History of Poland (1945–1989)

The history of Poland from 1945 to 1989 spans the period of Soviet dominance and communist rule imposed after the end of World War II over Poland, as reestablished within new borders. ^[1]

Adam Michnik

Adam Michnik (born 17 October 1946) is a Polish historian, essayist, former dissident, public intellectual, and editor-in-chief of the Polish newspaper, Gazeta Wyborcza.

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Adam Mickiewicz

Adam Bernard Mickiewicz (24 December 179826 November 1855) was a Polish poet, dramatist, essayist, publicist, translator, professor of Slavic literature, and political activist.

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Adam Rapacki

Adam Rapacki (24 December 1909 – 10 October 1970) was a Polish politician and diplomat.

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Adam Schaff

Adam Schaff (10 March 1913, Lwów – 12 November 2006, Warsaw) was a Polish Marxist philosopher.

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Adam Zamoyski

Adam Zamoyski is an American-born British historian author.

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Administrative division of the Polish People's Republic

Administrative division of Polish People's Republic was subject to several reforms.

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Aleksander Kwaśniewski

Aleksander Kwaśniewski (born 15 November 1954) is a Polish politician and journalist.

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Alfred Miodowicz

Alfred Miodowicz (born 28 June 1929 in Poznań) is a former Polish politician and trade union activist.

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All-Poland Alliance of Trade Unions

The All-Poland Alliance of Trade Unions (Ogólnopolskie Porozumienie Związków Zawodowych, OPZZ) is a national trade union center founded in 1984.

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Alliance of Democrats (Poland)

The Alliance of Democrats (Stronnictwo Demokratyczne, SD) is a Polish centrist party.

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Allies of World War II

The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War (1939–1945).

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Amnesty of 1947

The Amnesty of 1947 in Poland was an amnesty directed at soldiers and activists of the Polish anti-communist underground, issued by the authorities of People's Republic of Poland.

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Anatol Fejgin (Warsaw, September 25, 1909 – July 28, 2002 also in Warsaw) was a Polish-Jewish communist before World War II, and after 1949, commander of the Stalinist political police at the Ministry of Public Security of Poland, in charge of its notorious Special Bureau (the 10th Department).

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Andrzej Friszke

Prof.

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Andrzej Gwiazda

Andrzej Gwiazda (born on 14 April 1935 in Pińczów) is an engineer and prominent opposition leader, who participated in Polish March 1968 Events and December 1970 Events; one of the founders of Free Trade Unions, Member of the Presiding Committee of the Strike at Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk in August 1980, Vice President of the Founding Committee of Solidarity, then Vice President of Solidarity in 1980 and 1981; in December 1981 interned and next imprisoned with six other Solidarność leaders (see Martial Law in Poland).

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Andrzej Paczkowski

Prof.

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Andrzej Stelmachowski

Andrzej Stelmachowski (January 28, 1925, Poznań – April 6, 2009, Warsaw) was a Polish academic and politician.

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Anna Walentynowicz

Anna Walentynowicz (15 August 1929 – 10 April 2010) was a Polish free trade union activist and co-founder of Solidarity, the first non-communist trade union in the Eastern Bloc.

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Anti-Zionism

Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism.

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Antoni Czubiński

Antoni Czubiński (22 November 1928 in Konin, Poland – 10 February 2003 in Poznań, Poland) was a Polish historian and director of the Western Institute (Instytut Zachodni) in Poznań from 1978 to 1990.

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Antoni Macierewicz

Antoni Macierewicz (born August 3, 1948) is the former Minister of National Defence for Poland.

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April Constitution of Poland

The April Constitution of Poland (Ustawa konstytucyjna 23 IV 1935 or Konstytucja kwietniowa) was the general law passed by the act of the Polish Sejm on 23 April 1935.

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Archbishop of Kraków

The Archbishop of Kraków is the head of the archdiocese of Kraków.

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Auschwitz concentration camp

Auschwitz concentration camp was a network of concentration and extermination camps built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II.

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Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms.

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Axiology

Axiology (from Greek ἀξία, axia, "value, worth"; and -λογία, -logia) is the philosophical study of value.

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Balcerowicz Plan

The Balcerowicz Plan (plan Balcerowicza), also termed "Shock Therapy", was a method for rapidly transitioning from a communist economy, based on state ownership and central planning, to a capitalist market economy.

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Ballot

A ballot is a device used to cast votes in an election, and may be a piece of paper or a small ball used in secret voting.

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Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, enclosed by Scandinavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia, Poland, Germany and the North and Central European Plain.

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Bank Handlowy

Bank Handlowy (BHW) or Citi Handlowy is a Polish bank based in Warsaw, established in 1870.

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Battle for trade

Battle for trade (Bitwa o handel; also translated as trade battle or battle over trade) refers to the early period of communist takeover of Poland (1946–49) when new laws and regulations succeeded in significantly decreasing the size of the private sector in Polish trade, in order to facilitate the transformation of Polish economy from capitalism to Soviet communism's planned economy.

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Berlin Wall

The Berlin Wall (Berliner Mauer) was a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989.

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Bicameralism

A bicameral legislature divides the legislators into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses.

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Black market

A black market, underground economy, or shadow economy is a clandestine market or transaction that has some aspect of illegality or is characterized by some form of noncompliant behavior with an institutional set of rules.

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Bolesław Bierut

Bolesław Bierut (18 April 1892 – 12 March 1956) was a Polish Communist leader, NKVD agent, and a hard-line Stalinist who became President of Poland after the defeat of the Nazi forces in.

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Bolesław Mołojec

Bolesław Mołojec (9 February 1909, Henryków, Tomaszów Mazowiecki County – 29 or 31 December 1942, Warsaw), known under noms de guerre "Edward" and "Długi", was a Polish communist activist and commander of International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War.

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Bolesław Piasecki

Bolesław Bogdan Piasecki (alias Leon Całka, Sablewski; born February 18, 1915 in Łódź, died January 1, 1979 in Warsaw) was a Polish politician and writer.

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Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie is a polysemous French term that can mean.

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Brezhnev Doctrine

The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet foreign policy, first and most clearly outlined by Sergei Kovalev in a September 26, 1968 Pravda article entitled Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries.

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Bronisław Geremek

Professor Bronisław Geremek (born Benjamin Lewertow; 6 March 1932 – 13 July 2008) was a Polish social historian and politician.

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Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy refers to both a body of non-elective government officials and an administrative policy-making group.

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Business cycle

The business cycle, also known as the economic cycle or trade cycle, is the downward and upward movement of gross domestic product (GDP) around its long-term growth trend.

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Bydgoszcz events

The Bydgoszcz events (wypadki bydgoskie), Bydgoszcz crisis (kryzys bydgoski) or Bydgoszcz provocation (prowokacja bydgoska) was a series of events in Poland culminating in beating up the delegates of the Solidarity movement by the forces called upon by the authorities during the session of the voivodship National Council on March 19, 1981, which was to discuss the running strike in Bydgoszcz.

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Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press (CUP) is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge.

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Capital accumulation

Capital accumulation (also termed the accumulation of capital) is the dynamic that motivates the pursuit of profit, involving the investment of money or any financial asset with the goal of increasing the initial monetary value of said asset as a financial return whether in the form of profit, rent, interest, royalties or capital gains.

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Capitalism

Capitalism is an economic system based upon private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.

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Cardinal (Catholic Church)

A cardinal (Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae cardinalis, literally Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church) is a senior ecclesiastical leader, considered a Prince of the Church, and usually an ordained bishop of the Roman Catholic Church.

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Carpathian Mountains

The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a mountain range system forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe (after the Scandinavian Mountains). They provide the habitat for the largest European populations of brown bears, wolves, chamois, and lynxes, with the highest concentration in Romania, as well as over one third of all European plant species.

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Catholic Church in Poland

There are 41 Catholic dioceses of the Latin Church and two of the Greek Churches in Poland.

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Censorship in the Polish People's Republic

Censorship in the Polish People's Republic was primarily performed by the Polish Main Office of Control of Press, Publications and Shows (Główny Urząd Kontroli Prasy, Publikacji i Widowisk), a governmental institution created in 1946 by the pro-Soviet Provisional Government of National Unity with Stalin's approval and backing, and renamed in 1981 as the Główny Urząd Kontroli Publikacji i Widowisk.

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Centennial Hall

The Centennial Hall (Hala Stulecia; formerly Hala Ludowa, People's Hall, Jahrhunderthalle) is a historic building in Wrocław, Poland.

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Central Committee

Central Committee was the common designation of a standing administrative body of communist parties, analogous to a board of directors, whether ruling or non-ruling in the 20th century and of the surviving communist states in the 21st century.

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Central Europe

Central Europe is the region comprising the central part of Europe.

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Central Intelligence Agency

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the United States federal government, tasked with gathering, processing, and analyzing national security information from around the world, primarily through the use of human intelligence (HUMINT).

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Centre Agreement

Porozumienie Centrum (PC; Centre Agreement) was a Polish Christian democratic political party.

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Chancellor of Germany (1949–present)

The Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (in German called Bundeskanzler(in), meaning "Federal Chancellor", or in) for short) is, under the German 1949 Constitution, the head of government of Germany.

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China

China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a unitary one-party sovereign state in East Asia and the world's most populous country, with a population of around /1e9 round 3 billion.

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Christianization of Poland

The Christianization of Poland (Polish: chrystianizacja Polski) refers to the introduction and subsequent spread of Christianity in Poland.

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Civic Platform

Civic Platform (Platforma Obywatelska, PO)The party is officially the Civic Platform of the Republic of Poland (Platforma Obywatelska Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej).

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Civil and political rights

Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals.

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Civil society

Civil society is the "aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens".

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Classical liberalism

Classical liberalism is a political ideology and a branch of liberalism which advocates civil liberties under the rule of law with an emphasis on economic freedom.

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Coal

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams.

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Collaborationism

Collaborationism is cooperation with the enemy against one's country in wartime.

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Collective farming

Collective farming and communal farming are various types of "agricultural production in which multiple farmers run their holdings as a joint enterprise." That type of collective is often an agricultural cooperative in which member-owners jointly engage in farming activities.

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Collectivization in the Polish People's Republic

The Polish People's Republic pursued a policy of '''collectivization''' of agriculture during the Stalinist period, from 1948 until the liberalization during Gomułka's thaw of 1956.

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Columbia University Press

Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University.

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Comecon

The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (English abbreviation COMECON, CMEA, or CAME) was an economic organization from 1949 to 1991 under the leadership of the Soviet Union that comprised the countries of the Eastern Bloc along with a number of communist states elsewhere in the world.

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Communism

In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal") is the philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money and the state.

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Communism in Poland

Communism in Poland can trace its origins to the late 19th century: the Marxist First Proletariat party was founded in 1882.

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Communist Party of Poland

The Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski, KPP) was a communist party in Poland.

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Communist Party of the Soviet Union

The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the founding and ruling political party of the Soviet Union.

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Communist state

A Communist state (sometimes referred to as workers' state) is a state that is administered and governed by a single party, guided by Marxist–Leninist philosophy, with the aim of achieving communism.

