid (biology)
In biology, a hybrid, or crossbreed, is the result of combining the qualities of two organisms of different breeds, varieties, species or genera through sexual reproduction.
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Hydrogen atom
A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element hydrogen.
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Hydrogen ion
A hydrogen ion is created when a hydrogen atom loses or gains an electron.
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Hydron (chemistry)
In chemistry, a hydron is the general name for a cationic form of atomic hydrogen, represented with the symbol.
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Hydronium
In chemistry, hydronium is the common name for the aqueous cation, the type of oxonium ion produced by protonation of water.
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Hypersensitive response
The hypersensitive response (HR) is a mechanism, used by plants, to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens.
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Hypoxanthine
Hypoxanthine is a naturally occurring purine derivative.
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Immune response
The Immune response is the body's response caused by its immune system being activated by antigens.
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Innate immune system
The innate immune system, also known as the non-specific immune system or in-born immunity system, is an important subsystem of the overall immune system that comprises the cells and mechanisms involved in the defense of the host from infection by other organisms.
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Intermembrane space
The intermembrane space (IMS) is the region between the inner membrane and the outer membrane of a mitochondrion or a chloroplast.
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Intron
An intron is any nucleotide sequence within a gene that is removed by RNA splicing during maturation of the final RNA product.
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Ion
An ion is an atom or molecule that has a non-zero net electrical charge (its total number of electrons is not equal to its total number of protons).
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Iron–sulfur cluster
Iron–sulfur clusters are molecular ensembles of iron and sulfide.
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Isopentenyl pyrophosphate
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP, isopentenyl diphosphate, or IDP) is an isoprenoid precursor.
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Jasmonate
Jasmonate (JA) and its derivatives are lipid-based plant hormones that regulate a wide range of processes in plants, ranging from growth and photosynthesis to reproductive development.
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Jasmonic acid
Jasmonic acid (JA) is an organic compound found in several plants including jasmine.
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Karenia (dinoflagellate)
Karenia is a genus that consists of unicellular, photosynthetic, planktonic organisms found in marine environments.
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Karlodinium
Karlodinium is a genus of dinoflagellates.
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Kleptoplasty
Kleptoplasty or kleptoplastidy is a symbiotic phenomenon whereby plastids, notably chloroplasts from algae, are sequestered by host organisms.
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Konstantin Mereschkowski
Konstantin Sergeevich Mereschkowski (p; – 9 January 1921) was a prominent Russian biologist and botanist, active mainly around Kazan, whose research on lichens led him to propose the theory of symbiogenesis – that larger, more complex cells (of eukaryotes) evolved from the symbiotic relationship between less complex ones.
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Lamella (materials)
A lamella (plural lamellae) is a small plate or flake, from the Latin, and may also be used to refer to collections of fine sheets of material held adjacent to one another, in a gill-shaped structure, often with fluid in between though sometimes simply a set of 'welded' plates.
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Laurencia
Laurencia is a genus of red algae that mostly occurs in the sea near islands.
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Leaf
A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant and is the principal lateral appendage of the stem.
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Leucoplast
Leucoplasts (λευκός leukós "white", πλαστός plastós "formed, molded") are a category of plastid and as such are organelles found in plant cells.
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Light-dependent reactions
In photosynthesis, the light-dependent reactions take place on the thylakoid membranes.
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Light-harvesting complex
A light-harvesting complex has a complex of subunit proteins that may be part of a larger supercomplex of a photosystem, the functional unit in photosynthesis.
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Light-independent reactions
The light-independent reactions, or dark reactions, of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose.
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Linearity
Linearity is the property of a mathematical relationship or function which means that it can be graphically represented as a straight line.
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Linoleic acid
Linoleic acid (LA), a carboxylic acid, is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid, an 18-carbon chain with two double bonds in cis configuration.
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Lipid
In biology and biochemistry, a lipid is a biomolecule that is soluble in nonpolar solvents.
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Lipid bilayer
The lipid bilayer (or phospholipid bilayer) is a thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules.
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Lipid metabolism
Lipid metabolism is the synthesis and degradation of lipids in cells, involving the break down or storage of fats for energy.
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Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease affecting humans and other animals caused by parasitic protozoans (a group of single-celled microorganisms) belonging to the Plasmodium type.
