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303 relations: Abdominal aortic aneurysm, Abdominal x-ray, Acetazolamide, Achaemenid Empire, Acute kidney injury, Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency, Alcoholic drink, Alkalinity, Alkalinizing agent, Alkaptonuria, Allopurinol, Alpha blocker, Alpha-1-microglobulin/bikunin precursor, American Family Physician, American Journal of Epidemiology, American Urological Association, Amino acid, Ammonia, Analgesic, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Annals of Internal Medicine, Antispasmodic, Antler, Antonio Scarpa, Apatite, Appendicitis, Apple juice, Aulus Cornelius Celsus, Azotemia, Bacteria, Benjamin Franklin, Binge drinking, Bladder stone, Bladder stone (animal), Bleeding diathesis, Blood test, Blood transfusion, Body mass index, Bruise, Brushite, Calcium, Calcium channel blocker, Calcium oxalate, Calcium phosphate, Calcium supplement, Calculus (medicine), Calgranulin, Carbon dioxide, Chelation, ..., Chemical composition, Chemotherapy, Chlortalidone, Chocolate, Citric acid, Clinical urine tests, Cochrane Library, Cola, Colectomy, Complete blood count, Corticosteroid, Costovertebral angle tenderness, Crohn's disease, Crystallization, CT scan, Cumulative incidence, Cysteine, Cystine, Cystinosis, Cystinuria, De Medicina, Dehydration, Dent's disease, Diabetes mellitus, Diameter, Dietary supplement, Disease, Disk diffusion test, Diuretic, Diverticulitis, Dornier Flugzeugwerke, Dose–response relationship, Dysuria, Edema, Electrolyte, Embryology, Endogeny (biology), Enterobacter, Epicurus, Extracorporeal shockwave therapy, Fanconi syndrome, Francis Bacon, Fructose, Gastrointestinal tract, Genetics, George IV of the United Kingdom, Global warming, Glycine, Glycoprotein, Glycosaminoglycan, Gonad, Gout, Grapefruit juice, Hematoma, Hematuria, Henry Jacob Bigelow, Herman Boerhaave, High-fructose corn syrup, Hippocratic Oath, History of China, History of India, Holmium, Homogentisic acid, Hydronephrosis, Hydroxyproline, Hypercalcaemia, Hypercalciuria, Hyperoxaluria, Hyperparathyroidism, Hypertension, Hyperuricemia, Hyperuricosuria, Hypouricemia, Idiopathic disease, Ileal conduit urinary diversion, Iminoglycinuria, In vivo, Inborn errors of metabolism, Incidence (epidemiology), Indapamide, Indinavir, Inflammatory bowel disease, Injury, Internal bleeding, International unit, Intravenous pyelogram, Isaac Newton, Isoelectric focusing, JAMA Internal Medicine, Kidney, Kidney stone disease, Klebsiella, Laser lithotripsy, Latin, List of kidney stone formers, List of leaf vegetables, Lithotomy, Liver, Louis XIV of France, Lyndon B. 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Abdominal aortic aneurysm
Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA or triple A) is a localized enlargement of the abdominal aorta such that the diameter is greater than 3 cm or more than 50% larger than normal diameter.
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Abdominal x-ray
An abdominal x-ray is an x-ray of the abdomen.
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Acetazolamide
Acetazolamide, sold under the trade name Diamox among others, is a medication used to treat glaucoma, epilepsy, altitude sickness, periodic paralysis, idiopathic intracranial hypertension, and heart failure.
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Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire, also called the First Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great.
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Acute kidney injury
Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is an abrupt loss of kidney function that develops within 7 days.
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Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency
Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency (also called APRT deficiency or 2,8 dihydroxyadenine urolithiasis) is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder associated with a mutation in the enzyme adenine phosphoribosyltransferase.
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Alcoholic drink
An alcoholic drink (or alcoholic beverage) is a drink that contains ethanol, a type of alcohol produced by fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar.
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Alkalinity
Alkalinity is the capacity of water to resist changes in pH that would make the water more acidic.
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Alkalinizing agent
Alkalinizing agents are drugs used to manage disorders associated with low pH.
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Alkaptonuria
Alkaptonuria is a rare inherited genetic disorder in which the body cannot process the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine, which occur in protein.
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Allopurinol
Allopurinol, sold under the brand name Zyloprim among others, is a medication used to decrease high blood uric acid levels.
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Alpha blocker
Alpha-blockers, also known as α-blockers or α-adrenoreceptor antagonists, are a class of pharmacological agents that act as antagonists on α-adrenergic receptors (α-adrenoceptors).
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Alpha-1-microglobulin/bikunin precursor
Protein AMBP is a protein that in humans is encoded by the AMBP gene.
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American Family Physician
American Family Physician is a biweekly peer-reviewed medical journal published by the American Academy of Family Physicians.
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American Journal of Epidemiology
The American Journal of Epidemiology (AJE) is a peer-reviewed journal for empirical research findings, opinion pieces, and methodological developments in the field of epidemiological research.
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American Urological Association
The American Urological Association (AUA) is a professional association in the United States for urology professionals.
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Amino acid
Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.
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Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3.
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Analgesic
An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain.
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Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 13th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (AD 600).
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Ancient Rome
In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, encompassing the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire until the fall of the western empire.
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Annals of Internal Medicine
Annals of Internal Medicine is an academic medical journal published by the American College of Physicians (ACP).
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Antispasmodic
An antispasmodic (synonym: spasmolytic) is a pharmaceutical drug or other agent that suppresses muscle spasms.
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Antler
Antlers are extensions of an animal's skull found in members of the deer family.
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Antonio Scarpa
Antonio Scarpa (9 May 1752 – 31 October 1832) was an Italian anatomist and professor.