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Confederation of Independent Poland

Confederation of Independent Poland (KPN, Konfederacja Polski Niepodległej) is a Polish nationalist political party founded on 1 September 1979 by Leszek Moczulski and others declaring support for the pre-war traditions of Sanacja and Józef Piłsudski.

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Constitution of the Polish People's Republic

The Constitution of the Polish People's Republic (also known as July Constitution or Constitution of 1952) was passed on 22 July 1952.

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Constitutional Tribunal (Poland)

The Constitutional Tribunal (Trybunał Konstytucyjny) is the constitutional court of the Republic of Poland, a judicial body established to resolve disputes on the constitutionality of the activities of state institutions; its main task is to supervise the compliance of statutory law with the Constitution of the Republic of Poland.

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Consumerism

Consumerism is a social and economic order and ideology that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts.

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Cornell University Press

The Cornell University Press is a division of Cornell University housed in Sage House, the former residence of Henry William Sage.

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Cost-effectiveness analysis

Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a form of economic analysis that compares the relative costs and outcomes (effects) of different courses of action.

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Council of National Unity

Rada Jedności Narodowej (Council of National Unity, RJN) was the quasi-parliament of the Polish Underground State during World War II.

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Cult of personality

A cult of personality arises when a country's regime – or, more rarely, an individual politician – uses the techniques of mass media, propaganda, the big lie, spectacle, the arts, patriotism, and government-organized demonstrations and rallies to create an idealized, heroic, and worshipful image of a leader, often through unquestioning flattery and praise.

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Culture in the Polish People's Republic

After the end of the Second World War, Polish society and culture were subject to significant changes.

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Cursed soldiers

The "cursed soldiers" (also known as "doomed soldiers", "accursed soldiers" or "damned soldiers"; Żołnierze wyklęci) or "indomitable soldiers" is a term applied to a variety of Polish anti-Soviet or anti-communist Polish resistance movements formed in the later stages of World War II and its aftermath by some members of the Polish Underground State.

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Curzon Line

The history of the Curzon Line, with minor variations, goes back to the period following World War I. It was drawn for the first time by the Supreme War Council as the demarcation line between the newly emerging states, the Second Polish Republic, and the Soviet Union.

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Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia, or Czecho-Slovakia (Czech and Československo, Česko-Slovensko), was a sovereign state in Central Europe that existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until its peaceful dissolution into the:Czech Republic and:Slovakia on 1 January 1993.

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Czesław Bobrowski

Czesław Bobrowski (17 February 1904, Sarny – 18 May 1996, Warsaw) was a Polish economist.

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Czesław Kiszczak

Czesław Kiszczak (19 October 1925 – 5 November 2015) was a Polish general, communist-era interior minister (1981–1990) and prime minister (1989).

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Czytelnik

The Czytelnik Publishing House (Wydawnictwo "Czytelnik") is a publishing company in Poland.

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Dariusz Stola

Dariusz Stola (born 11 December 1963 in Warsaw, Poland) is a professor of history at the Institute of Political Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences.

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Détente

Détente (meaning "relaxation") is the easing of strained relations, especially in a political situation.

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De-Stalinization

De-Stalinization (Russian: десталинизация, destalinizatsiya) consisted of a series of political reforms in the Soviet Union after the death of long-time leader Joseph Stalin in 1953, and the ascension of Nikita Khrushchev to power.

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Demand

In economics, demand is the quantities of a commodity or a service that people are willing and able to buy at various prices, over a given period of time.

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Democratic Left Alliance

Democratic Left Alliance (Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej, SLD) is a social-democratic political party in Poland.

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Democratic socialism

Democratic socialism is a political philosophy that advocates political democracy alongside social ownership of the means of production with an emphasis on self-management and/or democratic management of economic institutions within a market socialist, participatory or decentralized planned economy.

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Demographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans

Demographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans have been derived by either the compilation of registered dead and missing persons or by a comparison of pre-war and post-war population data.

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Demographic history of Poland

The Poles come from different West Slavic tribes living on territories belonging later to Poland in the early Middle Ages (see: Prehistory of Poland).

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Deviationism

In political ideology, a deviationist is a person who expresses a deviation: an abnormality or departure.

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Die Welt

Die Welt ("The World") is a German national daily newspaper, published as a broadsheet by Axel Springer SE.

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Divisions of the Carpathians

Divisions of the Carpathians are categorization of the Carpathian mountains system.

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Dziady (poem)

Dziady (Forefathers' Eve) is a poetic drama by the Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz.

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East Germany

East Germany, officially the German Democratic Republic (GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik, DDR), existed from 1949 to 1990 and covers the period when the eastern portion of Germany existed as a state that was part of the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War period.

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Eastern Bloc

The Eastern Bloc was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact.

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Eastern Europe

Eastern Europe is the eastern part of the European continent.

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Economic liberalism

Economic liberalism is an economic system organized on individual lines, which means the greatest possible number of economic decisions are made by individuals or households rather than by collective institutions or organizations.

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Economy of the Soviet Union

The economy of the Soviet Union (экономика Советского Союза) was based on a system of state ownership of the means of production, collective farming, industrial manufacturing and centralized administrative planning.

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Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a community made up of living organisms and nonliving components such as air, water, and mineral soil.

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Education in the Polish People's Republic

Education in the Polish People's Republic in years of its existence 1952–1989 was controlled by the communist state, which provided primary schools, secondary schools, vocational education and universities.

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Edward Bernard Raczyński

Count Edward Bernard Raczyński (December 19, 1891 – July 30, 1993) was a Polish diplomat, writer, politician and President of Poland in exile (between 1979 and 1986).

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Edward Gierek

Edward Gierek (6 January 1913 – 29 July 2001) was a Polish communist politician.

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Edward Lipiński

Edward Lipiński (October 18, 1888 – July 13, 1986) was a Polish economist, intellectual, social critic and human rights advocate.

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Edward Ochab

Edward Ochab (16 August 1906 – 1 May 1989) was a Polish communist social activist and politician.

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Edward Osóbka-Morawski

Edward Osóbka-Morawski (5 October 1909 – 9 January 1997) was a Polish activist and politician in the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) before World War II, and after the Soviet takeover of Poland, Chairman of the Communist-dominated interim government, the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego) formed in Lublin with Stalin's approval.

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Egalitarianism

Egalitarianism – or equalitarianism – is a school of thought that prioritizes equality for all people.

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Elbląg

Elbląg (Elbing; Old Prussian: Elbings) is a city in northern Poland on the eastern edge of the Żuławy region with 124,257 inhabitants (December 31, 2011).

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Election

An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office.

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Electoral fraud

Electoral fraud, election manipulation, or vote rigging is illegal interference with the process of an election, whether by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates, or both.

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Emil August Fieldorf

Emil August Fieldorf “Nil” (20 March 1895 – 24 February 1953) was a Polish brigadier general and a Second World War hero.

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English language

English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua franca.

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Episcopal Conference of Poland

Polish Episcopal Conference or Polish Bishop's Conference (Konferencja Episkopatu Polski) is the central organ of Catholic Church in Poland.

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Ethnic minorities in Poland

The population of Post-World War II Poland became nearly completely ethnically homogeneous as a result of the German-Nazi Holocaust, the radically altered borders, and the deportations ordered by the Soviet authorities, who wished to remove the sizeable Polish minorities from the Baltics (Lithuania) and Eastern Europe (western Belarus and western Ukraine).

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Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory

Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory is a history book about World War II in Europe, written by the English historian Norman Davies.

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Europe-Asia Studies

Europe-Asia Studies is an academic peer-reviewed journal published 10 times a year by Routledge on behalf of the Institute of Central and East European Studies, University of Glasgow, and continuing (since vol. 45, 1993) the journal Soviet Studies (vols. 1-44, 1949–1992), which was renamed after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

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European Union

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of EUnum member states that are located primarily in Europe.

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Evolutionism

Evolutionism describes the belief in the evolution of organisms.

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Exercise Zapad-81

Exercise Zapad-81 (West-81) was the largest military exercise ever to be carried out by the Soviet Union, according to NATO and US sources.

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External debt

External loan (or foreign debt) is the total debt a country owes to foreign creditors, complemented by internal debt owed to domestic lenders.

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Federation of Fighting Youth

The Federation of Fighting Youth (Federacja Młodzieży Walczącej, also called FMW) was a radical anticommunist organization of Polish youth, existing in the mid and late 1980s.

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Feedback

Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop.

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Fighting Solidarity

Fighting Solidarity (Solidarność Walcząca) was a Polish anti-communist underground organization, founded in June 1982.

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Final good

In economics, any commodity which is produced and subsequently consumed by the consumer, to satisfy his current wants or needs, is a consumer good or final good.

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Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)

During the later stages of World War II and the post-war period, German citizens and people of German ancestry fled or were expelled from various Eastern and Central European countries and sent to the remaining territory of Germany and Austria.

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Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II

The flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland was the largest of a series of flights and expulsions of Germans in Europe during and after World War II.

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Flying University

Flying University (Uniwersytet Latający, less often translated as "Floating University") was an underground educationalBetty Jean Lifton, The King of Children: The Life and Death of Janusz Korczak,, St.

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Former eastern territories of Germany

The former eastern territories of Germany (Ehemalige deutsche Ostgebiete) are those provinces or regions east of the current eastern border of Germany (the Oder–Neisse line) which were lost by Germany after World War I and then World War II.

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Free market

In economics, a free market is an idealized system in which the prices for goods and services are determined by the open market and consumers, in which the laws and forces of supply and demand are free from any intervention by a government, price-setting monopoly, or other authority.

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Free Trade Unions of the Coast

Free Trade Unions of the Coast (Wolne Związki Zawodowe Wybrzeża, WZZW, also translated as the Committee for Independent Trade Unions for the Coast) were a government-independent trade union in the People's Republic of Poland.

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Freedom and Independence

Freedom and Independence (Zrzeszenie Wolność i Niezawisłość, or WiN) was a Polish underground anti-communist organisation founded on September 2, 1945 and active until 1952.

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Freedom of speech

Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or sanction.

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French language

French (le français or la langue française) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family.

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Friedrich Hayek

Friedrich August von Hayek (8 May 189923 March 1992), often referred to by his initials F. A. Hayek, was an Austrian-British economist and philosopher best known for his defense of classical liberalism.

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Front of National Unity

Front of National Unity or National Unity Front (Front Jedności Narodu, FJN) was a popular front supervising elections in the Polish People's Republic and also acted as a coalition for the dominant communist Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) and its allies.

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Gazeta Wyborcza

Gazeta Wyborcza (meaning Electoral Newspaper in English) is a newspaper published in Warsaw, Poland.

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Gdańsk

Gdańsk (Danzig) is a Polish city on the Baltic coast.

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Gdańsk Agreement

The Gdańsk Agreement (or Gdańsk Social Accord(s) or August Agreement(s), Porozumienia sierpniowe) was an accord reached as a direct result of the strikes that took place in Gdańsk, Poland.

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Gdańsk Shipyard

Gdańsk Shipyard (Stocznia Gdańskа, formerly Lenin Shipyard) is a large Polish shipyard, located in the city of Gdańsk.