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Marchantiophyta
The Marchantiophyta are a division of non-vascular land plants commonly referred to as hepatics or liverworts.
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Meristem
A meristem is the tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells), found in zones of the plant where growth can take place.
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Messenger RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a large family of RNA molecules that convey genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where they specify the amino acid sequence of the protein products of gene expression.
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Metabolism
Metabolism (from μεταβολή metabolē, "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of organisms.
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Methionine
Methionine (symbol Met or M) is an essential amino acid in humans.
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Micrasterias
Micrasterias is a unicellular green alga of the order Desmidiales.
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Microfilament
Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are filaments in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that form part of the cytoskeleton.
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Micrograph
A micrograph or photomicrograph is a photograph or digital image taken through a microscope or similar device to show a magnified image of an item.
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Millimetre
The millimetre (International spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI unit symbol mm) or millimeter (American spelling) is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one thousandth of a metre, which is the SI base unit of length.
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Min System
The Min System is a mechanism composed of three proteins MinC, MinD, and MinE used by E. coli as a means of properly localizing the septum prior to cell division.
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MinD
The MinD protein is one of three proteins encoded by the minB operon and also a part of the ParA family of ATPases.
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MinE
The MinE protein is one of three proteins of the Min system encoded by the minB operon required to generate pole to pole oscillations prior to bacterial cell division as a means of specifying the midzone of the cell, as seen in E.coli.
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Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA) is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
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Mitochondrion
The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double-membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms.
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Mitosis
In cell biology, mitosis is a part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei.
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Mixotroph
A mixotroph is an organism that can use a mix of different sources of energy and carbon, instead of having a single trophic mode on the continuum from complete autotrophy at one end to heterotrophy at the other.
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Molecular diffusion
Molecular diffusion, often simply called diffusion, is the thermal motion of all (liquid or gas) particles at temperatures above absolute zero.
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Monomer
A monomer (mono-, "one" + -mer, "part") is a molecule that "can undergo polymerization thereby contributing constitutional units to the essential structure of a macromolecule".
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Monophyly
In cladistics, a monophyletic group, or clade, is a group of organisms that consists of all the descendants of a common ancestor.
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Moss
Mosses are small flowerless plants that typically grow in dense green clumps or mats, often in damp or shady locations.
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N-terminus
The N-terminus (also known as the amino-terminus, NH2-terminus, N-terminal end or amine-terminus) is the start of a protein or polypeptide referring to the free amine group (-NH2) located at the end of a polypeptide.
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Nanometre
The nanometre (International spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: nm) or nanometer (American spelling) is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one billionth (short scale) of a metre (m).
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Nicotiana
Nicotiana is a genus of herbaceous plants and shrubs of the family Solanaceae, that is indigenous to the Americas, Australia, south west Africa and the South Pacific.
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Nicotiana tabacum
Nicotiana tabacum, or cultivated tobacco, is an annually-grown herbaceous plant.
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Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, abbreviated NADP or, in older notation, TPN (triphosphopyridine nucleotide), is a cofactor used in anabolic reactions, such as lipid and nucleic acid synthesis, which require NADPH as a reducing agent.
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Nitric oxide
Nitric oxide (nitrogen oxide or nitrogen monoxide) is a colorless gas with the formula NO.
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Nitrite
The nitrite ion, which has the chemical formula, is a symmetric anion with equal N–O bond lengths.
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Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7.
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Nitrogenous base
A nitrogenous base, or nitrogen-containing base, is an organic molecule with a nitrogen atom that has the chemical properties of a base.
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Nuclear DNA
Nuclear DNA, or nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid (nDNA), is the DNA contained within the nucleus of a eukaryotic organism.
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Nucleoid
The nucleoid (meaning nucleus-like) is an irregularly shaped region within the cell of a prokaryote that contains all or most of the genetic material, called genophore.
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Nucleomorph
Nucleomorphs are small, vestigial eukaryotic nuclei found between the inner and outer pairs of membranes in certain plastids.
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Nucleotide
Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as the monomer units for forming the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules within all life-forms on Earth.
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Ochrophyta
Ochrophyta is a group of mostly photosynthetic heterokonts.
