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316 relations: Absolute zero, Accelerating expansion of the universe, Addison-Wesley, Age of the universe, Alan Guth, Albert Einstein, Alexander Friedmann, American Institute of Physics, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Antimatter, Apparent magnitude, Aristotle, Arno Allan Penzias, Arthur Eddington, Astronomy & Astrophysics, Atlas (topology), Atom, Atomic nucleus, Bantam Books, Baryogenesis, Baryon, Baryon number, Basic Books, BBC News, BBC Radio, Big Bang (book), Big Bang nucleosynthesis, Big Bounce, Big Crunch, Big Rip, Biochemistry, Black body, Black hole, BOOMERanG experiment, Brane cosmology, C-symmetry, Cambridge University Press, Catholic Church, Causality (physics), Chemical element, Cold dark matter, Comoving and proper distances, Coordinate system, Copernican principle, Cosmic age problem, Cosmic Background Explorer, Cosmic Calendar, Cosmic distance ladder, Cosmic microwave background, Cosmogony, ..., Cosmological constant, Cosmological constant problem, Cosmological principle, CP violation, Curvature, Cuspy halo problem, Cyclic model, Dark energy, Dark matter, Density, Deuterium, Discovery Science (TV channel), Doppler effect, Dwarf galaxy problem, Edwin Hubble, Einstein field equations, Ekpyrotic universe, Electromagnetic radiation, Electron, Electroweak epoch, Elementary particle, Empirical evidence, Encyclopædia Britannica, Energy density, Entropy, Equation of state (cosmology), Essential singularity, Eternal inflation, Eureka: A Prose Poem, European Southern Observatory, European Space Agency, Event horizon, Expansion of the universe, Experimental physics, Explicit symmetry breaking, Exponential growth, False vacuum, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Faster-than-light, Fermion, Fine-structure constant, Flatness problem, Fourth Estate, Fred Hoyle, Free Press (publisher), Friedmann equations, Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric, Fritz Zwicky, Fundamental domain, Fundamental interaction, Future of an expanding universe, Galaxy, Galaxy cluster, Galaxy formation and evolution, Galaxy morphological classification, General relativity, General Relativity and Gravitation, George F. R. Ellis, George Gamow, George Smoot, Georges Lemaître, Globular cluster, Goddard Space Flight Center, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Grand Unified Theory, Gravitational collapse, Gravitational lens, Gravitational singularity, Gravitational-wave observatory, Gravity, Great Debate (astronomy), Harper Perennial, Hartle–Hawking state, Hawking radiation, Heat death of the universe, Helium, Helium-3, Helium-4, Higgs mechanism, Homogeneity (physics), Homogeneity and heterogeneity, Homogeneous space, Horizon problem, Hot dark matter, Hubble Space Telescope, Hubble's law, Hydrogen, Inflation (cosmology), Inflationary epoch, International Journal of Astrobiology, International Journal of Modern Physics, Invariant mass, Isotopes of lithium, Isotropy, Ivor Robinson (physicist), John C. Mather, John Templeton Foundation, Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics, Journal of Physics G, Kelvin, Kilometre, Lambda-CDM model, Lawrence M. Krauss, Lepton, Light, List of cosmic microwave background experiments, List of unsolved problems in physics, Lithium, Lowell Observatory, Magnetic monopole, Mathematician, Matter, Metric tensor, Microwave, Milky Way, Milne model, Modern Physics Letters A, Monadology, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Moon, Mount Wilson Observatory, Multiverse, NASA, National Academies Press, Nature (journal), Neutrino, Neutron, Neutron star, New York Academy of Sciences, Nicholas Rescher, Nobel Prize, Non-standard cosmology, Normal distribution, Observable universe, Observational cosmology, Observational error, Open Court Publishing Company, Oxford University Press, Pair production, Parametrization, Parsec, Particle accelerator, Particle horizon, Particle physics, PBS, Phantom energy, Phase transition, Photon, Physical cosmology, Physical law, Physical Review, Physical Review Letters, Physics Letters, Physics Today, Planck (spacecraft), Planck temperature, Planck time, Planck units, Popular Astronomy (US magazine), Pressure, Primordial fluctuations, Princeton University Press, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Protogalaxy, Proton, Proton decay, Quantum fluctuation, Quantum gravity, Quantum mechanics, Quark, Quark–gluon plasma, Quasar, Quintessence (physics), Radiometric dating, Ralph Asher Alpher, Random House, Recessional velocity, Recombination (cosmology), Redshift, Reionization, Relationship between religion and science, Relativistic speed, Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory, Richard C. Tolman, Robert Herman, Robert Woodrow Wilson, Roger Penrose, Russia, Scale factor, Scale invariance, Science (journal), Science Daily, Scientific American, Scientific consensus, Scientific modelling, Scientific theory, Second, Shape of the universe, Simon & Schuster, Singularity (mathematics), Source counts, Space.com, Spacetime, Special relativity, Spectral density, Spectral line, Spectroscopy, Spiral galaxy, Springer Science+Business Media, Standard Model, Star, Star formation, Static universe, Steady State theory, Stellar age estimation, Stellar evolution, Stellar nucleosynthesis, Stellar population, Stellar wind, Stephen Hawking, String theory, Structure formation, Subatomic particle, Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect, Supercluster, Supernova