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Apatite
Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually referring to hydroxylapatite, fluorapatite and chlorapatite, with high concentrations of OH−, F− and Cl− ions, respectively, in the crystal.
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Appendicitis
Appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix.
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Apple juice
Apple juice is a fruit juice made by the maceration and pressing of an apple.
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Aulus Cornelius Celsus
Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 BC 50 AD) was a Roman encyclopaedist, known for his extant medical work, De Medicina, which is believed to be the only surviving section of a much larger encyclopedia.
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Azotemia
Azotemia (azot, "nitrogen" + -emia, "blood condition") is a medical condition characterized by abnormally high levels of nitrogen-containing compounds (such as urea, creatinine, various body waste compounds, and other nitrogen-rich compounds) in the blood.
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Bacteria
Bacteria (common noun bacteria, singular bacterium) is a type of biological cell.
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Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin (April 17, 1790) was an American polymath and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.
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Binge drinking
Binge drinking, or heavy episodic drinking, is a modern epithet for drinking alcoholic beverages with an intention of becoming intoxicated by heavy consumption of alcohol over a short period of time.
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Bladder stone
A bladder stone is a stone found in the urinary bladder.
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Bladder stone (animal)
Bladder stones or uroliths are a common occurrence in animals, especially in domestic animals such as dogs and cats.
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Bleeding diathesis
In medicine (hematology), bleeding diathesis (h(a)emorrhagic diathesis) is an unusual susceptibility to bleed (hemorrhage) mostly due to hypocoagulability, in turn caused by a coagulopathy (a defect in the system of coagulation).
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Blood test
A blood test is a laboratory analysis performed on a blood sample that is usually extracted from a vein in the arm using a hypodermic needle, or via fingerprick.
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Blood transfusion
Blood transfusion is generally the process of receiving blood or blood products into one's circulation intravenously.
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Body mass index
The body mass index (BMI) or Quetelet index is a value derived from the mass (weight) and height of an individual.
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Bruise
A contusion, commonly known as a bruise, is a type of hematoma of tissue in which capillaries and sometimes venules are damaged by trauma, allowing blood to seep, hemorrhage, or extravasate into the surrounding interstitial tissues.
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Brushite
Brushite is a phosphate mineral with the chemical formula.
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Calcium
Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20.
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Calcium channel blocker
Calcium channel blockers (CCB), calcium channel antagonists or calcium antagonists are several medications that disrupt the movement of calcium through calcium channels.
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Calcium oxalate
Calcium oxalate (in archaic terminology, oxalate of lime) is a calcium salt of oxalate with the chemical formula CaC2O4(H2O)x, where x can vary.
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Calcium phosphate
Calcium phosphate is a family of materials and minerals containing calcium ions (Ca2+) together with inorganic phosphate anions.
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Calcium supplement
Calcium supplements are salts of calcium used in a number of conditions.
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Calculus (medicine)
A calculus (plural calculi), often called a stone, is a concretion of material, usually mineral salts, that forms in an organ or duct of the body.
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Calgranulin
Calgranulin is an S100 calcium-binding protein that is expressed in multiple cell types, including renal epithelial cells and neutrophils.
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Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide (chemical formula) is a colorless gas with a density about 60% higher than that of dry air.
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Chelation
Chelation is a type of bonding of ions and molecules to metal ions.
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Chemical composition
Chemical composition refers to the identity and relative number of the chemical elements that make up any particular compound.
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Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen.
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Chlortalidone
Chlortalidone (INN/BAN) or chlorthalidone (USAN) is a diuretic medication used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure), originally marketed as Hygroton in the USA.
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Chocolate
Chocolate is a typically sweet, usually brown food preparation of Theobroma cacao seeds, roasted and ground.
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Citric acid
Citric acid is a weak organic acid that has the chemical formula.
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Clinical urine tests
Clinical urine tests are various tests of urine for diagnostic purposes.
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Cochrane Library
The Cochrane Library (named after Archie Cochrane) is a collection of databases in medicine and other healthcare specialties provided by Cochrane and other organizations.
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Cola
Cola is a sweetened, carbonated soft drink, made from ingredients that contain caffeine from the kola nut and non-cocaine derivatives from coca leaves, flavored with vanilla and other ingredients.
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Colectomy
Colectomy (col- + -ectomy) is bowel resection of the large bowel (colon).
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Complete blood count
A complete blood count (CBC), also known as a complete blood cell count, full blood count (FBC), or full blood exam (FBE), is a blood panel requested by a doctor or other medical professional that gives information about the cells in a patient's blood, such as the cell count for each cell type and the concentrations of various proteins and minerals.
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Corticosteroid
Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates, as well as the synthetic analogues of these hormones.
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Costovertebral angle tenderness
Costovertebral angle tenderness (CVAT), also known as CVA tenderness, Murphy's punch sign, Pasternacki's sign, or Goldflam's sign (succusio renalis), is a medical test in which pain is elicited by percussion of the area of the back overlying the kidney (the costovertebral angle, an angle made by the vertebral column and the costal margin).
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Crohn's disease
Crohn's disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus.
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Crystallization
Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process by which a solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal.
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CT scan
A CT scan, also known as computed tomography scan, makes use of computer-processed combinations of many X-ray measurements taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of specific areas of a scanned object, allowing the user to see inside the object without cutting.
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Cumulative incidence
Cumulative incidence or incidence proportion is a measure of frequency, as in epidemiology, where it is a measure of disease frequency during a period of time.
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Cysteine
Cysteine (symbol Cys or C) is a semi-essential proteinogenic amino acid with the formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2SH.
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Cystine
Cystine is the oxidized dimer form of the amino acid cysteine and has the formula (SCH2CH(NH2)CO2H)2.
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Cystinosis
Cystinosis is a lysosomal storage disease characterized by the abnormal accumulation of the amino acid cystine.