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Oedogonium
Oedogonium is a genus of filamentous green algae, with unbranched filaments that are one cell thick.
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Olive (color)
Olive is a dark yellowish-green color, like that of unripe or green olives.
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Online Etymology Dictionary
The Online Etymology Dictionary is a free online dictionary written and compiled by Douglas Harper that describes the origins of English-language words.
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Operon
In genetics, an operon is a functioning unit of DNA containing a cluster of genes under the control of a single promoter.
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Optical microscope
The optical microscope, often referred to as the light microscope, is a type of microscope that uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small subjects.
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Orange (colour)
Orange is the colour between yellow and red on the spectrum of visible light.
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Order (biology)
In biological classification, the order (ordo) is.
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Organelle
In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, in which their function is vital for the cell to live.
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Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation (or OXPHOS in short) (UK, US) is the metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing energy which is used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
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Oxidative stress
Oxidative stress reflects an imbalance between the systemic manifestation of reactive oxygen species and a biological system's ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or to repair the resulting damage.
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Oxygen
Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8.
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Palisade cell
Palisade cells are plant cells located in leaves, right below the epidermis and cuticle.
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Paper chromatography
Paper chromatography is an analytical method used to separate colored chemicals or substances.
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Paramylon
Paramylon is a carbohydrate similar to starch.
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Paraphyly
In taxonomy, a group is paraphyletic if it consists of the group's last common ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor excluding a few—typically only one or two—monophyletic subgroups.
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Parasitism
In evolutionary biology, parasitism is a relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life.
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Parenchyma
Parenchyma is the bulk of a substance.
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Pathogen
In biology, a pathogen (πάθος pathos "suffering, passion" and -γενής -genēs "producer of") or a '''germ''' in the oldest and broadest sense is anything that can produce disease; the term came into use in the 1880s.
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Paulinella
Paulinella is a genus of about nine species of freshwater amoeboids.
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Peptide
Peptides (from Gr.: πεπτός, peptós "digested"; derived from πέσσειν, péssein "to digest") are short chains of amino acid monomers linked by peptide (amide) bonds.
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Peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of most bacteria, forming the cell wall.
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Peridinin
Peridinin is a light-harvesting apocarotenoid, a pigment associated with chlorophyll and found in the peridinin-chlorophyll-protein (PCP) light-harvesting complex in dinoflagellates, best studied in Amphidinium carterae.
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Peroxisome
A peroxisome is a type of organelle known as a microbody, found in virtually all eukaryotic cells.
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PH
In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.
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Phagosome
In cell biology, a phagosome is a vesicle formed around a particle engulfed by a phagocyte via phagocytosis.
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Phloem
In vascular plants, phloem is the living tissue that transports the soluble organic compounds made during photosynthesis and known as photosynthates, in particular the sugar sucrose, to parts of the plant where needed.
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Phosphate
A phosphate is chemical derivative of phosphoric acid.
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Phosphorylation
In chemistry, phosphorylation of a molecule is the attachment of a phosphoryl group.
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Photodissociation
Photodissociation, photolysis, or photodecomposition is a chemical reaction in which a chemical compound is broken down by photons.
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Photophosphorylation
In the process of photosynthesis, the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP using the energy of sunlight is called photophosphorylation.
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Photoreceptor protein
Photoreceptor proteins are light-sensitive proteins involved in the sensing and response to light in a variety of organisms.
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Photorespiration
Photorespiration (also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle, or C2 photosynthesis) refers to a process in plant metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP, causing some of the energy produced by photosynthesis to be wasted.
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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities (energy transformation).
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Photosynthetic pigment
A photosynthetic pigment (accessory pigment; chloroplast pigment; antenna pigment) is a pigment that is present in chloroplasts or photosynthetic bacteria and captures the light energy necessary for photosynthesis.
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Photosystem
Photosystems are functional and structural units of protein complexes involved in photosynthesis that together carry out the primary photochemistry of photosynthesis: the absorption of light and the transfer of energy and electrons.
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Photosystem I
Photosystem I (PS I, or plastocyanin-ferredoxin oxidoreductase) is the second photosystem in the photosynthetic light reactions of algae, plants, and some bacteria.