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Gdynia

Gdynia (Gdingen, Gdiniô) is a city in the Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland and a seaport of Gdańsk Bay on the south coast of the Baltic Sea.

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General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was an office of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) that by the late 1920s had evolved into the most powerful of the Central Committee's various secretaries.

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German language

German (Deutsch) is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe.

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German-occupied Europe

German-occupied Europe refers to the sovereign countries of Europe which were occupied by the military forces of Nazi Germany at various times between 1939 and 1945 and administered by the Nazi regime.

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German–Polish Border Treaty (1990)

The German–Polish Border Treaty of 1990 finally settled the issue of the Polish–German border, which in terms of international law had been pending since 1945.

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Germany

Germany (Deutschland), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland), is a sovereign state in central-western Europe.

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Glasnost

In the Russian language the word glasnost (гла́сность) has several general and specific meanings.

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Globalization

Globalization or globalisation is the process of interaction and integration between people, companies, and governments worldwide.

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Google Books

Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search and Google Print and by its codename Project Ocean) is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical character recognition (OCR), and stored in its digital database.

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Government debt

Government debt (also known as public interest, public debt, national debt and sovereign debt) is the debt owed by a government.

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Government Delegation for Poland

The Government Delegation for Poland (Delegatura Rządu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na Kraj) was an agency of the Polish Government in Exile during World War II.

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Government of the Soviet Union

The Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russian: Правительство СССР, Pravitel'stvo SSSR) was the main body of the executive branch of government in the Soviet Union.

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Great Depression

The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place mostly during the 1930s, beginning in the United States.

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Great Purge

The Great Purge or the Great Terror (Большо́й терро́р) was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union which occurred from 1936 to 1938.

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Gross national income

The gross national income (GNI) is the total domestic and foreign output claimed by residents of a country, consisting of gross domestic product (GDP), plus factor incomes earned by foreign residents, minus income earned in the domestic economy by nonresidents (Todaro & Smith, 2011: 44) (all figures in millions of US dollars).

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Gross national product

Gross national product (GNP) is the market value of all the goods and services produced in one year by labor and property supplied by the citizens of a country.

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H. Cegielski – Poznań

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Halik Kochanski

Dr.

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Heavy industry

Heavy industry is industry that involves one or more characteristics such as large and heavy products; large and heavy equipment and facilities (such as heavy equipment, large machine tools, and huge buildings); or complex or numerous processes.

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Helsinki Accords

The Helsinki Accords, Helsinki Final Act, or Helsinki Declaration was the final act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe held in Finlandia Hall of Helsinki, Finland, during July and August 1, 1975.

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Hilary Minc

Hilary Minc (24 August 1905, Kazimierz Dolny – 26 November 1974, Warsaw) was a communist politician in Stalinist Poland and a pro-Soviet Marxist economist.

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History of Germany (1945–90)

As a consequence of the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II, Germany was cut between the two global blocs in the East and West, a period known as the division of Germany.

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History of philosophy in Poland

The history of philosophy in Poland parallels the evolution of philosophy in Europe in general.

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History of Poland (1945–1989)

The history of Poland from 1945 to 1989 spans the period of Soviet dominance and communist rule imposed after the end of World War II over Poland, as reestablished within new borders.

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History of Solidarity

The history of Solidarity (Solidarność, pronounced), a Polish non-governmental trade union, began on 14 August 1980, at the Lenin Shipyards (now Gdańsk Shipyards) at its founding by Lech Wałęsa and others.

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History of the Jews in Poland

The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over 1,000 years.

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Home Army

The Home Army (Armia Krajowa;, abbreviated AK) was the dominant Polish resistance movement in Poland, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, during World War II.

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Hungarian Revolution of 1956

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, or Hungarian Uprising of 1956 (1956-os forradalom or 1956-os felkelés), was a nationwide revolt against the Marxist-Leninist government of the Hungarian People's Republic and its Soviet-imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956.

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Hungary

Hungary (Magyarország) is a country in Central Europe that covers an area of in the Carpathian Basin, bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Austria to the northwest, Romania to the east, Serbia to the south, Croatia to the southwest, and Slovenia to the west.

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Hyperinflation

In economics, hyperinflation is very high and typically accelerating inflation.

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Iglica

''Iglica'' against the background of the Centennial Hall. Iglica ("spire" or "needle") is a needle-like monument in Wrocław, Poland.

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Independent Students' Union

Independent Students’ Association (Niezależne Zrzeszenie Studentów, NZS) is a Polish student society, created in October 1980, in the aftermath of the Gdańsk Agreement and the anti-government strike actions (see: History of Solidarity).

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Industrialisation

Industrialisation or industrialization is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial society, involving the extensive re-organisation of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing.

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Infrastructure

Infrastructure is the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or other area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function.

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Institute of National Remembrance

The Institute of National Remembrance – Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation (Instytut Pamięci Narodowej – Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu; IPN) is a Polish government-affiliated research institute with lustration prerogatives, as well as prosecution powers.

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Intelligentsia

The intelligentsia (/ɪnˌtelɪˈdʒentsiə/) (intelligentia, inteligencja, p) is a status class of educated people engaged in the complex mental labours that critique, guide, and lead in shaping the culture and politics of their society.

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Inter-Enterprise Strike Committee

Inter-Enterprise Strike Committee (or Inter-Factory Strike Committee, Międzyzakładowy Komitet Strajkowy, MKS) was an action strike committee formed in Gdańsk Shipyard, People's Republic of Poland on 16 August 1980.

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Internal Security Corps

The Internal Security Corps (Korpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego, KBW) was a special-purpose military formation in Poland under Stalinist government, established by the communist Council of Ministers on May 24, 1945.

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International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of "189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world." Formed in 1945 at the Bretton Woods Conference primarily by the ideas of Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, it came into formal existence in 1945 with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing the international payment system.

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Internet Archive

The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge." It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, movies/videos, moving images, and nearly three million public-domain books.

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Internetowa encyklopedia PWN

Internetowa encyklopedia PWN (Polish for Internet PWN Encyclopedia) is a free online Polish-language encyclopedia published by Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

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Israel

Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea.

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Jacek Kuroń

Jacek Jan Kuroń (3 March 1934 – 17 June 2004) was one of the democratic leaders of opposition in the People's Republic of Poland.

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Jakub Berman

Jakub Berman (26 December 1901 – 10 April 1984) was a prominent communist in prewar Poland.

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Jan Józef Lipski

Jan Józef Lipski (26 May 1926 in Warsaw – 10 September 1991 in Kraków) was a Polish critic, literature historian, politician and freemason.

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Jan Nowak-Jeziorański

Jan Nowak-Jeziorański (2 October 1914 – 20 January 2005) was a Polish journalist, writer, politician, social worker and patriot.

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Jan Rulewski

Jan Rulewski (born April 18, 1944 in Bydgoszcz, Poland) is a Polish politician, activist of Solidarity; a Member of the Polish Sejm (1991-2001) and a Senator (since 2007).

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Janusz Szpotański

Janusz Szpotański, (pen names Władysław Gnomacki, Aleksander Oniegow) (January 12, 1929 in Warsaw – October 13, 2001 in Warsaw) was a Polish poet, satirist, critic, translator, literary theorist and chess player (a three times chess champion of Warsaw, he also held a nationwide title of Master).

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Jarosław Kaczyński

Jarosław Aleksander Kaczyński (born 18 June 1949) is a Polish politician and lawyer, and the current leader of the Law and Justice party (PiS by its Polish acronym), which he co-founded in 2001 with his identical twin brother, late Polish President Lech Kaczyński Running for PiS, he served as Prime Minister of Poland from July 2006 to November 2007.

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Jastrzębie-Zdrój strikes

The Jastrzębie-Zdrój 1980 strikes were widespread strikes, which took place mostly in the Upper Silesian mining city of Jastrzębie-Zdrój and its surroundings, in late August and early September 1980.

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Józef Światło

Józef Światło, born Izaak Fleischfarb (1 January 1915 – 2 September 1994), was a high-ranking official in the Ministry of Public Security of Poland (MBP) who served as deputy director of the 10th Department run by Anatol Fejgin.

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Józef Cyrankiewicz

Józef Cyrankiewicz (April 23, 1911 – January 20, 1989) was a Polish Socialist (PPS) and after 1948 Communist politician.

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Józef Glemp

Józef Glemp (18 December 192923 January 2013) was a Polish Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church.

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Józef Pinior

Józef Pinior (born on 9 March 1955 in Rybnik) is a Polish politician and Member of the European Parliament for the Lower Silesian Voivodship & Opole Voivodship with the Social Democracy of Poland, part of the Socialist Group and sits on the European Parliament's Committee on Development.

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Jeffrey Sachs

Jeffrey David Sachs (born November 5, 1954) is an American economist and director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University, where he holds the title of University Professor, the highest rank Columbia bestows on its faculty.

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Jerzy Eisler

Prof.

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Jerzy Giedroyc

Jerzy Władysław Giedroyc (27 July 1906 – 14 September 2000) was a Polish writer and political activist.

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Jerzy Lukowski

Jerzy (George) Tadeusz Lukowski (or Łukowski) is a Polish-British historian at University of Birmingham.

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Jerzy Topolski

Jerzy Topolski (1928–1998) was a Polish historian.

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Jewish Bolshevism

Jewish Bolshevism, also Judeo–Bolshevism, is an anti-communist and antisemitic canard, which alleges that the Jews were the originators of the Russian Revolution in 1917 and that they held the primary power among the Bolsheviks.

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Jimmy Carter

James Earl Carter Jr. (born October 1, 1924) is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981.

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John Grenville

John Ashley Soames Grenville (11 January 1928 – 7 March 2011) was a historian of the modern world.

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Joseph Stalin

Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was a Soviet revolutionary and politician of Georgian nationality.

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Juliusz Mieroszewski

Juliusz Mieroszewski (February 2, 1906 – June 21, 1976) was a Polish journalist, publicist and political commentator.

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June 1976 protests

June 1976 is the name of a series of protests and demonstrations in People's Republic of Poland.

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Karol Modzelewski

Karol Modzelewski (born 23 November 1937 in Moscow) is a Polish historian, writer, politician and academic.

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Katowice Steelworks

Katowice Steelworks (Polish: Huta Katowice) is a large steel plant, located in southern Poland, on the boundary between historical provinces of Lesser Poland and Upper Silesia.

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Katyn massacre

The Katyn massacre (zbrodnia katyńska, "Katyń massacre" or "Katyn crime"; Катынская резня or Катынский расстрел Katynskij reznya, "Katyn massacre") was a series of mass executions of Polish intelligentsia carried out by the NKVD ("People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs", the Soviet secret police) in April and May 1940.

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Khrushchev Thaw

The Khrushchev Thaw (or Khrushchev's Thaw; p or simply ottepel)William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, London: Free Press, 2004 refers to the period from the early 1950s to the early 1960s when repression and censorship in the Soviet Union were relaxed, and millions of Soviet political prisoners were released from Gulag labor camps due to Nikita Khrushchev's policies of de-Stalinization and peaceful coexistence with other nations.