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Cystinuria
Cystinuria is an inherited autosomal recessive disease that is characterized by high concentrations of the amino acid cysteine in the urine, leading to the formation of cystine stones in the kidneys, ureter, and bladder.
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De Medicina
De Medicina is a 1st-century medical treatise by Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a Roman encyclopedist and possibly (but not likely) a practicing physician.
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Dehydration
In physiology, dehydration is a deficit of total body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes.
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Dent's disease
Dent's disease (or Dent disease) is a rare X-linked recessive inherited condition that affects the proximal renal tubules of the kidney.
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Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus (DM), commonly referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period.
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Diameter
In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle.
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Dietary supplement
A dietary supplement is a manufactured product intended to supplement the diet when taken by mouth as a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid.
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Disease
A disease is any condition which results in the disorder of a structure or function in an organism that is not due to any external injury.
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Disk diffusion test
The disk diffusion test, or agar diffusion test, or Kirby–Bauer test (disc-diffusion antibiotic susceptibility test, disc-diffusion antibiotic sensitivity test, KB test), is a test of the antibiotic sensitivity of bacteria.
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Diuretic
A diuretic is any substance that promotes diuresis, the increased production of urine.
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Diverticulitis
Diverticulitis, specifically colonic diverticulitis, is a gastrointestinal disease characterized by inflammation of abnormal pouches - diverticuli - which can develop in the wall of the large intestine.
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Dornier Flugzeugwerke
Dornier Flugzeugwerke was a German aircraft manufacturer founded in Friedrichshafen in 1914 by Claude Dornier.
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Dose–response relationship
The dose–response relationship, or exposure–response relationship, describes the change in effect on an organism caused by differing levels of exposure (or doses) to a stressor (usually a chemical) after a certain exposure time, or to a food.
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Dysuria
In medicine, specifically urology, dysuria refers to painful urination.
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Edema
Edema, also spelled oedema or œdema, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitium, located beneath the skin and in the cavities of the body, which can cause severe pain.
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Electrolyte
An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water.
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Embryology
Embryology (from Greek ἔμβρυον, embryon, "the unborn, embryo"; and -λογία, -logia) is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses.
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Endogeny (biology)
Endogenous substances and processes are those that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell.
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Enterobacter
Enterobacter is a genus of common Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae.
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Epicurus
Epicurus (Ἐπίκουρος, Epíkouros, "ally, comrade"; 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded a school of philosophy now called Epicureanism.
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Extracorporeal shockwave therapy
Extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT) is a treatment mostly used to treat kidney stones and in physical therapy and orthopedics.
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Fanconi syndrome
Fanconi syndrome or Fanconi's syndrome is a syndrome of inadequate reabsorption in the proximal renal tubules of the kidney.
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Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, (22 January 15619 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author.
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Fructose
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose.
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Gastrointestinal tract
The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as feces.
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Genetics
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms.
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George IV of the United Kingdom
George IV (George Augustus Frederick; 12 August 1762 – 26 June 1830) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover following the death of his father, King George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later.
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Global warming
Global warming, also referred to as climate change, is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects.
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Glycine
Glycine (symbol Gly or G) is the amino acid that has a single hydrogen atom as its side chain.
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Glycoprotein
Glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to amino acid side-chains.
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Glycosaminoglycan
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) or mucopolysaccharides are long unbranched polysaccharides consisting of a repeating disaccharide unit.
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Gonad
A gonad or sex gland or reproductive gland is a mixed gland that produces the gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones of an organism.
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Gout
Gout is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of a red, tender, hot, and swollen joint.
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Grapefruit juice
Grapefruit juice is the juice from grapefruits.
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Hematoma
A hematoma (US spelling) or haematoma (UK spelling) is a localized collection of blood outside the blood vessels, due to either disease or trauma including injury or surgery and may involve blood continuing to seep from broken capillaries.
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Hematuria
Hematuria is the presence of red blood cells in the urine.
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Henry Jacob Bigelow
Henry Jacob Bigelow (March 11, 1818October 30, 1890) was an American surgeon and Professor of Surgery at Harvard University.
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Herman Boerhaave
Herman Boerhaave (31 December 1668 – 23 September 1738)Underwood, E. Ashworth.
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High-fructose corn syrup
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) (also called glucose-fructose, isoglucose and glucose-fructose syrup) is a sweetener made from corn starch that has been processed by glucose isomerase to convert some of its glucose into fructose.
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Hippocratic Oath
The Hippocratic Oath is an oath historically taken by physicians.
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History of China
The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC,William G. Boltz, Early Chinese Writing, World Archaeology, Vol.
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History of India
The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the advancement of civilisation from the Indus Valley Civilisation to the eventual blending of the Indo-Aryan culture to form the Vedic Civilisation; the rise of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism;Sanderson, Alexis (2009), "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo, Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009.
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Holmium
Holmium is a chemical element with symbol Ho and atomic number 67.
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Homogentisic acid
Homogentisic acid (2,5-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid) is a phenolic acid usually found in Arbutus unedo (strawberry-tree) honey.
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Hydronephrosis
Hydronephrosis describes urine-filled dilation of the renal pelvis and/or calyces as a result of obstruction.
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Hydroxyproline
(2S,4R)-4-Hydroxyproline, or L-hydroxyproline (C5H9O3N), is a common non-proteinogenic amino acid, abbreviated as Hyp, e.g., in Protein Data Bank.
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Hypercalcaemia
Hypercalcaemia, also spelled hypercalcemia, is a high calcium (Ca2+) level in the blood serum.
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Hypercalciuria
Hypercalciuria or hypercalcinuria is the condition of elevated calcium in the urine.
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Hyperoxaluria
Hyperoxaluria is an excessive urinary excretion of oxalate.