nucleosynthesis, TalkOrigins Archive, Telescope, Temperature, Tests of general relativity, The Astrophysical Journal, The First Three Minutes, The Message of The Qur'an, The Mind of God, The New York Times, The Road to Reality, Thermodynamic equilibrium, Thomson scattering, Time, Timeline of the far future, Tired light, Topological defect, Type Ia supernova, Ultimate fate of the universe, Uncertainty principle, UNESCO, Universe, University of California, Berkeley, University of California, Los Angeles, University of New South Wales, Vacuum energy, Velocity, Vesto Slipher, Vintage Books, Warm dark matter, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, White dwarf, Wiley-VCH, Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, Willem de Sitter, World Scientific, World War II, X-ray astronomy, Zeitschrift für Physik, 1,000,000,000. 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Absolute zero
Absolute zero is the lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0.
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Accelerating expansion of the universe
The accelerating expansion of the universe is the observation that the universe appears to be expanding at an increasing rate, so that the velocity at which a distant galaxy is receding from the observer is continuously increasing with time.
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Addison-Wesley
Addison-Wesley is a publisher of textbooks and computer literature.
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Age of the universe
In physical cosmology, the age of the universe is the time elapsed since the Big Bang.
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Alan Guth
Alan Harvey Guth (born February 27, 1947) is an American theoretical physicist and cosmologist.
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Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics).
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Alexander Friedmann
Alexander Alexandrovich Friedmann (also spelled Friedman or Fridman; Алекса́ндр Алекса́ндрович Фри́дман) (June 16, 1888 – September 16, 1925) was a Russian and Soviet physicist and mathematician.
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American Institute of Physics
The American Institute of Physics (AIP) promotes science, the profession of physics, publishes physics journals, and produces publications for scientific and engineering societies.
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Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
The Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics is an annual peer reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews.
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Antimatter
In modern physics, antimatter is defined as a material composed of the antiparticle (or "partners") to the corresponding particles of ordinary matter.
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Apparent magnitude
The apparent magnitude of a celestial object is a number that is a measure of its brightness as seen by an observer on Earth.
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Aristotle
Aristotle (Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs,; 384–322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece.
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Arno Allan Penzias
Arno Allan Penzias (born 26 April 1933) is an American physicist, radio astronomer and Nobel laureate in physics who is co-discoverer of the cosmic microwave background radiation along with Robert Woodrow Wilson, which helped establish the Big Bang theory of cosmology.
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Arthur Eddington
Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington (28 December 1882 – 22 November 1944) was an English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician of the early 20th century who did his greatest work in astrophysics.
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Astronomy & Astrophysics
Astronomy & Astrophysics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering theoretical, observational, and instrumental astronomy and astrophysics.
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Atlas (topology)
In mathematics, particularly topology, one describes a manifold using an atlas.
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Atom
An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element.
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Atomic nucleus
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment.
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Bantam Books
Bantam Books is an American publishing house owned entirely by parent company Random House, a subsidiary of Penguin Random House; it is an imprint of the Random House Publishing Group.
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Baryogenesis
In physical cosmology, baryogenesis is the hypothetical physical process that took place during the early universe that produced baryonic asymmetry, i.e. the imbalance of matter (baryons) and antimatter (antibaryons) in the observed universe.
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Baryon
A baryon is a composite subatomic particle made up of three quarks (a triquark, as distinct from mesons, which are composed of one quark and one antiquark).
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Baryon number
In particle physics, the baryon number is a strictly conserved additive quantum number of a system.