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Photosystem II
Photosystem II (or water-plastoquinone oxidoreductase) is the first protein complex in the light-dependent reactions of oxygenic photosynthesis.
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Phototropin
Phototropins are photoreceptor proteins (more specifically, flavoproteins) that mediate phototropism responses in higher plants.
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Phototropism
Phototropism is the growth of an organism which responds to a light stimulus.
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Phycobilin
Phycobilins (from Greek: φύκος (phykos) meaning "alga", and from Latin: bilis meaning "bile") are light-capturing bilins found in cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of red algae, glaucophytes and some cryptomonads (though not in green algae and plants).
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Phycobilisome
Phycobilisomes are light harvesting antennae of photosystem II in cyanobacteria, red algae and glaucophytes.
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Phycoerythrobilin
Phycoerythrobilin is a red phycobilin, i.e. an open tetrapyrrole chromophore found in cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of red algae, glaucophytes and some cryptomonads.
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Phylum
In biology, a phylum (plural: phyla) is a level of classification or taxonomic rank below Kingdom and above Class.
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Pigment
A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength-selective absorption.
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Pine
A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus,, of the family Pinaceae.
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Plant
Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae.
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Plant cell
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that differ in several key aspects from the cells of other eukaryotic organisms.
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Plant stem
A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root.
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Plasmodium
Plasmodium is a genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and insects.
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Plastid
The plastid (Greek: πλαστός; plastós: formed, molded – plural plastids) is a double-membrane organelle found in the cells of plants, algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms.
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Plastoquinone
Plastoquinone (PQ) is an isoprenoid quinone molecule involved in the electron transport chain in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
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Pollen
Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes (sperm cells).
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Potassium
Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K (from Neo-Latin kalium) and atomic number 19.
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Potato
The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum.
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Potential energy
In physics, potential energy is the energy possessed by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors.
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Prasinophyceae
The Prasinophytes are a paraphyletic class of unicellular green algae.
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Precursor (chemistry)
In chemistry, a precursor is a compound that participates in a chemical reaction that produces another compound.
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Prochlorococcus
Prochlorococcus is a genus of very small (0.6 µm) marine cyanobacteria with an unusual pigmentation (chlorophyll ''a2'' and ''b2'').
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Programmed cell death
Programmed cell death (or PCD) is the death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program.
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Prokaryote
A prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle.
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Promoter (genetics)
In genetics, a promoter is a region of DNA that initiates transcription of a particular gene.
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Protein
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues.
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Protein complex
A protein complex or multiprotein complex is a group of two or more associated polypeptide chains.
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Protein folding
Protein folding is the physical process by which a protein chain acquires its native 3-dimensional structure, a conformation that is usually biologically functional, in an expeditious and reproducible manner.
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Protein targeting
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the biological mechanism by which proteins are transported to the appropriate destinations in the cell or outside it.
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Proteinoplast
Proteinoplasts (sometimes called proteoplasts, aleuroplasts, and aleuronaplasts) are specialized organelles found only in plant cells.
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Protist
A protist is any eukaryotic organism that has cells with nuclei and is not an animal, plant or fungus.
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Proton pump
A proton pump is an integral membrane protein that builds up a proton gradient across a biological membrane.
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Pseudogene
Pseudogenes are segments of DNA that are related to real genes.
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Purine
A purine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound that consists of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring.
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Pyrenoid
Pyrenoids are sub-cellular micro-compartments found in chloroplasts of many algae,Giordano, M., Beardall, J., & Raven, J. A. (2005).
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Pyrimidine
Pyrimidine is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound similar to pyridine.
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Radiant energy
In physics, and in particular as measured by radiometry, radiant energy is the energy of electromagnetic and gravitational radiation.
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Reactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemically reactive chemical species containing oxygen.
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Red
Red is the color at the end of the visible spectrum of light, next to orange and opposite violet.
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Red algae
The red algae, or Rhodophyta, are one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae.
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Redox
Redox (short for reduction–oxidation reaction) (pronunciation: or) is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed.
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Regular icosahedron
In geometry, a regular icosahedron is a convex polyhedron with 20 faces, 30 edges and 12 vertices.
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Rhizaria
The Rhizaria are a species-rich supergroup of mostly unicellular eukaryotes.