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Hyperparathyroidism
Hyperparathyroidism is an increased parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels in the blood.
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Hypertension
Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated.
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Hyperuricemia
Hyperuricemia is an abnormally high level of uric acid in the blood.
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Hyperuricosuria
Hyperuricosuria is a medical term referring to the presence of excessive amounts of uric acid in the urine.
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Hypouricemia
Hypouricemia is a level of uric acid in blood serum that is below normal.
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Idiopathic disease
An idiopathic disease is any disease with an unknown cause or mechanism of apparently spontaneous origin.
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Ileal conduit urinary diversion
An ileal conduit urinary diversion is one of various surgical techniques for urinary diversion.
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Iminoglycinuria
Iminoglycinuria, sometimes called familial iminoglycinuria, is an autosomal recessive disorder of renal tubular transport affecting reabsorption of the amino acid glycine, and the imino acids proline and hydroxyproline.
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In vivo
Studies that are in vivo (Latin for "within the living"; often not italicized in English) are those in which the effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organisms or cells, usually animals, including humans, and plants, as opposed to a tissue extract or dead organism.
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Inborn errors of metabolism
Inborn errors of metabolism form a large class of genetic diseases involving congenital disorders of metabolism.
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Incidence (epidemiology)
Incidence in epidemiology is a measure of the probability of occurrence of a given medical condition in a population within a specified period of time.
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Indapamide
Indapamide is a thiazide-like diuretic drug marketed by Servier, generally used in the treatment of hypertension, as well as decompensated heart failure.
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Indinavir
Indinavir (IDV; trade name Crixivan, manufactured by Merck) is a protease inhibitor used as a component of highly active antiretroviral therapy to treat HIV/AIDS.
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Inflammatory bowel disease
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of inflammatory conditions of the colon and small intestine.
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Injury
Injury, also known as physical trauma, is damage to the body caused by external force.
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Internal bleeding
Internal bleeding (also called internal hemorrhage) is a loss of blood that occurs from the vascular system into a body cavity or space.
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International unit
In pharmacology, the international unit is a unit of measurement for the amount of a substance; the mass or volume that constitutes one international unit varies based on which substance is being measured, and the variance is based on the biological activity or effect, for the purpose of easier comparison across substances.
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Intravenous pyelogram
An intravenous pyelogram (IVP), also called an intravenous urogram (IVU), is a radiological procedure used to visualize abnormalities of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, and bladder.
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Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27) was an English mathematician, astronomer, theologian, author and physicist (described in his own day as a "natural philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time, and a key figure in the scientific revolution.
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Isoelectric focusing
Isoelectric focusing (IEF), also known as electrofocusing, is a technique for separating different molecules by differences in their isoelectric point (pI).
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JAMA Internal Medicine
JAMA Internal Medicine is a peer-reviewed medical journal published monthly by the American Medical Association.
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Kidney
The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs present in left and right sides of the body in vertebrates.
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Kidney stone disease
Kidney stone disease, also known as urolithiasis, is when a solid piece of material (kidney stone) occurs in the urinary tract.
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Klebsiella
Klebsiella is a genus of nonmotile, Gram-negative, oxidase-negative, rod-shaped bacteria with a prominent polysaccharide-based capsule.
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Laser lithotripsy
Laser lithotripsy is a surgical procedure to remove stones from urinary tract, i.e., kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra.
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Latin
Latin (Latin: lingua latīna) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages.
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List of kidney stone formers
There are a number of documented cases of historical figures and distinguished members of society who were kidney stone formers.
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List of leaf vegetables
This is a list of vegetables which are grown or harvested primarily for the consumption of their leafy parts, either raw or cooked.
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Lithotomy
Lithotomy from Greek for "lithos" (stone) and "tomos" (cut), is a surgical method for removal of calculi, stones formed inside certain organs, such as the kidneys (kidney stones), bladder (bladder stones), and gallbladder (gallstones), that cannot exit naturally through the urinary system or biliary tract.
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Liver
The liver, an organ only found in vertebrates, detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins, and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion.
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Louis XIV of France
Louis XIV (Louis Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (Roi Soleil), was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who reigned as King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715.
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Lyndon B. Johnson
Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908January 22, 1973), often referred to by his initials LBJ, was an American politician who served as the 36th President of the United States from 1963 to 1969, assuming the office after having served as the 37th Vice President of the United States from 1961 to 1963.
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Magnesium
Magnesium is a chemical element with symbol Mg and atomic number 12.
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Magnesium citrate
Magnesium citrate is a magnesium preparation in salt form with citric acid in a 1:1 ratio (1 magnesium atom per citrate molecule).
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Magnesium in biology
Magnesium is an essential element in biological systems.
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Mayo Clinic
The Mayo Clinic is a nonprofit academic medical center based in Rochester, Minnesota focused on integrated clinical practice, education, and research.
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Medical diagnosis
Medical diagnosis (abbreviated Dx or DS) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs.
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Medical imaging
Medical imaging is the technique and process of creating visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of some organs or tissues (physiology).
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Medical ultrasound
Medical ultrasound (also known as diagnostic sonography or ultrasonography) is a diagnostic imaging technique based on the application of ultrasound.
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Medullary sponge kidney
Medullary sponge kidney (also known as Cacchi–Ricci disease) is a congenital disorder of the kidneys characterized by cystic dilatation of the collecting tubules in one or both kidneys.
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Merck & Co.
Merck & Company, Inc., d.b.a. Merck Sharp & Dohme (MSD) outside the United States and Canada, is an American pharmaceutical company and one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world.
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Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy
The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, referred to as The Merck Manual, is the world's best-selling medical textbook, and the oldest continuously published English language medical textbook.
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Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a historical region in West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq, Kuwait, parts of Northern Saudi Arabia, the eastern parts of Syria, Southeastern Turkey, and regions along the Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders.