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Kleptocracy

Kleptocracy (from Greek κλέπτης kléptēs, "thief", κλέπτω kléptō, "I steal", and -κρατία -kratía from κράτος krátos, "power, rule") is a government with corrupt leaders (kleptocrats) that use their power to exploit the people and natural resources of their own territory in order to extend their personal wealth and political powers.

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Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej

Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej (KIK; Club of Catholic Intelligentsia) is a Polish organization grouping Catholic intellectuals.

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Kniefall von Warschau

The term Kniefall von Warschau, also referred to as Warschauer Kniefall, (both German for "Warsaw genuflection") refers to a gesture of humility and penance by German Chancellor Willy Brandt towards the victims of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.

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Konstantin Rokossovsky

Konstantin Konstantinovich (Xaverevich) Rokossovsky (December 21, 1896 – August 3, 1968) was a Soviet officer of Polish origin who became Marshal of the Soviet Union, Marshal of Poland and served as Poland's Defence Minister from 1949 until his removal in 1956 during the Polish October.

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Kraków

Kraków, also spelled Cracow or Krakow, is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland.

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Kresy

Kresy Wschodnie or Kresy (Eastern Borderlands, or Borderlands) was the Eastern part of the Second Polish Republic during the interwar period constituting nearly half of the territory of the state.

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Krytyka Polityczna

Krytyka Polityczna ("The Political Critique") is a circle of Polish left-wing intellectuals gathered around a journal of the same title founded by Sławomir Sierakowski in 2002.

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Kultura

Kultura (Culture)—sometimes referred to as Kultura Paryska ("Paris Culture")—was a leading Polish-émigré literary-political magazine, published from 1947 to 2000 by Instytut Literacki (the Literary Institute), initially in Rome, then Paris.

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Labour economics

Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour.

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Land reform

Land reform (also agrarian reform, though that can have a broader meaning) involves the changing of laws, regulations or customs regarding land ownership.

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Lavrentiy Beria

Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (p; tr,; 29 March 1899 – 23 December 1953) was a Soviet politician, Marshal of the Soviet Union and state security administrator, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus (NKVD) under Joseph Stalin during World War II, and promoted to deputy premier under Stalin from 1941.

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Law and Justice

Law and Justice (Polish), abbreviated to PiS, is a national-conservative, and Christian democratic political party in Poland.

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Lech Kaczyński

Lech Aleksander Kaczyński (18 June 194910 April 2010) was a Polish lawyer and politician who served as the Mayor of Warsaw from 2002 until 2005 and as the President of Poland from 2005 until his death in 2010.

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Lech Wałęsa

Lech Wałęsa (born 29 September 1943) is a retired Polish politician and labour activist.

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Left-wing politics

Left-wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy.

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Leninism

Leninism is the political theory for the organisation of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as political prelude to the establishment of socialism.

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Leonid Brezhnev

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (a; Леоні́д Іллі́ч Бре́жнєв, 19 December 1906 (O.S. 6 December) – 10 November 1982) was a Soviet politician who led the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982 as the General Secretary of the Central Committee (CC) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), presiding over the country until his death and funeral in 1982.

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Leszek Balcerowicz

Leszek Balcerowicz (pronounced; born January 19, 1947) is a Polish economist who is currently a professor of economics at the Warsaw School of Economics.

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Leszek Kołakowski

Leszek Kołakowski (23 October 1927 – 17 July 2009) was a Polish philosopher and historian of ideas.

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Letter of 59

The Letter of 59 (also known as the Memorial or Memorandum of 59) was an open letter signed by 66 (or 59 at first, hence the name) Polish intellectuals who protested against the changes of the Constitution of the People's Republic of Poland that were made by the communist party of Poland in 1975.

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Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops

The Pastoral Letter of the Polish Bishops to their German Brothers (Orędzie biskupów polskich do ich niemieckich braci w Chrystusowym urzędzie pasterskim; Hirtenbrief der polnischen Bischöfe an ihre deutschen Amtsbrüder) was a pastoral letter sent on 18 November 1965 by Polish bishops of the Roman Catholic Church to their German counterparts.

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Liberalism

Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty and equality.

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Library of Congress

The Library of Congress (LOC) is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States.

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Life (magazine)

Life was an American magazine that ran regularly from 1883 to 1972 and again from 1978 to 2000.

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List of archbishops of Gniezno and primates of Poland

This is a list of Archbishops of the Archdiocese of Gniezno, who are simultaneously Primates of Poland since 1418.

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London

London is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom.

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Lublin

Lublin (Lublinum) is the ninth largest city in Poland and the second largest city of Lesser Poland.

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Lublin 1980 strikes

The Lublin 1980 strikes (also known as Lublin July, Lubelski Lipiec) were the series of workers' strikes in the area of the eastern city of Lublin (People's Republic of Poland), demanding better salaries and lower prices of food products.

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Lwów–Warsaw school

The Lwów–Warsaw school (Szkoła lwowsko-warszawska) was a Polish school of thought founded by Kazimierz Twardowski in 1895 in Lwów.

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Magdalenka, Masovian Voivodeship

Magdalenka is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Lesznowola, within Piaseczno County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

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Main Directorate of Information of the Polish Army

Główny Zarząd Informacji Wojska Polskiego (GZI WP - "Main Directorate of Information of the Polish Army"), was a name of a first military Police and counter-espionage organ of the Polish People's Army in communist Poland during and after World War II.

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Major Waldemar Fydrych

Waldemar "Major" Fydrych (born April 8, 1953) is a Polish activist best known as the founder and leader of the Orange Alternative movement in Poland.

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Marceli Nowotko

Marceli Nowotko (pseudonyms: Marian, Stary; 8 July 1893, Warsaw – 28 November 1942, Warsaw) was a Polish communist activist and first secretary of the Polish Workers Party (PPR).

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March Constitution (Poland)

The Second Polish Republic adopted the March Constitution on 17 March 1921, after ousting the occupation of the German/Prussian forces in the 1918 Greater Poland Uprising, and avoiding conquest by the Soviets in the 1920 Polish-Soviet War.

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Marek Jan Chodakiewicz

Marek Jan Chodakiewicz (born 1962 in Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish-American historian specializing in East Central European history of the 19th and 20th century.

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Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, (13 October 19258 April 2013) was a British stateswoman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990.

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Marian Jurczyk

Marian Jurczyk (16 October 1935 – 30 December 2014) was a Polish politician and Solidarity trade union activist.

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Market (economics)

A market is one of the many varieties of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby parties engage in exchange.

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Market economy

A market economy is an economic system in which the decisions regarding investment, production, and distribution are guided by the price signals created by the forces of supply and demand.

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Market socialism

Market socialism is a type of economic system involving the public, cooperative or social ownership of the means of production in the framework of a market economy.

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Marketization

Marketization or marketisation is a restructuring process that enables state enterprises to operate as market-oriented firms by changing the legal environment in which they operate.

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Marshal of the Soviet Union

Marshal of the Soviet Union (Маршал Советского Союза) was the highest military rank of the Soviet Union, below Generalissimus of the Soviet Union.

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Marshall Plan

The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative to aid Western Europe, in which the United States gave over $13 billion (nearly $ billion in US dollars) in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II.

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Martial law

Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civilian functions of government, especially in response to a temporary emergency such as invasion or major disaster, or in an occupied territory. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public.

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Martial law in Poland

Martial law in Poland (Stan wojenny w Polsce) refers to the period of time from December 13, 1981 to July 22, 1983, when the authoritarian communist government of the Polish People's Republic drastically restricted normal life by introducing martial law in an attempt to crush political opposition.

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Marxism

Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that views class relations and social conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development and takes a dialectical view of social transformation.

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Marxism–Leninism

In political science, Marxism–Leninism is the ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, of the Communist International and of Stalinist political parties.

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Mass (liturgy)

Mass is a term used to describe the main eucharistic liturgical service in many forms of Western Christianity.

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Mathematical economics

Mathematical economics is the application of mathematical methods to represent theories and analyze problems in economics.

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Measures of national income and output

A variety of measures of national income and output are used in economics to estimate total economic activity in a country or region, including gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), net national income (NNI), and adjusted national income also called as NNI at factor cost (NNI* adjusted for natural resource depletion).

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Michał Kalecki

Michał Kalecki (22 June 1899 – 18 April 1970) was a Polish economist.

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Michał Rola-Żymierski

Michał Rola-Żymierski (September 4, 1890October 15, 1989) was a Polish high-ranking Communist Party leader, communist military commander, NKVD secret agent, and Marshal of Poland by Joseph Stalin's order from 1945 until his death.

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Michael Bruno

Michael Peter Bruno (Hebrew: מיכאל ברונו) (born 30 July 1932; died 25 December 1996) was an Israeli economist.

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Michel Foucault

Paul-Michel Foucault (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984), generally known as Michel Foucault, was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, and literary critic.

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Middle class

The middle class is a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy.

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Mieczysław Jagielski

Mieczysław Jagielski (12 January 192427 February 1997) was a Polish politician and economist.

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Mieczysław Moczar

Mieczysław Moczar (original name Mikołaj Diomko, pseudonym Mietek, December 23, 1913 in Łódź – November 1, 1986 in Warsaw) was a Polish communist who played a prominent role in the history of the Polish People's Republic.

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Mieczysław Rakowski

Mieczysław Rakowski (1 December 1926 – 8 November 2008) was a Polish communist politician, historian and journalist who was Prime Minister of Poland from 1988 to 1989.

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Mieczysław Wilczek

Mieczysław Wilczek (25 January 1932 – 30 April 2014) was a Polish politician, chemist and businessman who was Minister of Industry (1988-1989).

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Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev, GCL (born 2 March 1931) is a Russian and former Soviet politician.

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Milicja Obywatelska

Milicja Obywatelska (Citizens' Militia or Civic Militia) was the national police of the People's Republic of Poland.

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Military Council of National Salvation

The Military Council of National Salvation (abbreviated WRON) was a military junta administering the People's Republic of Poland during the period of the martial law in Poland (1981–1983).

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Milton Friedman

Milton Friedman (July 31, 1912 – November 16, 2006) was an American economist who received the 1976 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his research on consumption analysis, monetary history and theory, and the complexity of stabilization policy.

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Minimum wage

A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers can legally pay their workers.

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Ministry of Public Security (Poland)

The Ministry of Public Security of Poland (Ministerstwo Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego or MBP) was a postwar communist, secret police, intelligence and counter-espionage service operating from 1945 to 1954 under minister for Public Security general (Generał brygady) Stanisław Radkiewicz, and supervised by Jakub Berman of the Politburo.

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Mirosław Golon

Mirosław Golon (born 1964) is a Polish historian.

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Mokotów Prison

Mokotów Prison (Więzienie mokotowskie, also known as Rakowiecka Prison) is a prison in Warsaw's borough of Mokotów, Poland, located at 37 Rakowiecka Street.

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Monument to the Fallen Shipyard Workers of 1970

The Monument to the fallen Shipyard Workers 1970 (Pomnik Poległych Stoczniowców 1970) was unveiled on 16 December 1980 near the entrance to what was then the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk, Poland.

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Moscow

Moscow (a) is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.1 million within the urban area.