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Basic Books
Basic Books is a book publisher founded in 1952 and located in New York, now an imprint of Hachette Books.
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BBC News
BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs.
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BBC Radio
BBC Radio is an operational business division and service of the British Broadcasting Corporation (which has operated in the United Kingdom under the terms of a Royal Charter since 1927).
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Big Bang (book)
Big Bang: The most important scientific discovery of all time and why you need to know about it is a book written by Simon Singh and published in 2004 by Fourth Estate.
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Big Bang nucleosynthesis
In physical cosmology, Big Bang nucleosynthesis (abbreviated BBN, also known as primordial nucleosynthesis, arch(a)eonucleosynthesis, archonucleosynthesis, protonucleosynthesis and pal(a)eonucleosynthesis) refers to the production of nuclei other than those of the lightest isotope of hydrogen (hydrogen-1, 1H, having a single proton as a nucleus) during the early phases of the Universe.
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Big Bounce
The Big Bounce is a hypothetical cosmological model for the origin of the known universe.
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Big Crunch
The Big Crunch is one possible scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the metric expansion of space eventually reverses and the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the cosmic scale factor to reach zero or causing a reformation of the universe starting with another Big Bang.
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Big Rip
In physical cosmology, the Big Rip is a hypothetical cosmological model concerning the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the matter of the universe, from stars and galaxies to atoms and subatomic particles, and even spacetime itself, is progressively torn apart by the expansion of the universe at a certain time in the future.
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Biochemistry
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.
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Black body
A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence.
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Black hole
A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing—not even particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from inside it.
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BOOMERanG experiment
In astronomy and observational cosmology, The BOOMERanG experiment (Balloon Observations Of Millimetric Extragalactic Radiation ANd Geophysics) was an experiment which measured the cosmic microwave background radiation of a part of the sky during three sub-orbital (high-altitude) balloon flights.
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Brane cosmology
Brane cosmology refers to several theories in particle physics and cosmology related to string theory, superstring theory and M-theory.
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C-symmetry
Charge conjugation is a transformation that switches all particles with their corresponding antiparticles, and thus changes the sign of all charges: not only electric charge but also the charges relevant to other forces.
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Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press (CUP) is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge.
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Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.299 billion members worldwide.
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Causality (physics)
Causality is the relationship between causes and effects.
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Chemical element
A chemical element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (that is, the same atomic number, or Z).
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Cold dark matter
In cosmology and physics, cold dark matter (CDM) is a hypothetical form of dark matter whose particles moved slowly compared to the speed of light (the cold in CDM) since the universe was approximately one year old (a time when the cosmic particle horizon contained the mass of one typical galaxy); and interact very weakly with ordinary matter and electromagnetic radiation (the dark in CDM).
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Comoving and proper distances
In standard cosmology, comoving distance and proper distance are two closely related distance measures used by cosmologists to define distances between objects.
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Coordinate system
In geometry, a coordinate system is a system which uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of the points or other geometric elements on a manifold such as Euclidean space.
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Copernican principle
In physical cosmology, the Copernican principle, is an alternative name of the mediocrity principle, or the principle of relativity, stating that humans (the Earth, or the Solar system) are not privileged observers of the universe.
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Cosmic age problem
The cosmic age problem is a historical problem in astronomy concerning the age of the universe.
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Cosmic Background Explorer
The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), also referred to as Explorer 66, was a satellite dedicated to cosmology, which operated from 1989 to 1993.
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Cosmic Calendar
The Cosmic Calendar is a method to visualize the chronology of the universe, scaling its current age of 13.8 billion years to a single year in order to help intuit it for pedagogical purposes in science education or popular science.
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Cosmic distance ladder
The cosmic distance ladder (also known as the extragalactic distance scale) is the succession of methods by which astronomers determine the distances to celestial objects.
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Cosmic microwave background
The cosmic microwave background (CMB, CMBR) is electromagnetic radiation as a remnant from an early stage of the universe in Big Bang cosmology.
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Cosmogony
Cosmogony is any model concerning the origin of either the cosmos or universe.
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Cosmological constant
In cosmology, the cosmological constant (usually denoted by the Greek capital letter lambda: Λ) is the value of the energy density of the vacuum of space.
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Cosmological constant problem
In cosmology, the cosmological constant problem or vacuum catastrophe is the disagreement between the observed values of vacuum energy density (the small value of the cosmological constant) and theoretical large value of zero-point energy suggested by quantum field theory.