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Metabolism
Metabolism (from μεταβολή metabolē, "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of organisms.
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Metabolite
A metabolite is the intermediate end product of metabolism.
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Methionine
Methionine (symbol Met or M) is an essential amino acid in humans.
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Michel de Montaigne
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, Lord of Montaigne (28 February 1533 – 13 September 1592) was one of the most significant philosophers of the French Renaissance, known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre.
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Middle East
The Middle Easttranslit-std; translit; Orta Şərq; Central Kurdish: ڕۆژھەڵاتی ناوین, Rojhelatî Nawîn; Moyen-Orient; translit; translit; translit; Rojhilata Navîn; translit; Bariga Dhexe; Orta Doğu; translit is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia, Turkey (both Asian and European), and Egypt (which is mostly in North Africa).
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Mineral
A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form and not produced by life processes.
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Minimally invasive procedures
Minimally invasive procedures (also known as minimally invasive surgeries) encompass surgical techniques that limit the size of incisions needed and so lessen wound healing time, associated pain and risk of infection.
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Morganella morganii
Morganella morganii is a species of Gram-negative bacteria.
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Mortality rate
Mortality rate, or death rate, is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a particular population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time.
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Multimodal distribution
In statistics, a bimodal distribution is a continuous probability distribution with two different modes.
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Mummy
A mummy is a deceased human or an animal whose skin and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay further if kept in cool and dry conditions.
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Napoleon
Napoléon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French statesman and military leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars.
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Napoleon III
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (born Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873) was the President of France from 1848 to 1852 and as Napoleon III the Emperor of the French from 1852 to 1870.
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National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) is part of the United States National Institutes of Health, which in turn is part of the Department of Health and Human Services.
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National Institutes of Health
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research, founded in the late 1870s.
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Nephrocalcinosis
Nephrocalcinosis, once known as Albright's calcinosis after Fuller Albright, or Anderson-Carr kidneys, is a term originally used to describe deposition of calcium salts in the renal parenchyma due to hyperparathyroidism.
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Nephrology
Nephrology (from Greek nephros "kidney", combined with the suffix -logy, "the study of") is a specialty of medicine and pediatrics that concerns itself with the kidneys: the study of normal kidney function and kidney disease, the preservation of kidney health, and the treatment of kidney disease, from diet and medication to renal replacement therapy (dialysis and kidney transplantation).
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Nephrostomy
A nephrostomy is an artificial opening created between the kidney and the skin which allows for the urinary diversion directly from the upper part of the urinary system (renal pelvis).
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Neurogenic bladder dysfunction
Neurogenic bladder dysfunction, sometimes simply referred to as neurogenic bladder, is a dysfunction of the urinary bladder due to disease of the central nervous system or peripheral nerves involved in the control of micturition (urination).
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Neutrophil
Neutrophils (also known as neutrocytes) are the most abundant type of granulocytes and the most abundant (40% to 70%) type of white blood cells in most mammals.
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Neutrophilia
Neutrophilia (also called neutrophil leukocytosis or occasionally neutrocytosis) is leukocytosis of neutrophils, that is, a high number of neutrophil granulocytes in the blood.
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Nifedipine
Nifedipine, sold under the brand names Adalat among others, is a medication used to manage angina, high blood pressure, Raynaud's phenomenon, and premature labor.
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Nitrazine
Nitrazine or phenaphthazine is a pH indicator dye often used in medicine.
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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a drug class that reduce pain, decrease fever, prevent blood clots and, in higher doses, decrease inflammation.
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Nucleation
Nucleation is the first step in the formation of either a new thermodynamic phase or a new structure via self-assembly or self-organization.
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Nurses' Health Study
The Nurses Health Study (NHS), is a series of prospective studies that examine epidemiology and the long-term effects of nutrition, hormones, environment, and nurses' work-life on health and disease development.
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Obesity
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have a negative effect on health.
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Obstructive uropathy
Obstructive uropathy is a structural or functional hindrance of normal urine flow, sometimes leading to renal dysfunction (obstructive nephropathy).
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Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell (25 April 15993 September 1658) was an English military and political leader.
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Operation of computed tomography
X-ray computed tomography operates by using an X-ray generator that rotates around the object; X-ray detectors are positioned on the opposite side of the circle from the X-ray source.
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Opioid
Opioids are substances that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects.
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Optical fiber
An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair.
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Osteopontin
Osteopontin (OPN), also known as bone sialoprotein I (BSP-1 or BNSP), early T-lymphocyte activation (ETA-1), secreted phosphoprotein 1 (SPP1), 2ar and Rickettsia resistance (Ric), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SPP1 gene (secreted phosphoprotein 1).
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Oxalate
Oxalate (IUPAC: ethanedioate) is the dianion with the formula, also written.