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Ribosomal RNA
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is the RNA component of the ribosome, and is essential for protein synthesis in all living organisms.
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Ribosome
The ribosome is a complex molecular machine, found within all living cells, that serves as the site of biological protein synthesis (translation).
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Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) is an organic substance that is involved in photosynthesis.
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RNA
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.
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RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase (ribonucleic acid polymerase), both abbreviated RNAP or RNApol, official name DNA-directed RNA polymerase, is a member of a family of enzymes that are essential to life: they are found in all organisms (-species) and many viruses.
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Root
In vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil.
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RuBisCO
Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, commonly known by the abbreviations RuBisCO, RuBPCase, or RuBPco, is an enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, a process by which atmospheric carbon dioxide is converted by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to energy-rich molecules such as glucose.
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S phase
S phase (synthesis phase) is the part of the cell cycle in which DNA is replicated, occurring between G1 phase and G2 phase.
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Salicylic acid
Salicylic acid (from Latin salix, willow tree) is a lipophilic monohydroxybenzoic acid, a type of phenolic acid, and a beta hydroxy acid (BHA).
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Scenedesmus
Scenedesmus is a genus of green algae, in the class Chlorophyceae.
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Secretion
Secretion is the movement of material from one point to another, e.g. secreted chemical substance from a cell or gland.
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Selection bias
Selection bias is the bias introduced by the selection of individuals, groups or data for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not achieved, thereby ensuring that the sample obtained is not representative of the population intended to be analyzed.
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Shine-Dalgarno sequence
The Shine-Dalgarno (SD) Sequence is a ribosomal binding site in bacterial and archaeal messenger RNA, generally located around 8 bases upstream of the start codon AUG.
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Shoot
In botany, shoots consist of stems including their appendages, the leaves and lateral buds, flowering stems and flower buds.
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Signal peptide
A signal peptide (sometimes referred to as signal sequence, targeting signal, localization signal, localization sequence, transit peptide, leader sequence or leader peptide) is a short peptide (usually 16-30 amino acids long) present at the N-terminus of the majority of newly synthesized proteins that are destined towards the secretory pathway.
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Sirogonium
Sirogonium is a genus of filamentous charophyte green algae of the order Zygnematales.
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Space-filling model
In chemistry, a space-filling model, also known as a calotte model, is a type of three-dimensional (3D) molecular model where the atoms are represented by spheres whose radii are proportional to the radii of the atoms and whose center-to-center distances are proportional to the distances between the atomic nuclei, all in the same scale.
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Spermatozoon
A spermatozoon (pronounced, alternate spelling spermatozoön; plural spermatozoa; from σπέρμα "seed" and ζῷον "living being") is a motile sperm cell, or moving form of the haploid cell that is the male gamete.
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Spinach
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is an edible flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae native to central and western Asia.
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Spirogyra
Spirogyra (common names include water silk, mermaid's tresses, and blanket weed) is a genus of filamentous charophyte green algae of the order Zygnematales, named for the helical or spiral arrangement of the chloroplasts that is characteristic of the genus.
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Starch
Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds.
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Stigeoclonium
Stigeoclonium is a genus of green algae in the family Chaetophoraceae.
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Stoma
In botany, a stoma (plural "stomata"), also called a stomata (plural "stomates") (from Greek στόμα, "mouth"), is a pore, found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs, that facilitates gas exchange.
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Stroma (fluid)
Stroma, in botany, refers to the colorless fluid surrounding the grana within the chloroplast.
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Stromule
A stromule is a microscopic structure found in plant cells.
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Substrate (chemistry)
In chemistry, a substrate is typically the chemical species being observed in a chemical reaction, which reacts with a reagent to generate a product.
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Sucrose
Sucrose is common table sugar.
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Sugar
Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food.
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Sunlight
Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light.
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Surface area
The surface area of a solid object is a measure of the total area that the surface of the object occupies.
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Surface-area-to-volume ratio
The surface-area-to-volume ratio, also called the surface-to-volume ratio and variously denoted sa/vol or SA:V, is the amount of surface area per unit volume of an object or collection of objects.
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Symbiogenesis
Symbiogenesis, or endosymbiotic theory, is an evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms, first articulated in 1905 and 1910 by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereschkowski, and advanced and substantiated with microbiological evidence by Lynn Margulis in 1967.