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Cosmological principle
In modern physical cosmology, the cosmological principle is the notion that the spatial distribution of matter in the universe is homogeneous and isotropic when viewed on a large enough scale, since the forces are expected to act uniformly throughout the universe, and should, therefore, produce no observable irregularities in the large-scale structuring over the course of evolution of the matter field that was initially laid down by the Big Bang.
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CP violation
In particle physics, CP violation is a violation of CP-symmetry (or charge conjugation parity symmetry): the combination of C-symmetry (charge conjugation symmetry) and P-symmetry (parity symmetry).
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Curvature
In mathematics, curvature is any of a number of loosely related concepts in different areas of geometry.
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Cuspy halo problem
The cuspy halo problem (also known as the core-cusp problem) refers to a discrepancy between the inferred dark matter density profiles of low-mass galaxies and the density profiles predicted by cosmological N-body simulations.
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Cyclic model
A cyclic model (or oscillating model) is any of several cosmological models in which the universe follows infinite, or indefinite, self-sustaining cycles.
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Dark energy
In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy which is hypothesized to permeate all of space, tending to accelerate the expansion of the universe.
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Dark matter
Dark matter is a theorized form of matter that is thought to account for approximately 80% of the matter in the universe, and about a quarter of its total energy density.
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Density
The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume.
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Deuterium
Deuterium (or hydrogen-2, symbol or, also known as heavy hydrogen) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen (the other being protium, or hydrogen-1).
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Discovery Science (TV channel)
Discovery Science is a TV network, a subsidiary of American Discovery Networks International, it targets several European countries' television markets.
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Doppler effect
The Doppler effect (or the Doppler shift) is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave in relation to observer who is moving relative to the wave source.
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Dwarf galaxy problem
The dwarf galaxy problem, also known as the missing satellites problem, arises from numerical cosmological simulations that predict the evolution of the distribution of matter in the universe.
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Edwin Hubble
Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer.
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Einstein field equations
The Einstein field equations (EFE; also known as Einstein's equations) comprise the set of 10 equations in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity that describe the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by mass and energy.
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Ekpyrotic universe
The ekpyrotic universe is a cosmological model of the early universe that explains the origin of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.
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Electromagnetic radiation
In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space-time, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy.
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Electron
The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol or, whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge.
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Electroweak epoch
In physical cosmology, the electroweak epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe when the temperature of the universe had fallen enough that the strong force separated from the electroweak interaction, but was high enough for electromagnetism and the weak interaction to remain merged into a single electroweak interaction (above energies of about 246 GeV).
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Elementary particle
In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle with no substructure, thus not composed of other particles.
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Empirical evidence
Empirical evidence, also known as sensory experience, is the information received by means of the senses, particularly by observation and documentation of patterns and behavior through experimentation.
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Encyclopædia Britannica
The Encyclopædia Britannica (Latin for "British Encyclopaedia"), published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia.
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Energy density
Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume.
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Entropy
In statistical mechanics, entropy is an extensive property of a thermodynamic system.
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Equation of state (cosmology)
In cosmology, the equation of state of a perfect fluid is characterized by a dimensionless number w, equal to the ratio of its pressure p to its energy density \rho: It is closely related to the thermodynamic equation of state and ideal gas law.
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Essential singularity
In complex analysis, an essential singularity of a function is a "severe" singularity near which the function exhibits odd behavior.
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Eternal inflation
Eternal inflation is a hypothetical inflationary universe model, which is itself an outgrowth or extension of the Big Bang theory.
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Eureka: A Prose Poem
Eureka (1848) is a lengthy non-fiction work by American author Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) which he subtitled "A Prose Poem", though it has also been subtitled as "An Essay on the Material and Spiritual Universe".
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European Southern Observatory
The European Southern Observatory (ESO) is a 15-nation intergovernmental research organization for ground-based astronomy.
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European Space Agency
The European Space Agency (ESA; Agence spatiale européenne, ASE; Europäische Weltraumorganisation) is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states dedicated to the exploration of space.
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Event horizon
In general relativity, an event horizon is a region in spacetime beyond which events cannot affect an outside observer.
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Expansion of the universe
The expansion of the universe is the increase of the distance between two distant parts of the universe with time.
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Experimental physics
Experimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines in the field of physics that are concerned with the observation of physical phenomena and experiments.