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Paracetamol
--> Acetanilide was the first aniline derivative serendipitously found to possess analgesic as well as antipyretic properties, and was quickly introduced into medical practice under the name of Antifebrin by A. Cahn and P. Hepp in 1886. But its unacceptable toxic effects, the most alarming being cyanosis due to methemoglobinemia, prompted the search for less toxic aniline derivatives. Harmon Northrop Morse had already synthesised paracetamol at Johns Hopkins University via the reduction of ''p''-nitrophenol with tin in glacial acetic acid in 1877, but it was not until 1887 that clinical pharmacologist Joseph von Mering tried paracetamol on humans. In 1893, von Mering published a paper reporting on the clinical results of paracetamol with phenacetin, another aniline derivative. Von Mering claimed that, unlike phenacetin, paracetamol had a slight tendency to produce methemoglobinemia. Paracetamol was then quickly discarded in favor of phenacetin. The sales of phenacetin established Bayer as a leading pharmaceutical company. Overshadowed in part by aspirin, introduced into medicine by Heinrich Dreser in 1899, phenacetin was popular for many decades, particularly in widely advertised over-the-counter "headache mixtures", usually containing phenacetin, an aminopyrine derivative of aspirin, caffeine, and sometimes a barbiturate. Paracetamol is the active metabolite of phenacetin and acetanilide, both once popular as analgesics and antipyretics in their own right. However, unlike phenacetin, acetanilide and their combinations, paracetamol is not considered carcinogenic at therapeutic doses. Von Mering's claims remained essentially unchallenged for half a century, until two teams of researchers from the United States analyzed the metabolism of acetanilide and paracetamol. In 1947 David Lester and Leon Greenberg found strong evidence that paracetamol was a major metabolite of acetanilide in human blood, and in a subsequent study they reported that large doses of paracetamol given to albino rats did not cause methemoglobinemia. In three papers published in the September 1948 issue of the Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Bernard Brodie, Julius Axelrod and Frederick Flinn confirmed using more specific methods that paracetamol was the major metabolite of acetanilide in human blood, and established that it was just as efficacious an analgesic as its precursor. They also suggested that methemoglobinemia is produced in humans mainly by another metabolite, phenylhydroxylamine. A follow-up paper by Brodie and Axelrod in 1949 established that phenacetin was also metabolised to paracetamol. This led to a "rediscovery" of paracetamol. It has been suggested that contamination of paracetamol with 4-aminophenol, the substance von Mering synthesised it from, may be the cause for his spurious findings. Paracetamol was first marketed in the United States in 1950 under the name Triagesic, a combination of paracetamol, aspirin, and caffeine. Reports in 1951 of three users stricken with the blood disease agranulocytosis led to its removal from the marketplace, and it took several years until it became clear that the disease was unconnected. Paracetamol was marketed in 1953 by Sterling-Winthrop Co. as Panadol, available only by prescription, and promoted as preferable to aspirin since it was safe for children and people with ulcers. In 1955, paracetamol was marketed as Children's Tylenol Elixir by McNeil Laboratories. In 1956, 500 mg tablets of paracetamol went on sale in the United Kingdom under the trade name Panadol, produced by Frederick Stearns & Co, a subsidiary of Sterling Drug Inc. In 1963, paracetamol was added to the British Pharmacopoeia, and has gained popularity since then as an analgesic agent with few side-effects and little interaction with other pharmaceutical agents. Concerns about paracetamol's safety delayed its widespread acceptance until the 1970s, but in the 1980s paracetamol sales exceeded those of aspirin in many countries, including the United Kingdom. This was accompanied by the commercial demise of phenacetin, blamed as the cause of analgesic nephropathy and hematological toxicity. In 1988 Sterling Winthrop was acquired by Eastman Kodak which sold the over the counter drug rights to SmithKline Beecham in 1994. Available without a prescription since 1959, it has since become a common household drug. Patents on paracetamol have long expired, and generic versions of the drug are widely available.
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Pelvis
The pelvis (plural pelves or pelvises) is either the lower part of the trunk of the human body between the abdomen and the thighs (sometimes also called pelvic region of the trunk) or the skeleton embedded in it (sometimes also called bony pelvis, or pelvic skeleton).
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Percutaneous nephrolithotomy
Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) is a minimally-invasive procedure to remove stones from the kidney by a small puncture wound (up to about 1 cm) through the skin.
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Peristalsis
Peristalsis is a radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles that propagates in a wave down a tube, in an anterograde direction.
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Peter the Great
Peter the Great (ˈpʲɵtr vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj), Peter I (ˈpʲɵtr ˈpʲɛrvɨj) or Peter Alexeyevich (p; –)Dates indicated by the letters "O.S." are in the Julian calendar with the start of year adjusted to 1 January.
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PH
In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.
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Phlebolith
A phlebolith is a small local, usually rounded, calcification within a vein.
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Phosphate
A phosphate is chemical derivative of phosphoric acid.
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Phosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid (also known as orthophosphoric acid or phosphoric(V) acid) is a mineral (inorganic) and weak acid having the chemical formula H3PO4.
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Placebo
A placebo is a substance or treatment of no intended therapeutic value.
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Potassium
Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K (from Neo-Latin kalium) and atomic number 19.
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Potassium citrate
Potassium citrate (also known as tripotassium citrate) is a potassium salt of citric acid with the molecular formula K3C6H5O7.
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Precipitation (chemistry)
Precipitation is the creation of a solid from a solution.
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Primary hyperoxaluria
Primary hyperoxaluria is a rare condition (autosomal recessive), resulting in increased excretion of oxalate (up to 600mg a day from normal 50mg a day), with oxalate stones being common.
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Proline
Proline (symbol Pro or P) is a proteinogenic amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins.
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Prospective cohort study
A prospective cohort study is a longitudinal cohort study that follows over time a group of similar individuals (cohorts) who differ with respect to certain factors under study, to determine how these factors affect rates of a certain outcome.
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Protein
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues.
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Protein (nutrient)
Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body.
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Protein precipitation
Protein precipitation is widely used in downstream processing of biological products in order to concentrate proteins and purify them from various contaminants.
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Proteus mirabilis
Proteus mirabilis is a Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium.
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Proteus vulgaris
Proteus vulgaris is a rod-shaped, nitrate-reducing, indole+ and catalase-positive, hydrogen sulfide-producing, Gram-negative bacterium that inhabits the intestinal tracts of humans and animals.
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Providencia (bacterium)
Providencia is a Gram-negative, motile bacterium of the family Enterobacteriaceae.
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Pyelonephritis
Pyelonephritis is inflammation of the kidney, typically due to a bacterial infection.
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Pyonephrosis
Pyonephrosis (Greek pyon "pus" + nephros "kidney") is an infection of the kidneys' collecting system.