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Synechococcus
Synechococcus (from the Greek synechos, in succession, and the Greek kokkos, granule) is a unicellular cyanobacterium that is very widespread in the marine environment.
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Systemic acquired resistance
The systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a "whole-plant" resistance response that occurs following an earlier localized exposure to a pathogen.
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Thylakoid
A thylakoid is a membrane-bound compartment inside chloroplasts and cyanobacteria.
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TIC/TOC complex
The TIC and TOC complexes are translocons located in the chloroplast of a eukaryotic cell, that is, protein complexes that facilitate the transfer of proteins in and out through the chloroplast's membrane.
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Topology
In mathematics, topology (from the Greek τόπος, place, and λόγος, study) is concerned with the properties of space that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, crumpling and bending, but not tearing or gluing.
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Transfer RNA
A transfer RNA (abbreviated tRNA and formerly referred to as sRNA, for soluble RNA) is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA, typically 76 to 90 nucleotides in length, that serves as the physical link between the mRNA and the amino acid sequence of proteins.
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Transgene
A transgene is a gene or genetic material that has been transferred naturally, or by any of a number of genetic engineering techniques from one organism to another.
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Translation (biology)
In molecular biology and genetics, translation is the process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or ER synthesize proteins after the process of transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's nucleus.
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Translocon
The translocon (commonly known as a translocator or translocation channel) is a complex of proteins associated with the translocation of polypeptides across membranes.
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Transmission electron microscopy
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM, also sometimes conventional transmission electron microscopy or CTEM) is a microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen to form an image.
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Transplastomic plant
A transplastomic plant is a genetically modified plant in which the new genes have not been inserted in the nuclear DNA but in the DNA of the chloroplasts.
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Unified atomic mass unit
The unified atomic mass unit or dalton (symbol: u, or Da) is a standard unit of mass that quantifies mass on an atomic or molecular scale (atomic mass).
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Vallisneria
Vallisneria (named in honor of Antonio Vallisneri) is a genus of freshwater aquatic plant, commonly called eelgrass, tape grass or vallis.
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Vascular bundle
A vascular bundle is a part of the transport system in vascular plants.
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Vascular plant
Vascular plants (from Latin vasculum: duct), also known as tracheophytes (from the equivalent Greek term trachea) and also higher plants, form a large group of plants (c. 308,312 accepted known species) that are defined as those land plants that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant.
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Vesicle (biology and chemistry)
In cell biology, a vesicle is a small structure within a cell, or extracellular, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer.
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Vestigiality
Vestigiality is the retention during the process of evolution of genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of their ancestral function in a given species.
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Viridiplantae
Viridiplantae (literally "green plants") are a clade of eukaryotic organisms made up of the green algae, which are primarily aquatic, and the land plants (embryophytes), which emerged within them.
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Vitamin E
Vitamin E is a group of eight compounds that include four tocopherols and four tocotrienols.
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Volvox
Volvox is a polyphyletic genus of chlorophyte green algae in the family Volvocaceae.
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Water
Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth's streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms.
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Water net
The water net (genus Hydrodictyon) is a taxon of green algae of the family Hydrodictyaceae.
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Wheat
Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain which is a worldwide staple food.
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White blood cell
White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.
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Xanthophyll
Xanthophylls (originally phylloxanthins) are yellow pigments that occur widely in nature and form one of two major divisions of the carotenoid group; the other division is formed by the carotenes.
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Yellow
Yellow is the color between orange and green on the spectrum of visible light.
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Yellow-green algae
Yellow-green algae or the Xanthophyceae (xanthophytes) are an important group of heterokont algae.
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Zeaxanthin
Zeaxanthin is one of the most common carotenoid alcohols found in nature.
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Zygnema
Zygnema is a genus of freshwater filamentous thalloid alga comprising about 100 species.
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Zygote
A zygote (from Greek ζυγωτός zygōtos "joined" or "yoked", from ζυγοῦν zygoun "to join" or "to yoke") is a eukaryotic cell formed by a fertilization event between two gametes.
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3-Phosphoglyceric acid
3-Phosphoglyceric acid (3PG) is the conjugate acid of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP).
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References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast