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Explicit symmetry breaking
In theoretical physics, explicit symmetry breaking is the breaking of a symmetry of a theory by terms in its defining equations of motion (most typically, to the Lagrangian or the Hamiltonian) that do not respect the symmetry.
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Exponential growth
Exponential growth is exhibited when the rate of change—the change per instant or unit of time—of the value of a mathematical function is proportional to the function's current value, resulting in its value at any time being an exponential function of time, i.e., a function in which the time value is the exponent.
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False vacuum
In quantum field theory, a false vacuum is a hypothetical vacuum that is somewhat, but not entirely, stable.
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Farrar, Straus and Giroux
Farrar, Straus and Giroux (FSG) is an American book publishing company, founded in 1946 by Roger W. Straus, Jr. and John C. Farrar.
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Faster-than-light
Faster-than-light (also superluminal or FTL) communication and travel are the conjectural propagation of information or matter faster than the speed of light.
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Fermion
In particle physics, a fermion is a particle that follows Fermi–Dirac statistics.
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Fine-structure constant
In physics, the fine-structure constant, also known as Sommerfeld's constant, commonly denoted (the Greek letter ''alpha''), is a fundamental physical constant characterizing the strength of the electromagnetic interaction between elementary charged particles.
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Flatness problem
The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is a cosmological fine-tuning problem within the Big Bang model of the universe.
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Fourth Estate
The Fourth Estate (or fourth power) is a segment of society that wields an indirect but significant influence on society even though it is not a formally recognized part of the political system.
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Fred Hoyle
Sir Fred Hoyle FRS (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001) was a British astronomer who formulated the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis.
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Free Press (publisher)
Free Press was a book publishing imprint of Simon & Schuster.
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Friedmann equations
The Friedmann equations are a set of equations in physical cosmology that govern the expansion of space in homogeneous and isotropic models of the universe within the context of general relativity.
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Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric
The Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric is an exact solution of Einstein's field equations of general relativity; it describes a homogeneous, isotropic, expanding or contracting universe that is path connected, but not necessarily simply connected.
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Fritz Zwicky
Fritz Zwicky (February 14, 1898 – February 8, 1974) was a Swiss astronomer.
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Fundamental domain
Given a topological space and a group acting on it, the images of a single point under the group action form an orbit of the action.
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Fundamental interaction
In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions.
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Future of an expanding universe
Observations suggest that the expansion of the universe will continue forever.
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Galaxy
A galaxy is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter.
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Galaxy cluster
A galaxy cluster, or cluster of galaxies, is a structure that consists of anywhere from hundreds to thousands of galaxies that are bound together by gravity with typical masses ranging from 1014–1015 solar masses.
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Galaxy formation and evolution
The study of galaxy formation and evolution is concerned with the processes that formed a heterogeneous universe from a homogeneous beginning, the formation of the first galaxies, the way galaxies change over time, and the processes that have generated the variety of structures observed in nearby galaxies.
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Galaxy morphological classification
Galaxy morphological classification is a system used by astronomers to divide galaxies into groups based on their visual appearance.
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General relativity
General relativity (GR, also known as the general theory of relativity or GTR) is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics.
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General Relativity and Gravitation
General Relativity and Gravitation is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal.
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George F. R. Ellis
George Francis Rayner Ellis, FRS, Hon.
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George Gamow
George Gamow (March 4, 1904- August 19, 1968), born Georgiy Antonovich Gamov, was a Russian-American theoretical physicist and cosmologist.
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George Smoot
George Fitzgerald Smoot III (born February 20, 1945) is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist, Nobel laureate, and one of two contestants to win the 1 million prize on Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?.
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Georges Lemaître
Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître, RAS Associate (17 July 1894 – 20 June 1966) was a Belgian Catholic Priest, astronomer and professor of physics at the Catholic University of Leuven.
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Globular cluster
A globular cluster is a spherical collection of stars that orbits a galactic core as a satellite.
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Goddard Space Flight Center
The Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is a major NASA space research laboratory located approximately northeast of Washington, D.C. in Greenbelt, Maryland, United States.
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Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz (or; Leibnitz; – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath and philosopher who occupies a prominent place in the history of mathematics and the history of philosophy.
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Grand Unified Theory
A Grand Unified Theory (GUT) is a model in particle physics in which, at high energy, the three gauge interactions of the Standard Model which define the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, or forces, are merged into one single force.