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Movement for Defense of Human and Civic Rights

Movement for Defense of Human and Civic Rights (Ruch Obrony Praw Człowieka i Obywatela, ROPCiO) was a right-wing political and social organization formed in People's Republic of Poland in March 1977.

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Multinational state

A multinational state is a sovereign state that comprises two or more nations.

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National Armed Forces

Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (NSZ; English: National Armed Forces) was a Polish anti-Nazi and later anti-Soviet military organization which was part of Poland's World War II resistance movement.

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National Democracy

National Democracy (Narodowa Demokracja, also known from its abbreviation ND as "Endecja") was a Polish political movement active from the second half of the 19th century under the foreign partitions of the country until the end of the Second Polish Republic.

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National Military Union

Narodowe Zjednoczenie Wojskowe (National Military Union, NZW) was a Polish anti-Communist organization, founded in November 1944, after collapse of the Warsaw Uprising.

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National Radical Camp Falanga

The Falanga National Radical Camp (Ruch Narodowo Radykalny-Falanga, RNR-Falanga, colloquially ONR-Falanga), was a minor Polish far-right political grouping of the 1930s, one of two to emerge following the split of the National Radical Camp (Oboz Narodowo Radykalny, ONR) in 1934.

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National Theatre, Warsaw

The National Theatre (Teatr Narodowy) in Warsaw, Poland, was founded in 1765, during the Polish Enlightenment, by that country's last monarch, Stanisław August Poniatowski.

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Nationalization

Nationalization (or nationalisation) is the process of transforming private assets into public assets by bringing them under the public ownership of a national government or state.

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NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO; Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord; OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries.

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Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler through the Nazi Party (NSDAP).

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Neoconservatism

Neoconservatism (commonly shortened to neocon when labelling its adherents) is a political movement born in the United States during the 1960s among liberal hawks who became disenchanted with the increasingly pacifist foreign policy of the Democratic Party, and the growing New Left and counterculture, in particular the Vietnam protests.

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Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism or neo-liberalism refers primarily to the 20th-century resurgence of 19th-century ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism.

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New Left

The New Left was a broad political movement mainly in the 1960s and 1970s consisting of activists in the Western world who campaigned for a broad range of social issues such as civil and political rights, feminism, gay rights, abortion rights, gender roles and drug policy reforms.

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News media

The news media or news industry are forms of mass media that focus on delivering news to the general public or a target public.

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Nikita Khrushchev

Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (15 April 1894 – 11 September 1971) was a Soviet statesman who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964.

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NKVD

The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (Народный комиссариат внутренних дел, Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del), abbreviated NKVD (НКВД), was the interior ministry of the Soviet Union.

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Nomenklatura

The nomenklatura (p; nomenclatura) were a category of people within the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries who held various key administrative positions in the bureaucracy, running all spheres of those countries' activity: government, industry, agriculture, education, etc., whose positions were granted only with approval by the communist party of each country or region.

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Nonviolent resistance

Nonviolent resistance (NVR or nonviolent action) is the practice of achieving goals such as social change through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, satyagraha, or other methods, while being nonviolent.

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Norman Davies

Ivor Norman Richard Davies (born 8 June 1939) is a British-Polish historian noted for his publications on the history of Europe, Poland and the United Kingdom.

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Norman Naimark

Norman M. Naimark (born 1944 in New York City) is an American historian.

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Northern Group of Forces

The Northern Group of Forces was the military formation of the Soviet Army stationed in Poland from the end of Second World War in 1945 until 1993 when they were withdrawn in the aftermath of the fall of the Soviet Union.

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Nowa Huta

Nowa Huta (literally The New Steel Mill) is the easternmost district of Kraków, Poland.

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Occupation of factories

Occupation of factories is a method of the workers' movement used to prevent lock outs.

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Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)

The occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during the Second World War (1939–1945) began with the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, and it was formally concluded with the defeat of Germany by the Allies in May 1945.

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Oder–Neisse line

The Oder–Neisse line (granica na Odrze i Nysie Łużyckiej, Oder-Neiße-Grenze) is the international border between Germany and Poland.

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One-party state

A one-party state, single-party state, one-party system, or single-party system is a type of state in which one political party has the right to form the government, usually based on the existing constitution.

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Open society

The open society was conceived in 1932 by French philosopher Henri Bergson.

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Operation Tempest

Operation Tempest (akcja „Burza”, sometimes referred in English as Operation Storm) was a series of anti-Nazi uprisings conducted during World War II by the Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa, AK), the dominant force in the Polish resistance.

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Operation Vistula

Operation Vistula (Akcja "Wisła") was a codename for the 1947 forced resettlement of the Ukrainian minority including Boykos and Lemkos from the south-eastern provinces of post-war Poland, to the Recovered Territories in the west of the country.

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Orange Alternative

The Orange Alternative (Polish: Pomarańczowa Alternatywa) is a Polish anti-communist underground movement, started in Wrocław, a city in south-west Poland and led by Waldemar Fydrych (sometimes misspelled as Frydrych), commonly known as Major (Commander of Festung Breslau) in the 1980s.

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Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization.

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ORMO

ORMO (Ochotnicza Rezerwa Milicji Obywatelskiej), or the Volunteer Reserve Militia, was a paramilitary organization and voluntary support brigade of MO communist police force (Milicja Obywatelska).

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Oskar R. Lange

Oskar Ryszard Lange (27 July 1904 – 2 October 1965) was a Polish economist and diplomat.

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Pacification of Wujek

The Pacification of Wujek was a strike-breaking action by the Polish police and army at the Wujek Coal Mine in Katowice, Poland, culminating in the massacre of nine striking miners on December 16, 1981.

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Paramilitary

A paramilitary is a semi-militarized force whose organizational structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but which is not included as part of a state's formal armed forces.

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Paris

Paris is the capital and most populous city of France, with an area of and a population of 2,206,488.

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Parliament of Poland

The parliament of Poland has an upper house, the Senate, and a lower house, the Sejm.

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Parliamentary system

A parliamentary system is a system of democratic governance of a state where the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the confidence of the legislative branch, typically a parliament, and is also held accountable to that parliament.

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Partitions of Poland

The Partitions of Poland were three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 123 years.

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Party line (politics)

In politics, the line or the party line is an idiom for a political party or social movement's canon agenda, as well as ideological elements specific to the organization's partisanship.

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Paweł Finder

Paweł Finder (pseudonyms: Paul Finder, Paul Reynot; 19 September 1904 – 26 July 1944) was a Polish-Jewish Communist leader and First Secretary of the Polish Workers' Party (PPR) from 1943 to 1944.

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PAX Association

The PAX Association was a pro-communist secular Catholic organization created in 1947 in the People's Republic of Poland at the onset of the Stalinist period.

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Płock

Płock (pronounced) is a city on the Vistula river in central Poland.

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Penguin Books

Penguin Books is a British publishing house.

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People's Republic

"People's Republic" is a title used by some sovereign states with republican constitutions.

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Perestroika

Perestroika (a) was a political movement for reformation within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the 1980s until 1991 and is widely associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost (meaning "openness") policy reform.

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Periphery countries

In world systems theory, the periphery countries (sometimes referred to as just the periphery) are those that are less developed than the semi-periphery and core countries.

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Piotr Jaroszewicz

Gen. Piotr Jaroszewicz (8 October 1909 – 1 September 1992) was a post World War II Polish political figure.

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PKWN Manifesto

The Manifesto of the Polish Committee of National Liberation (PKWN) known as July or PKWN Manifesto (Manifest PKWN, Manifest lipcowy) was a political manifesto of the Polish Committee of National Liberation, a Soviet-backed administration, which operated in opposition to the London-based Polish government in exile.

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Planned economy

A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment and the allocation of capital goods take place according to economy-wide economic and production plans.

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Pluralism (political philosophy)

Pluralism as a political philosophy is the recognition and affirmation of diversity within a political body, which permits the peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions and lifestyles.

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Pluto Press

Pluto Press is a British independent book publisher based in London.

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Poland

Poland (Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country located in Central Europe.

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Polish anti-religious campaign

The Polish Anti-Religious Campaign was initiated by the communist government in Poland which, under the doctrine of Marxism, actively advocated for the disenfranchisement of religion and planned atheisation.

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Polish Armed Forces in the West

The Polish Armed Forces in the West refers to the Polish military formations formed to fight alongside the Western Allies against Nazi Germany and its allies during World War II.

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Polish Committee of National Liberation

The Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polish: Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego, PKWN), also known as the Lublin Committee, was a puppet provisional government of Poland,.

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Polish Council of State

The Council of State of the Republic of Poland was introduced by the Small Constitution of 1947.

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Polish diaspora

The Polish diaspora refers to Poles who live outside Poland.

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Polish government-in-exile

The Polish government-in-exile, formally known as the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile (Rząd Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na uchodźstwie), was the government in exile of Poland formed in the aftermath of the Invasion of Poland of September 1939, and the subsequent occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, which brought to an end the Second Polish Republic.

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Polish language

Polish (język polski or simply polski) is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles.

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Polish legislative election, 1947

Parliamentary elections were held in Poland on 19 January 1947,Dieter Nohlen & Philip Stöver (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, p1491 the first since World War II.

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Polish legislative election, 1989

The Polish legislative election of 1989 was the tenth election to the Sejm, the parliament of the Polish People's Republic, and the first election to the recreated Senate of Poland.

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Polish October

Polish October, also known as October 1956, Polish thaw, or Gomułka's thaw, marked a change in the politics of Poland in the second half of 1956.

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Polish Ombudsman

The Polish Ombudsman (Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich, literally Advocate for Citizens' Rights, now referring to itself in English as the "Commissioner for Human Rights" and earlier as the "Human Rights Defender," often abbreviated RPO) is an independent central office of the Republic of Poland.

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Polish parliamentary election, 1991

The 1991 Polish parliamentary election was held on 27 October 1991 to elect deputies to both houses of the National Assembly.

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Polish parliamentary election, 2015

Parliamentary elections to both the Sejm and Senate were held in Poland on 25 October 2015.

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Polish People's Army

The Polish People's Army (Ludowe Wojsko Polskie, LWP) constituted the second formation of the Polish Armed Forces in the East (1943–1945) and later the armed forces (1945–1989) of the Polish communist government of Poland (from 1952, the Polish People's Republic) along with the ruling Polish United Workers' Party.

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Polish People's Party (1945–1949)

The Polish People's Party (or Polish Peasant Party, Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe – PSL), existed in post-World War II Poland from 1945 to 1949.

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Polish people's referendum, 1946

The People's Referendum (referendum ludowe) of 1946, also known as the Three Times Yes referendum (Trzy razy tak, often abbreviated as 3×TAK), was a referendum held in Poland on 30 June 1946 on the authority of the State National Council (order of 27 April 1946).

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Polish People's Republic

The Polish People's Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, PRL) covers the history of contemporary Poland between 1952 and 1990 under the Soviet-backed socialist government established after the Red Army's release of its territory from German occupation in World War II.

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Polish political and economic reforms referendum, 1987

A referendum on political and economic reforms was held by Poland's communist regime on 29 November 1987.