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Radiocontrast agent
Radiocontrast agents are substances used to enhance the visibility of internal structures in X-ray-based imaging techniques such as computed tomography (contrast CT), projectional radiography, and fluoroscopy.
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Radiodensity
Radiodensity (or radiopacity) is opacity to the radio wave and X-ray portion of the electromagnetic spectrum: that is, the relative inability of those kinds of electromagnetic radiation to pass through a particular material.
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Radiology
Radiology is the science that uses medical imaging to diagnose and sometimes also treat diseases within the body.
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Red blood cell
Red blood cells-- also known as RBCs, red cells, red blood corpuscles, haematids, erythroid cells or erythrocytes (from Greek erythros for "red" and kytos for "hollow vessel", with -cyte translated as "cell" in modern usage), are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system.
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Reference Daily Intake
The Reference Daily Intake (RDI) is the daily intake level of a nutrient that is considered to be sufficient to meet the requirements of 97–98% of healthy individuals in every demographic in the United States.
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Renal calyx
The renal calyces are chambers of the kidney through which urine passes.
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Renal colic
Renal colic is a type of abdominal pain commonly caused by kidney stones.
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Renal function
Renal function, in nephrology, is an indication of the kidney's condition and its role in renal physiology.
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Renal papilla
The renal papilla is the location where the renal pyramids in the medulla empty urine into the minor calyx in the kidney.
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Renal pelvis
The renal pelvis or pelvis of the kidney is the basin-like or funnel-like dilated proximal part of the ureter in the kidney.
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Renal tubular acidosis
Renal tubular acidosis (RTA) is a medical condition that involves an accumulation of acid in the body due to a failure of the kidneys to appropriately acidify the urine.
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Renal ultrasonography
Renal ultrasonography (Renal US) is the examination of one or both kidneys using medical ultrasound.
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Reproductive system
The reproductive system or genital system is a system of sex organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of sexual reproduction.
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Retrograde pyelogram
A retrograde pyelogram is a urologic procedure where the physician injects a radiocontrast agent into the ureter in order to visualize the ureter and kidney with fluoroscopy or radiography.
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Retrograde ureteral
Retrograde ureteral is a process by which a camera is inserted into the penis in order to locate a kidney stone.
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Retrospective cohort study
A retrospective cohort study, also called a historic cohort study, is a longitudinal cohort study used in medical and psychological research.
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Rhubarb
Rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum) is a species of plant in the family Polygonaceae.
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Risk–benefit ratio
A risk–benefit ratio is the ratio of the risk of an action to its potential benefits.
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S100 protein
The S100 proteins are a family of low-molecular-weight proteins found in vertebrates and characterized by two calcium-binding sites that have helix-loop-helix ("EF-hand type") conformation.
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Samuel Pepys
Samuel Pepys (23 February 1633 – 26 May 1703) was an administrator of the navy of England and Member of Parliament who is most famous for the diary he kept for a decade while still a relatively young man.
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Seed crystal
A seed crystal is a small piece of single crystal or polycrystal material from which a large crystal of typically the same material is to be grown in a laboratory.
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Serratia
Serratia is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the Enterobacteriaceae family.
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Serum (blood)
In blood, the serum is the component that is neither a blood cell (serum does not contain white or red blood cells) nor a clotting factor; it is the blood plasma not including the fibrinogens.
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Size-exclusion chromatography
Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), also known as molecular sieve chromatography, is a chromatographic method in which molecules in solution are separated by their size, and in some cases molecular weight.
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Sodium
Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na (from Latin natrium) and atomic number 11.
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Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate (IUPAC name: sodium hydrogen carbonate), commonly known as baking soda, is a chemical compound with the formula NaHCO3.
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Solubility
Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent.
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Solution
In chemistry, a solution is a special type of homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances.
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Solvent
A solvent (from the Latin solvō, "loosen, untie, solve") is a substance that dissolves a solute (a chemically distinct liquid, solid or gas), resulting in a solution.
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Southern United States
The Southern United States, also known as the American South, Dixie, Dixieland, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America.
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Soybean
The soybean (Glycine max), or soya bean, is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses.
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Spinal cord injury
A spinal cord injury (SCI) is damage to the spinal cord that causes temporary or permanent changes in its function.
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Struvite
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) is a phosphate mineral with formula: NH4MgPO4·6H2O.
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Sugar
Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food.
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Sulfadiazine
Sulfadiazine is an antibiotic.
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Supersaturation
Supersaturation is a state of a solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances.
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Tamm–Horsfall protein
The Tamm–Horsfall glycoprotein (THP), also known as uromodulin, is a glycoprotein that in humans is encoded by the UMOD gene.
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Tamsulosin
Tamsulosin, sold under the trade name Alna ® / Flomax ®, is a medication used to treat symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and chronic prostatitis, help with the passage of kidney stones, and for urinary retention along with other measures.
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Tea strainer
A tea strainer is a type of strainer that is placed over or in a teacup to catch loose tea leaves.
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The BMJ
The BMJ is a weekly peer-reviewed medical journal.
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The Journal of Urology
The Journal of Urology is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering urology published by Elsevier on behalf of the American Urological Association.
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The Lancet
The Lancet is a weekly peer-reviewed general medical journal.
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The New England Journal of Medicine
The New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) is a weekly medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society.
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The Turkish Journal of Pediatrics
The Turkish Journal of Pediatrics is a quarterly peer-reviewed medical journal covering pediatrics.
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Thiazide
Thiazide is a type of molecule and a class of diuretics often used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure) and edema (such as that caused by heart failure, liver failure, or kidney failure).
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Thiazide-like diuretic
A thiazide-like diuretic is a sulfonamide diuretic that has similar physiological properties to a thiazide diuretic, but does not have the chemical properties of a thiazide, lacking the benzothiadiazine molecular structure.