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Gravitational collapse
Gravitational collapse is the contraction of an astronomical object due to the influence of its own gravity, which tends to draw matter inward toward the center of gravity.
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Gravitational lens
A gravitational lens is a distribution of matter (such as a cluster of galaxies) between a distant light source and an observer, that is capable of bending the light from the source as the light travels towards the observer.
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Gravitational singularity
A gravitational singularity or spacetime singularity is a location in spacetime where the gravitational field of a celestial body becomes infinite in a way that does not depend on the coordinate system.
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Gravitational-wave observatory
A gravitational-wave observatory (or gravitational-wave detector) is any device designed to measure gravitational waves, tiny distortions of spacetime that were first predicted by Einstein in 1916.
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Gravity
Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass or energy—including planets, stars, galaxies, and even light—are brought toward (or gravitate toward) one another.
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Great Debate (astronomy)
The Great Debate, also called the Shapley–Curtis Debate, was held on 26 April 1920 at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis.
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Harper Perennial
Harper Perennial is a paperback imprint of the publishing house HarperCollins Publishers.
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Hartle–Hawking state
In theoretical physics, the Hartle–Hawking state, named after James Hartle and Stephen Hawking, is a proposal concerning the state of the Universe prior to the Planck epoch.
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Hawking radiation
Hawking radiation is blackbody radiation that is predicted to be released by black holes, due to quantum effects near the event horizon.
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Heat death of the universe
The heat death of the universe is a plausible ultimate fate of the universe in which the universe has diminished to a state of no thermodynamic free energy and therefore can no longer sustain processes that increase entropy.
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Helium
Helium (from lit) is a chemical element with symbol He and atomic number 2.
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Helium-3
Helium-3 (He-3, also written as 3He, see also helion) is a light, non-radioactive isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron (common helium having two protons and two neutrons).
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Helium-4
Helium-4 is a non-radioactive isotope of the element helium.
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Higgs mechanism
In the Standard Model of particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property "mass" for gauge bosons.
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Homogeneity (physics)
In physics, a homogeneous material or system has the same properties at every point; it is uniform without irregularities.
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Homogeneity and heterogeneity
Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts often used in the sciences and statistics relating to the uniformity in a substance or organism.
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Homogeneous space
In mathematics, particularly in the theories of Lie groups, algebraic groups and topological groups, a homogeneous space for a group G is a non-empty manifold or topological space X on which G acts transitively.
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Horizon problem
The horizon problem (also known as the homogeneity problem) is a cosmological fine-tuning problem within the Big Bang model of the universe.
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Hot dark matter
Hot dark matter (HDM) is a theoretical form of dark matter which consists of particles that travel with ultrarelativistic velocities.
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Hubble Space Telescope
The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation.
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Hubble's law
Hubble's law is the name for the observation in physical cosmology that.
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Hydrogen
Hydrogen is a chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1.
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Inflation (cosmology)
In physical cosmology, cosmic inflation, cosmological inflation, or just inflation, is a theory of exponential expansion of space in the early universe.
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Inflationary epoch
In physical cosmology the inflationary epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe when, according to inflation theory, the universe underwent an extremely rapid exponential expansion.
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International Journal of Astrobiology
The International Journal of Astrobiology (IJA) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal established in 2002 and published by Cambridge University Press that covers research on the prebiotic chemistry, origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life on Earth and beyond, SETI (Search for extraterrestrial intelligence), societal and educational aspects of astrobiology.
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International Journal of Modern Physics
The International Journal of Modern Physics is a series of Physics journals published by World Scientific.
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Invariant mass
The invariant mass, rest mass, intrinsic mass, proper mass, or in the case of bound systems simply mass, is the portion of the total mass of an object or system of objects that is independent of the overall motion of the system.
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Isotopes of lithium
Naturally occurring lithium (3Li) is composed of two stable isotopes, lithium-6 and lithium-7, with the latter being far more abundant: about 92.5 percent of the atoms.
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Isotropy
Isotropy is uniformity in all orientations; it is derived from the Greek isos (ἴσος, "equal") and tropos (τρόπος, "way").
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Ivor Robinson (physicist)
Ivor Robinson (1923 – May 27, 2016) was an American mathematical physicist, born and educated in England.
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John C. Mather
John Cromwell Mather (born August 7, 1946, Roanoke, Virginia) is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for his work on the Cosmic Background Explorer Satellite (COBE) with George Smoot.