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Polish population transfers (1944–1946)

The Polish population transfers in 1944–46 from the eastern half of prewar Poland (also known as the expulsions of Poles from the Kresy macroregion), refer to the forced migrations of Poles toward the end – and in the aftermath – of World War II.

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Polish presidential election, 1989

The Polish presidential election, 1989 took place on July 19, 1989, and was notable for several reasons.

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Polish presidential election, 1990

Presidential elections were held in Poland on 25 November 1990, with a second round on 9 December.

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Polish Round Table Agreement

The Polish Round Table Talks took place in Warsaw, Poland from 6 February to 5 April 1989.

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Polish Scientific Publishers PWN

Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN; until 1991 Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe - National Scientific Publishers PWN, PWN) is a Polish book publisher, founded in 1951.

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Polish Socialist Party

The Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna, PPS) was a left-wing Polish political party.

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Polish Underground State

The Polish Underground State (Polskie Państwo Podziemne, also known as the Polish Secret State) is a collective term for the underground resistance organizations in Poland during World War II, both military and civilian, that were loyal to the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile in London.

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Polish United Workers' Party

The Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP; Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza, PZPR) was the Communist party which governed the Polish People's Republic from 1948 to 1989.

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Polish Workers' Party

The Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza, PPR) was a communist party in Poland from 1942 to 1948.

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Politburo

A politburo or political bureau is the executive committee for communist parties.

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Political satire

Political satire is satire that specializes in gaining entertainment from politics; it has also been used with subversive intent where political speech and dissent are forbidden by a regime, as a method of advancing political arguments where such arguments are expressly forbidden.

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Polityka

Polityka (Politics) is a centre-left weekly newsmagazine in Poland.

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Pope

The pope (papa from πάππας pappas, a child's word for "father"), also known as the supreme pontiff (from Latin pontifex maximus "greatest priest"), is the Bishop of Rome and therefore ex officio the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church.

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Pope John Paul II

Pope John Paul II (Ioannes Paulus II; Giovanni Paolo II; Jan Paweł II; born Karol Józef Wojtyła;; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005) served as Pope and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 1978 to 2005.

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Population exchange between Poland and Soviet Ukraine

The population exchange between Poland and the Soviet Ukraine at the end of World War II was based on a treaty signed on 9 September 1944 by the Ukrainian SSR with the newly formed Polish Committee of National Liberation (PKWN).

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Populism

In politics, populism refers to a range of approaches which emphasise the role of "the people" and often juxtapose this group against "the elite".

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Potsdam Agreement

The Potsdam Agreement (Potsdamer Abkommen) was the August 1945 agreement between three of the Allies of World War II, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union.

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Potsdam Conference

The Potsdam Conference (Potsdamer Konferenz) was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm, in Potsdam, occupied Germany, from 17 July to 2 August 1945.

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Poznań

Poznań (Posen; known also by other historical names) is a city on the Warta River in west-central Poland, in the Greater Poland region.

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Poznań 1956 protests

The Poznań 1956 protests, also known as the Poznań 1956 uprising, Poznań June or Polish Revolution of 1956 (Poznański Czerwiec), were the first of several massive protests against the communist government of the Polish People's Republic.

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Prague Spring

The Prague Spring (Pražské jaro, Pražská jar) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II.

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Prelate

A prelate is a high-ranking member of the clergy who is an ordinary or who ranks in precedence with ordinaries.

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President of Poland

The President of the Republic of Poland (Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, shorter form: Prezydent RP) is the head of state of Poland.

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Primate (bishop)

Primate is a title or rank bestowed on some archbishops in certain Christian churches.

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Privatization

Privatization (also spelled privatisation) is the purchase of all outstanding shares of a publicly traded company by private investors, or the sale of a state-owned enterprise to private investors.

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Progressive tax

A progressive tax is a tax in which the tax rate increases as the taxable amount increases.

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Propaganda in the Polish People's Republic

Communist propaganda played an important role in the Polish People's Republic, one of the largest and most important communist satellite states of the Soviet Union.

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Provisional Government of National Unity

The Provisional Government of National Unity (Polish: Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej or TRJN) was a government formed by a decree of the State National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa) on 28 June 1945.

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Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland

The Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rząd Tymczasowy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej or RTRP) was created by the State National Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa) on the night of 31 December 1944.

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Przegląd

Przegląd (English: Review) is a weekly Polish news and opinion magazine.

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Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) is a broadcasting organization that broadcasts and reports news, information, and analysis to countries in Eastern Europe, Central Asia and the Middle East where it says that "the free flow of information is either banned by government authorities or not fully developed".

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Radom

Radom (ראָדעם Rodem) is a city in east-central Poland with 219,703 inhabitants (2013).

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Rapacki Plan

Rapacki Plan (pronounced Rapatz-ki) is from the Polish Foreign Minister Adam Rapacki on 2 October 1957 the UN General Assembly presented a limited plan called demilitarization in Central Europe.

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Ration stamp

A ration stamp or ration card is a stamp or card issued by a government to allow the holder to obtain food or other commodities that are in short supply during wartime or in other emergency situations when rationing is in force.

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Raymond Taras

Raymond Taras (also Ray Taras) is a Canadian political scientist.

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Real socialism

Real socialism (also actually existing socialism or developed socialism) was an ideological catchphrase popularized during the Brezhnev era within the Eastern Bloc countries and the Soviet Union.

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Recession

In economics, a recession is a business cycle contraction which results in a general slowdown in economic activity.

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Recovered Territories

Recovered Territories (Ziemie Odzyskane, literally "Regained Lands") was an official term used by the People's Republic of Poland to describe the territory of the former Free City of Danzig and the parts of pre-war Germany that became part of Poland after World War II.

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Red Army

The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (Рабоче-крестьянская Красная армия (РККА), Raboche-krest'yanskaya Krasnaya armiya (RKKA), frequently shortened in Russian to Красная aрмия (КА), Krasnaya armiya (KA), in English: Red Army, also in critical literature and folklore of that epoch – Red Horde, Army of Work) was the army and the air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and, after 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

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Revisionism (Marxism)

Within the Marxist movement, the word revisionism is used to refer to various ideas, principles and theories that are based on a significant revision of fundamental Marxist premises.

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Revolution

In political science, a revolution (Latin: revolutio, "a turn around") is a fundamental and relatively sudden change in political power and political organization which occurs when the population revolt against the government, typically due to perceived oppression (political, social, economic).

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Revolutions of 1989

The Revolutions of 1989 formed part of a revolutionary wave in the late 1980s and early 1990s that resulted in the end of communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe and beyond.

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Right-wing politics

Right-wing politics hold that certain social orders and hierarchies are inevitable, natural, normal or desirable, typically supporting this position on the basis of natural law, economics or tradition.

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Riot control

Riot control refers to the measures used by police, military, or other security forces to control, disperse, and arrest people who are involved in a riot, demonstration, or protest.

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Roman Romkowski

Roman Romkowski born Natan Grünspan-Kikiel,Tadeusz Piotrowski, McFarland, 1998.

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Roman Zambrowski

Roman Zambrowski born Rubin Nassbau (July 15, 1909 in Warsaw – August 19, 1977 in Warsaw) was a Polish and Soviet Communist.

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Ronald Reagan

Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989.

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Rosa Luxemburg

Rosa Luxemburg (Róża Luksemburg; also Rozalia Luxenburg; 5 March 1871 – 15 January 1919) was a Polish Marxist theorist, philosopher, economist, anti-war activist, and revolutionary socialist who became a naturalized German citizen at the age of 28.

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Rural Solidarity

Rural Solidarity (full name Independent Self-governing Trade Union of Individual Farmers "Solidarity") is a trade union of Polish farmers, established in late 1980 as part of the growing Solidarity movement.

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Russia

Russia (rɐˈsʲijə), officially the Russian Federation (p), is a country in Eurasia. At, Russia is the largest country in the world by area, covering more than one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area, and the ninth most populous, with over 144 million people as of December 2017, excluding Crimea. About 77% of the population live in the western, European part of the country. Russia's capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world; other major cities include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg and Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares land borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both with Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and North Korea. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait. The East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century. In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century. The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland on the west to Alaska on the east. Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the world's first constitutionally socialist state. The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II, and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the world's second largest economy, largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, twelve independent republics emerged from the USSR: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and the Baltic states regained independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality and a successor of the Soviet Union. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic. The Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas globally. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and an active global partner of ASEAN, as well as a member of the G20, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO), as well as being the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), along with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

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Russian language

Russian (rússkiy yazýk) is an East Slavic language, which is official in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, as well as being widely spoken throughout Eastern Europe, the Baltic states, the Caucasus and Central Asia.

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Ryszard Bugaj

Ryszard Bugaj (born February 22, 1944 in Gawłów, Masovian Voivodeship) is a Polish politician and economist, former leader of Unia Pracy (Labour Union) and former advisor to the then president of Poland, Lech Kaczyński.

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Ryszard Kaczorowski

Ryszard Kaczorowski, GCMG (26 November 1919 – 10 April 2010) was a Polish statesman.

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Ryszard Siwiec

Ryszard Siwiec (7 March 1909 — 12 September 1968) was a Polish accountant and former Home Army resistance member who was the first person to commit suicide by self-immolation in protest against the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.

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Rzeczpospolita (newspaper)

Rzeczpospolita is a nationwide daily economic and legal newspaper and the only conservative-liberal newspaper in Poland.

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Salami tactics

Salami tactics, also known as the salami-slice strategy or salami attacks, is a divide and conquer process of threats and alliances used to overcome opposition.

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Sanation

Sanation (Sanacja) was a Polish political movement that was created in the interwar period, prior to Józef Piłsudski's May 1926 ''Coup d'État'', and came to power in the wake of that coup.

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Satellite state

The term satellite state designates a country that is formally independent in the world, but under heavy political, economic and military influence or control from another country.

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Służba Bezpieczeństwa

The Służba Bezpieczeństwa Ministerstwa Spraw Wewnętrznych (Security Service of the Ministry of Internal Affairs; Polish abbreviations: SB and MSW, respectively), commonly known as Esbecja, was established in the People's Republic of Poland in 1956.

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Sejm

The Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej) is the lower house of the Polish parliament.

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Senate of Poland

The Senate (Senat) is the upper house of the Polish parliament, the lower house being the 'Sejm'.

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Shock therapy (economics)

Shock therapy is a term used by some non-economists to refer to the sudden release of price and currency controls (economic liberalization), withdrawal of state subsidies, and immediate trade liberalization within a country, usually also including large-scale privatization of previously public-owned assets.

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Shortage economy

Shortage economy (gospodarka niedoboru, hiánygazdaság) is a term coined by the Hungarian economist, János Kornai.

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Show trial

A show trial is a public trial in which the judicial authorities have already determined the guilt of the defendant.

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Six-Day War

The Six-Day War (Hebrew: מלחמת ששת הימים, Milhemet Sheshet Ha Yamim; Arabic: النكسة, an-Naksah, "The Setback" or حرب ۱۹٦۷, Ḥarb 1967, "War of 1967"), also known as the June War, 1967 Arab–Israeli War, or Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between 5 and 10 June 1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt (known at the time as the United Arab Republic), Jordan, and Syria.