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Thrombin
Thrombin (fibrinogenase, thrombase, thrombofort, topical, thrombin-C, tropostasin, activated blood-coagulation factor II, blood-coagulation factor IIa, factor IIa, E thrombin, beta-thrombin, gamma-thrombin) is a serine protease, an enzyme that, in humans, is encoded by the F2 gene.
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Topical anesthetic
A topical anesthetic is a local anesthetic that is used to numb the surface of a body part.
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Transverse plane
The transverse plane (also called the horizontal plane, axial plane, or transaxial plane) is an imaginary plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
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Triamterene
Triamterene (trade name Dyrenium) is a potassium-sparing diuretic used in combination with thiazide diuretics for the treatment of hypertension and edema.
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Ulcerative colitis
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a long-term condition that results in inflammation and ulcers of the colon and rectum.
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Ultrasound
Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing.
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United States Department of Health and Human Services
The United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), also known as the Health Department, is a cabinet-level department of the U.S. federal government with the goal of protecting the health of all Americans and providing essential human services.
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United States Public Health Service
The Public Health Service Act of 1944 structured the United States Public Health Service (PHS), founded in 1798, as the primary division of the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW; which was established in 1953), which later became the United States Department of Health and Human Services in 1979–1980 (when the Education agencies were separated into their own U.S. Department of Education).
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UpToDate
UpToDate, Inc. (bip) is a company in the Wolters Kluwer Health division of Wolters Kluwer whose main product is UpToDate, a software system that is a point-of-care medical resource.
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Urea
Urea, also known as carbamide, is an organic compound with chemical formula CO(NH2)2.
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Ureaplasma urealyticum
Ureaplasma urealyticum is a bacterium belonging to the genus Ureaplasma and the family Mycoplasmataceae in the order Mycoplasmatales.
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Urease
Ureases, functionally, belong to the superfamily of amidohydrolases and phosphotriesterases.
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Ureter
In human anatomy, the ureters are tubes made of smooth muscle fibers that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
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Ureteric stent
A ureteral stent (pronounced you-REE-ter-ul), or ureteric stent, is a thin tube inserted into the ureter to prevent or treat obstruction of the urine flow from the kidney.
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Ureteroscopy
Ureteroscopy is an examination of the upper urinary tract, usually performed with a ureteroscope that is passed through the urethra and the bladder, and then directly into the ureter; usually the lower 2/3 of the ureter is accessible by this procedure.
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Uric acid
Uric acid is a heterocyclic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen with the formula C5H4N4O3.
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Urinary bladder
The urinary bladder is a hollow muscular organ in humans and some other animals that collects and stores urine from the kidneys before disposal by urination.
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Urinary cast
Urinary casts are microscopic cylindrical structures produced by the kidney and present in the urine in certain disease states.
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Urinary system
The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra.
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Urinary tract infection
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection that affects part of the urinary tract.
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Urinary urgency
Urinary urgency is a sudden, compelling urge to urinate.
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Urine
Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many animals.
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Urology
Urology (from Greek οὖρον ouron "urine" and -λογία -logia "study of"), also known as genitourinary surgery, is the branch of medicine that focuses on surgical and medical diseases of the male and female urinary-tract system and the male reproductive organs.
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Vesicoureteral reflux
Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR), also known as vesicoureteric reflux, is a condition in which urine flows retrograde, or backward, from the bladder into the ureters/kidneys.
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Vitamin C
Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and L-ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement.
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Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble secosteroids responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, and multiple other biological effects.
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Watchful waiting
Watchful waiting (also watch and wait or WAW) is an approach to a medical problem in which time is allowed to pass before medical intervention or therapy is used.
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Water fluoridation
Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay.
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Western pattern diet
The Western pattern diet or Standard American Diet (SAD) is a modern dietary pattern that is generally characterized by high intakes of red and processed meat, butter, fried foods, high-fat dairy products, eggs, refined grains, potatoes, and high-sugar drinks.
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Western world
The Western world refers to various nations depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe and the Americas.
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White blood cell
White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.
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White paper
A white paper is an authoritative report or guide that informs readers concisely about a complex issue and presents the issuing body's philosophy on the matter.
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William Harvey
William Harvey (1 April 1578 – 3 June 1657) was an English physician who made seminal contributions in anatomy and physiology.
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Women's Health Initiative
The Women's Health Initiative (WHI) was initiated by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1991.
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Xanthine
Xanthine (or; archaically xanthic acid) (3,7-dihydropurine-2,6-dione), is a purine base found in most human body tissues and fluids and in other organisms.
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Xanthinuria
Xanthinuria, also known as xanthine oxidase deficiency, is a rare genetic disorder causing the accumulation of xanthine.
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Yttrium aluminium garnet
Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG, Y3Al5O12) is a synthetic crystalline material of the garnet group.
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2,8-Dihydroxyadenine
2,8-Dihydroxyadenine is a derivative of adenine which accumulates in 2,8 dihydroxy-adenine urolithiasis.
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Calcium stone, Calcium stones, Caliceal calculi, Caliceal calculus, Calyceal calculi, Calyceal calculus, Kidney Stone, Kidney Stones, Kidney calculi, Kidney calculus, Kidney stone, Kidney stones, Kidneystone, Nephrolith, Nephrolithiase, Nephrolithiases, Nephrolithiasis, Renal calculi, Renal calculus, Renal stone, Renal stones, Staghorn calculus, Staghorn stone, Ureteral colic, Ureterolithiasis, Urethral calculus, Uric acid kidney stones, Uric acid nephrolithiasis, Urinary calculi, Urinary calculus, Urolithiases, Urolithiasis, Urolithiasis treatment.
References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_stone_disease