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John Templeton Foundation
The John Templeton Foundation (Templeton Foundation) is a philanthropic organization with a spiritual or religious inclination that funds inter-disciplinary research about human purpose and ultimate reality.
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Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics
The Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics (JETP) [italic (ЖЭТФ), or Zhurnal Éksperimental’noĭ i Teoreticheskoĭ Fiziki (ZhÉTF) is a peer-reviewed Russian scientific journal covering all areas of experimental and theoretical physics.
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Journal of Physics G
Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes theoretical and experimental research into nuclear physics, particle physics and particle astrophysics, including all interface areas between these fields.
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Kelvin
The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at which all thermal motion ceases in the classical description of thermodynamics.
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Kilometre
The kilometre (International spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: km; or) or kilometer (American spelling) is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one thousand metres (kilo- being the SI prefix for). It is now the measurement unit used officially for expressing distances between geographical places on land in most of the world; notable exceptions are the United States and the road network of the United Kingdom where the statute mile is the official unit used.
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Lambda-CDM model
The ΛCDM (Lambda cold dark matter) or Lambda-CDM model is a parametrization of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant, denoted by Lambda (Greek Λ), associated with dark energy, and cold dark matter (abbreviated CDM).
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Lawrence M. Krauss
Lawrence Maxwell Krauss (born May 27, 1954) is an American-Canadian theoretical physicist and cosmologist who is Foundation Professor of the School of Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University, and director of its Origins Project.
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Lepton
In particle physics, a lepton is an elementary particle of half-integer spin (spin) that does not undergo strong interactions.
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Light
Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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List of cosmic microwave background experiments
This list is a compilation of experiments measuring the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation anisotropies and polarization since the first detection of the CMB by Penzias and Wilson in 1964.
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List of unsolved problems in physics
Some of the major unsolved problems in physics are theoretical, meaning that existing theories seem incapable of explaining a certain observed phenomenon or experimental result.
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Lithium
Lithium (from lit) is a chemical element with symbol Li and atomic number 3.
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Lowell Observatory
Lowell Observatory is an astronomical observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, United States.
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Magnetic monopole
A magnetic monopole is a hypothetical elementary particle in particle physics that is an isolated magnet with only one magnetic pole (a north pole without a south pole or vice versa).
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Mathematician
A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems.
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Matter
In the classical physics observed in everyday life, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume.
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Metric tensor
In the mathematical field of differential geometry, a metric tensor is a type of function which takes as input a pair of tangent vectors and at a point of a surface (or higher dimensional differentiable manifold) and produces a real number scalar in a way that generalizes many of the familiar properties of the dot product of vectors in Euclidean space.
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Microwave
Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter; with frequencies between and.
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Milky Way
The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System.
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Milne model
The Milne model was a special-relativistic cosmological model proposed by Edward Arthur Milne in 1935.
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Modern Physics Letters A
Modern Physics Letters A (MPLA) is the first in a series of journals published by World Scientific under the Modern Physics Letters moniker.
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Monadology
The Monadology (La Monadologie, 1714) is one of Gottfried Leibniz’s best known works representing his later philosophy.
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Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (MNRAS) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research in astronomy and astrophysics.
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Moon
The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth and is Earth's only permanent natural satellite.
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Mount Wilson Observatory
The Mount Wilson Observatory (MWO) is an astronomical observatory in Los Angeles County, California, United States.
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Multiverse
The multiverse (or meta-universe) is a hypothetical group of multiple separate universes including the universe in which humans live.
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NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.
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National Academies Press
The National Academies Press (NAP) was created to publish the reports issued by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, the National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of Medicine, and the National Research Council.
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Nature (journal)
Nature is a British multidisciplinary scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869.
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Neutrino
A neutrino (denoted by the Greek letter ν) is a fermion (an elementary particle with half-integer spin) that interacts only via the weak subatomic force and gravity.
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Neutron
| magnetic_moment.
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Neutron star
A neutron star is the collapsed core of a large star which before collapse had a total of between 10 and 29 solar masses.
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New York Academy of Sciences
The New York Academy of Sciences (originally the Lyceum of Natural History) was founded in January 1817.
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Nicholas Rescher
Nicholas Rescher (born 15 July 1928) is a German-American philosopher at the University of Pittsburgh.
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Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prize (Swedish definite form, singular: Nobelpriset; Nobelprisen) is a set of six annual international awards bestowed in several categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances.