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Six-Year Plan

Six-Year Plan (1950–1955) was the second - after the Three-Year Plan (1947–1949) - centralized plan of the People's Republic of Poland.

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Small Constitution of 1947

Small Constitution of 1947 (Mała Konstytucja z 1947) was a temporary constitution issued by the communist-dominated Sejm (Polish parliament) of 1947-1952.

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Social class

A social class is a set of subjectively defined concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes.

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Social Darwinism

The term Social Darwinism is used to refer to various ways of thinking and theories that emerged in the second half of the 19th century and tried to apply the evolutionary concept of natural selection to human society.

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Social democracy

Social democracy is a political, social and economic ideology that supports economic and social interventions to promote social justice within the framework of a liberal democratic polity and capitalist economy.

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Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania

The Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjaldemokracja Królestwa Polskiego i Litwy, SDKPiL), originally the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland (SDKP), was a Marxist political party founded in 1893.

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Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland

Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland (SdRP) (Socjaldemokracja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, SdRP) was a social-democratic political party in Poland created in 1990, shortly after the Revolutions of 1989.

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Social justice

Social justice is a concept of fair and just relations between the individual and society.

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Socialist realism

Socialist realism is a style of idealized realistic art that was developed in the Soviet Union and was imposed as the official style in that country between 1932 and 1988, as well as in other socialist countries after World War II.

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Socialist realism in Poland

Socialist realism in Poland (socrealizm) was a social, political, and esthetic doctrine enforced by the pro-Soviet communist government in the process of Stalinization of the postwar People's Republic of Poland.

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Solidarity (Polish trade union)

Solidarity (Solidarność, pronounced; full name: Independent Self-governing Labour Union "Solidarity"—Niezależny Samorządny Związek Zawodowy „Solidarność”) is a Polish labour union that was founded on 17 September 1980 at the Lenin Shipyard under the leadership of Lech Wałęsa.

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Solidarity Citizens' Committee

The Solidarity Citizens' Committee (Komitet Obywatelski "Solidarność", acronym KO "S"), also known as "Citizens' Electoral Committee" (Obywatelski Komitet Wyborczy), previously named "Citizens' Committee with Lech Wałęsa" (Komitet Obywatelski przy Lechu Wałęsie) was an (initially semi-) legal political organisation of the democratic opposition in communist Poland.

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Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981

The Polish crisis of 1980–1981, associated with the emergence of the Solidarity mass movement in Poland, challenged the Soviet Union's control over its satellite states in the Eastern Bloc.

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Soviet Union

The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991.

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Sovietization

Sovietization is the adoption of a political system based on the model of soviets (workers' councils) or the adoption of a way of life and mentality modelled after the Soviet Union.

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Spanish language

Spanish or Castilian, is a Western Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain and today has hundreds of millions of native speakers in Latin America and Spain.

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Sphere of influence

In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence (SOI) is a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity, accommodating to the interests of powers outside the borders of the state that controls it.

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Stalinism

Stalinism is the means of governing and related policies implemented from the 1920s to 1953 by Joseph Stalin (1878–1953).

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Stalinist show trial of the Kraków Curia

The Stalinist show trial of the Kraków Curia (Church in Poland following the so called Trial of the Kraków Curia).

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Standard of living

Standard of living refers to the level of wealth, comfort, material goods, and necessities available to a certain socioeconomic class in a certain geographic area, usually a country.

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Stanisław Kania

Stanisław Kania (born 8 March 1927) is a former Polish communist politician.

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Stanisław Kociołek

Stanisław Kociołek (3 May 1933, Warsaw – 1 October 2015), often referred to as the "butcher of Tri-City", was a Communist official who served as deputy prime minister of Poland for six months in 1970.

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Stanisław Mikołajczyk

Stanisław Mikołajczyk (18 July 1901 – 13 December 1966) was a Polish politician.

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Stanisław Ossowski

Stanisław Ossowski (Lipno, 22 May 18977 November 1963, Warsaw) was one of Poland's most important sociologists.

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Stanisław Tymiński

Stanisław "Stan" Tymiński (born January 27, 1948) is a Canadian businessman of Polish origin, dealing in electronics and computers, and a sometime-politician in both Poland and Canada.

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State Agricultural Farm

A State Agricultural Farm (Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne, PGR) was a form of collective farming in the People's Republic of Poland, similar to Soviet sovkhoz and to the East German Volkseigenes Gut.

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State National Council

Krajowa Rada Narodowa in Polish (translated as State National Council or Homeland National Council, abbreviated to KRN) was a parliament-like political body created during the later period of World War II in German-occupied Warsaw.

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State socialism

State socialism is a classification for any socialist political and economic perspective advocating state ownership of the means of production either as a temporary measure in the transition from capitalism to socialism, or as characteristic of socialism itself.

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State-owned enterprise

A state-owned enterprise (SOE) is a business enterprise where the state has significant control through full, majority, or significant minority ownership.

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Stefan Wyszyński

Stefan Wyszyński (3 August 1901 – 28 May 1981) was a Polish prelate of the Roman Catholic Church.

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Summer 1981 hunger demonstrations in Poland

In mid-1981, amid widespread economic crisis and food shortages, thousands of Poles, mainly women and their children, took part in several hunger demonstrations, organized in cities and towns across the country.

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Szczecin

Szczecin (German and Swedish Stettin), known also by other alternative names) is the capital and largest city of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland. Located near the Baltic Sea and the German border, it is a major seaport and Poland's seventh-largest city. As of June 2011, the population was 407,811. Szczecin is located on the Oder, south of the Szczecin Lagoon and the Bay of Pomerania. The city is situated along the southwestern shore of Dąbie Lake, on both sides of the Oder and on several large islands between the western and eastern branches of the river. Szczecin is adjacent to the town of Police and is the urban centre of the Szczecin agglomeration, an extended metropolitan area that includes communities in the German states of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The city's recorded history began in the 8th century as a Slavic Pomeranian stronghold, built at the site of the Ducal castle. In the 12th century, when Szczecin had become one of Pomerania's main urban centres, it lost its independence to Piast Poland, the Duchy of Saxony, the Holy Roman Empire and Denmark. At the same time, the House of Griffins established themselves as local rulers and the population was Christianized. After the Treaty of Stettin in 1630, the town came under the control of the Swedish Empire and became in 1648 the Capital of Swedish Pomerania until 1720, when it was acquired by the Kingdom of Prussia and then the German Empire. Following World War II Stettin became part of Poland, resulting in expulsion of the German population. Szczecin is the administrative and industrial centre of West Pomeranian Voivodeship and is the site of the University of Szczecin, Pomeranian Medical University, Maritime University, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin Art Academy, and the see of the Szczecin-Kamień Catholic Archdiocese. From 1999 onwards, Szczecin has served as the site of the headquarters of NATO's Multinational Corps Northeast. Szczecin was a candidate for the European Capital of Culture in 2016.

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Szczecin Agreement

Szczecin Agreement (Polish: Porozumienie szczecińskie) was an accord, signed on August 30, 1980 at 8 a.m. at Szczecin Shipyard, between Polish authorities and the Szczecin Interfactory Strike Committee.

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Tadeusz Kowalik

Tadeusz Kowalik (19 November 1926 – 30 July 2012) was a Polish economist, public intellectual and political and social activist.

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Tadeusz Mazowiecki

Tadeusz Mazowiecki; (18 April 1927 – 28 October 2013) was a Polish author, journalist, philanthropist and Christian-democratic politician, formerly one of the leaders of the Solidarity movement, and the first non-communist Polish prime minister since 1946.

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Tadeusz Sendzimir Steelworks

Tadeusz Sendzimir Steelworks (Huta im.) is the second largest steel plant in Poland.

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Temple University Press

Temple University Press is a university press founded in 1969 that is part of Temple University (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania).

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The Holocaust

The Holocaust, also referred to as the Shoah, was a genocide during World War II in which Nazi Germany, aided by its collaborators, systematically murdered approximately 6 million European Jews, around two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe, between 1941 and 1945.

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The Holocaust in Poland

The Holocaust in German-occupied Poland was the last and most lethal phase of Nazi Germany's "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" (Endlösung der Judenfrage), marked by the construction of death camps on German-occupied Polish soil.

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The Nation

The Nation is the oldest continuously published weekly magazine in the United States, and the most widely read weekly journal of progressive political and cultural news, opinion, and analysis.

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The Warsaw Voice

Warsaw Voice: Polish and Central European Review (shortly The Warsaw Voice) is an English-language newspaper printed in Poland, concentrating on news about Poland and its neighbours.

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Third World

The term "Third World" arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO or the Communist Bloc.

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Three-Year Plan

The Three-Year Plan of Reconstructing the Economy (Trzyletni Plan Odbudowy Gospodarki) was a centralized plan created by the Polish communist government to rebuild Poland after the devastation of the Second World War.

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Tiananmen Square protests of 1989

The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, commonly known in mainland China as the June Fourth Incident (六四事件), were student-led demonstrations in Beijing, the capital of the People's Republic of China, in 1989.

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Timothy D. Snyder

Timothy David Snyder (born 1969) is an American author and historian specializing in the history of Central and Eastern Europe, and the Holocaust.

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Tomasz Arciszewski

Tomasz Stefan Arciszewski (4 November 1877 – 20 November 1955) was a Polish socialist politician, a member of the Polish Socialist Party and the 31st Prime Minister of Poland, 3rd Prime Minister of the Polish government-in-exile in London from 1944 to 1947, presiding over the period when the government lost the recognition of the Western powers.

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Trade union

A trade union or trades union, also called a labour union (Canada) or labor union (US), is an organization of workers who have come together to achieve many common goals; such as protecting the integrity of its trade, improving safety standards, and attaining better wages, benefits (such as vacation, health care, and retirement), and working conditions through the increased bargaining power wielded by the creation of a monopoly of the workers.

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Treaty of Warsaw (1970)

The Treaty of Warsaw (Warschauer Vertrag, Polish: Układ PRL-RFN) was a treaty between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland.

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Trial of the Sixteen

The Trial of the Sixteen (Proces szesnastu) was a staged trial of 16 leaders of the Polish Underground State held by the Soviet authorities in Moscow in 1945.

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Ukraine

Ukraine (Ukrayina), sometimes called the Ukraine, is a sovereign state in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the east and northeast; Belarus to the northwest; Poland, Hungary, and Slovakia to the west; Romania and Moldova to the southwest; and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively.

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Ukrainians in Poland

The Ukrainian minority in Poland (Українці, Ukrayintsi, Ukraińcy), according to the Polish census of 2011 used to be composed of approximately 51,000 people (including 11,451 without Polish citizenship).

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Unification of Germany

The unification of Germany into a politically and administratively integrated nation state officially occurred on 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles in France.

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Union of Polish Patriots

Union of Polish Patriots (Society of Polish Patriots, Związek Patriotów Polskich, ZPP, Союз Польских Патриотов, СПП) was a political body created by Polish communists and Joseph Stalin in Soviet Union in 1943.

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United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international cooperation and to create and maintain international order.

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United People's Party (Poland)

The United People's Party (Zjednoczone Stronnictwo Ludowe, ZSL) was an agrarian political party in the People's Republic of Poland.

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Universalism

Universalism is a theological and philosophical concept that some ideas have universal application or applicability.

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Upper Silesia

Upper Silesia (Górny Śląsk; Silesian Polish: Gůrny Ślůnsk; Horní Slezsko; Oberschlesien; Silesian German: Oberschläsing; Silesia Superior) is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia, located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic.

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Uprising of 1953 in East Germany

The Uprising of 1953 in East Germany started with a strike by East Berlin construction workers on 16 June 1953.

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Urbanization

Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change.

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Ursus Factory

The Ursus Factory is a Polish producer of agricultural machinery located in Lublin.

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Vatican City

Vatican City (Città del Vaticano; Civitas Vaticana), officially the Vatican City State or the State of Vatican City (Stato della Città del Vaticano; Status Civitatis Vaticanae), is an independent state located within the city of Rome.

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Vladimir Bukovsky

From the late 1950s to the mid-1970s, Vladimir Konstantinovich Bukovsky (Влади́мир Константи́нович Буко́вский; b. 30 December 1942) was a prominent figure in the Soviet dissident movement, well-known at home and abroad.

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Vojtech Mastny

Vojtech Mastny (born 1936 in Prague, Czechoslovakia) is an American historian of Czech descent, professor of political science and international relations, specializing in the history of the Cold War.

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Wanda Wasilewska

Wanda Wasilewska, also known by Russian name Vanda Lvovna Vasilevskaya (Ва́нда Льво́вна Василе́вская) (21 January 1905 – 29 July 1964), was a Polish and Soviet novelist and left-wing political activist who played an important role in the creation of a Polish division of the Soviet Red Army during World War II and the formation of the People's Republic of Poland and its eastern frontiers.

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Warsaw

Warsaw (Warszawa; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland.

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Warsaw Ghetto

The Warsaw Ghetto (Warschauer Ghetto, officially Jüdischer Wohnbezirk in Warschau Jewish Residential District in Warsaw; getto warszawskie) was the largest of all the Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Europe during World War II.

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Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact, formally known as the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defence treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland among the Soviet Union and seven Soviet satellite states of Central and Eastern Europe during the Cold War.

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Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia

The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, officially known as Operation Danube, was a joint invasion of Czechoslovakia by five Warsaw Pact nations – the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany and Poland – on the night of 20–21 August 1968.

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Warsaw Uprising

The Warsaw Uprising (powstanie warszawskie; Warschauer Aufstand) was a major World War II operation, in the summer of 1944, by the Polish underground resistance, led by the Home Army (Armia Krajowa), to liberate Warsaw from German occupation.

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Władysław Frasyniuk

Władysław Frasyniuk (born 25 November 1954 in Wrocław) is a Polish politician, former activist of Solidarity trade union, and former chairman of the Partia Demokratyczna - demokraci.pl political party.

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Władysław Gomułka

Władysław Gomułka (6 February 1905 – 1 September 1982) was a Polish communist politician.

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Włodzimierz Borodziej

Włodzimierz Borodziej (born 9 September 1956 in Warsaw) is a Polish historian and writer specializing in contemporary European history with particular focus on Polish-German relations.

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Welfare

Welfare is a government support for the citizens and residents of society.

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West Germany

West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; Bundesrepublik Deutschland, BRD) in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 and German reunification on 3 October 1990.

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WIEM Encyklopedia

WIEM Encyklopedia (full name in Wielka Interaktywna Encyklopedia Multimedialna - "Great Interactive Multimedia Encyclopedia"; 'wiem' in the Polish language also means "I know") is a Polish Internet encyclopedia.

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Wildcat strike action

A wildcat strike action, often referred to as a wildcat strike, is a strike action undertaken by unionized workers without union leadership's authorization, support, or approval; this is sometimes termed an unofficial industrial.

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Willy Brandt

Willy Brandt (born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm; 18 December 1913 – 8 October 1992) was a German statesman who was leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) from 1964 to 1987 and served as Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) from 1969 to 1974.

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Witold Pilecki

Witold Pilecki (13 May 190125 May 1948;; codenames Roman Jezierski, Tomasz Serafiński, Druh, Witold) was a Polish cavalryman and intelligence officer.

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Wojciech Jaruzelski

Wojciech Witold Jaruzelski (6 July 1923 – 25 May 2014) was a Polish military officer and politician.

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Workers' council

A workers' council is a form of political and economic organization in which a single local administrative division, such as a municipality or a county, is governed by a council made up of temporary and instantly revocable delegates elected in the region's workplaces.

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Workers' Defence Committee

The Workers' Defense Committee (Komitet Obrony Robotników, KOR) was a Polish civil society group that was founded by Antoni Macierewicz to give aid to prisoners and their families after the June 1976 protests and ensuing government crackdown.

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Workers' self-management

Self-management or workers' self-management (also referred to as labor management, autogestión, workers' control, industrial democracy, democratic management and producer cooperatives) is a form of organizational management based on self-directed work processes on the part of an organization's workforce.

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Workforce

The workforce or labour force (labor force in American English; see spelling differences) is the labour pool in employment.

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Working class

The working class (also labouring class) are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and industrial work.

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World Bank

The World Bank (Banque mondiale) is an international financial institution that provides loans to countries of the world for capital projects.

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World economy

The world economy or global economy is the economy of the world, considered as the international exchange of goods and services that is expressed in monetary units of account (money).

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World War II

World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although conflicts reflecting the ideological clash between what would become the Allied and Axis blocs began earlier.

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World War III

World War III (WWIII or WW3) and the Third World War are names given to a hypothetical third worldwide large-scale military conflict subsequent to World War I and World War II.

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Wrocław

Wrocław (Breslau; Vratislav; Vratislavia) is the largest city in western Poland.

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Wydawnictwo Literackie

Wydawnictwo Literackie (abbreviated WL, lit. "Literary Press") is a Kraków-based Polish publishing house.

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Yale University Press

Yale University Press is a university press associated with Yale University.

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Yalta Conference

The Yalta Conference, also known as the Crimea Conference and code named the Argonaut Conference, held from 4 to 11 February 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union for the purpose of discussing Germany and Europe's postwar reorganization.

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Zbigniew Bujak

Zbigniew Bujak (born 29 November 1954 in Łopuszno) was an electrician and foreman in 1980 at the Ursus tractor factory near Warsaw, Poland.

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Zbigniew Messner

Zbigniew Stefan Messner; 13 March 1929 – 10 January 2014) was a Communist economist and politician in Poland. His ancestors were of German Polish descent who had assimilated into Polish society. In 1972, he became Professor of Karol Adamiecki University of Economics in Katowice. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party from 1981 to 1988, Deputy Prime Minister from 1983 to 1985, and 53rd Prime Minister from 1985 to 1988. In 1988, Messner's cabinet received a motion of no confidence in the Sejm (Parliament) and had to transfer power to Mieczysław Rakowski. This was an unprecedented event in the Communist world, one of the strongest signs of democratic change brought by Mikhail Gorbachev. Alternatively, this change in cabinet could easily be viewed as one of many similar steps of internal reorganization conducted periodically by regimes in all Communist-dominated countries. He died in Warsaw in 2014.

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Zenon Kliszko

Zenon Kliszko (Łódź, December 8, 1908 – September 4, 1989, Warsaw), was a politician in the Polish People's Republic, considered the man of Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) leader Władysław Gomułka.

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Zenon Nowak

Zenon Nowak (27 January 1905 – 21 August 1980) was a Communist activist and politician in the People's Republic of Poland.

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Znak (association)

Znak (Sign, Symbol) was an association of lay Catholics in Poland, active between 1956 and 1976.

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ZOMO

Zmotoryzowane Odwody Milicji Obywatelskiej (ZOMO) (Motorized Reserves of the Citizens' Militia), were paramilitary-police formations during the Communist Era, in the People's Republic of Poland.

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Zygmunt Berling

Zygmunt Henryk Berling (27 April 1896 – 11 July 1980) was a Polish general and politician.

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1951 Mokotów Prison execution

On March 1, 1951, the Soviet-controlled Communist Polish secret police, Urząd Bezpieczeństwa (UB), carried out the execution of seven members of the 4th Headquarters of the anti-Communist organization Wolność i Niezawisłość (WiN) in the Mokotów Prison in Warsaw.

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1951 Polish–Soviet territorial exchange

The 1951 Polish–Soviet territorial exchange or Polish-Soviet border adjustment treaty of 1951 was a border adjustment signed in Moscow between the People's Republic of Poland and the Soviet Union regarding roughly of land, along their mutual border.

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1968 Polish political crisis

The Polish 1968 political crisis, also known in Poland as March 1968 or March events (Marzec 1968; wydarzenia marcowe), pertains to a series of major student, intellectual and other protests against the government of the Polish People's Republic.

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1970 Polish protests

The Polish 1970 protests (Grudzień 1970) occurred in northern Poland in December 1970.

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1971 Łódź strikes

On February 10, 1971, textile workers in the central Polish city of Łódź (known as the "Manchester of Poland") began a strike action, in which the majority of participants were women.

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1973 oil crisis

The 1973 oil crisis began in October 1973 when the members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries proclaimed an oil embargo.

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1981 general strike in Bielsko-Biała

The 1981 general strike in Bielsko-Biała took place between January 27 and February 6, 1981, in the southern Polish city of Bielsko-Biała, It was the first strike action during the final decade of Communist Poland which was "purely political" in the sense of aiming directly at Communist Party officials without economic demands, such as calls higher wages.

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1981 warning strike in Poland

In the early spring of 1981, the quickly growing Solidarity movement faced one of the biggest challenges in its short history, when during the Bydgoszcz events, several members of Solidarity, including Jan Rulewski, Mariusz Łabentowicz and Roman Bartoszcze, were brutally beaten up by the security services, such as Milicja Obywatelska and ZOMO.

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1982 demonstrations in Poland

1982 demonstrations in Poland refers to anti-government street demonstrations organized by underground Solidarity to commemorate the second anniversary of the Gdańsk Agreement.

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1988 Polish strikes

The 1988 Polish strikes were a massive wave of workers' strikes which broke out in 1988 in the Polish People's Republic.

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20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

The 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was held during the period 14–25 February 1956.

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21 demands of MKS

The 21 demands of MKS (21 postulatów MKS) was a list of demands issued on 17 August 1980 by the Interfactory Strike Committee (Międzyzakładowy Komitet Strajkowy, MKS) in Poland.

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Redirects here:

Aftermath of World War II in Poland, End of Communism in Poland (1989), End of communism in Poland (1989), Fall of Communism in Poland, Fall of communism in Poland, Gierek decade, History of Communist Poland, History of People's Republic of Poland, History of Poland (1945-1989), History of Poland (1945-89), History of Poland (1945–89), History of the People's Republic of Poland, Polish crisis of 1980–1981, Polish crisis of 1980−1981, Post World War II Poland, Regained Territories Exhibition, Stalinism in Poland, Stalinist Poland, Wystawa Ziem Odzyskanych.

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945–1989)

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