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Non-standard cosmology
A non-standard cosmology is any physical cosmological model of the universe that was, or still is, proposed as an alternative to the then-current standard model of cosmology.
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Normal distribution
In probability theory, the normal (or Gaussian or Gauss or Laplace–Gauss) distribution is a very common continuous probability distribution.
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Observable universe
The observable universe is a spherical region of the Universe comprising all matter that can be observed from Earth at the present time, because electromagnetic radiation from these objects has had time to reach Earth since the beginning of the cosmological expansion.
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Observational cosmology
Observational cosmology is the study of the structure, the evolution and the origin of the universe through observation, using instruments such as telescopes and cosmic ray detectors.
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Observational error
Observational error (or measurement error) is the difference between a measured value of a quantity and its true value.
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Open Court Publishing Company
The Open Court Publishing Company is a publisher with offices in Chicago and La Salle, Illinois.
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Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press (OUP) is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press.
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Pair production
Pair production is the creation of an elementary particle and its antiparticle from a neutral boson.
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Parametrization
Parametrization (or parameterization; also parameterisation, parametrisation) is the process of finding parametric equations of a curve, a surface, or, more generally, a manifold or a variety, defined by an implicit equation.
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Parsec
The parsec (symbol: pc) is a unit of length used to measure large distances to astronomical objects outside the Solar System.
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Particle accelerator
A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to nearly light speed and to contain them in well-defined beams.
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Particle horizon
The particle horizon (also called the cosmological horizon, the comoving horizon (in Dodelson's text), or the cosmic light horizon) is the maximum distance from which particles could have traveled to the observer in the age of the universe.
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Particle physics
Particle physics (also high energy physics) is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation.
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PBS
The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is an American public broadcaster and television program distributor.
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Phantom energy
Phantom energy is a hypothetical form of dark energy satisfying the equation of state with w. It possesses negative kinetic energy, and predicts expansion of the universe in excess of that predicted by a cosmological constant, which leads to a Big Rip.
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Phase transition
The term phase transition (or phase change) is most commonly used to describe transitions between solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter, and, in rare cases, plasma.
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Photon
The photon is a type of elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force (even when static via virtual particles).
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Physical cosmology
Physical cosmology is the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the Universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate.
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Physical law
A physical law or scientific law is a theoretical statement "inferred from particular facts, applicable to a defined group or class of phenomena, and expressible by the statement that a particular phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions be present." Physical laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments and observations over many years and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community.
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Physical Review
Physical Review is an American peer-reviewed scientific journal established in 1893 by Edward Nichols.
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Physical Review Letters
Physical Review Letters (PRL), established in 1958, is a peer-reviewed, scientific journal that is published 52 times per year by the American Physical Society.
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Physics Letters
Physics Letters was a scientific journal published from 1962 to 1966, when it split in two series now published by Elsevier.
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Physics Today
Physics Today is the membership magazine of the American Institute of Physics that was established in 1948.
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Planck (spacecraft)
Planck was a space observatory operated by the European Space Agency (ESA) from 2009 to 2013, which mapped the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) at microwave and infra-red frequencies, with high sensitivity and small angular resolution.
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Planck temperature
Planck temperature, denoted by TP, is the unit of temperature in the system of natural units known as Planck units.
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Planck time
In quantum mechanics, the Planck time is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units.
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Planck units
In particle physics and physical cosmology, Planck units are a set of units of measurement defined exclusively in terms of five universal physical constants, in such a manner that these five physical constants take on the numerical value of 1 when expressed in terms of these units.
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Popular Astronomy (US magazine)
Popular Astronomy is an American magazine published by John August Media, LLC and hosted at TechnicaCuriosa.com for amateur astronomers.
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Pressure
Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed.
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Primordial fluctuations
Primordial fluctuations are density variations in the early universe which are considered the seeds of all structure in the universe.
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Princeton University Press
Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University.
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) is the official scientific journal of the National Academy of Sciences, published since 1915.
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Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics
Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Physical Society of Japan.
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Protogalaxy
In physical cosmology, a protogalaxy, which could also be called a "primeval galaxy", is a cloud of gas which is forming into a galaxy.
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Proton
| magnetic_moment.
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Proton decay
In particle physics, proton decay is a hypothetical form of radioactive decay in which the proton decays into lighter subatomic particles, such as a neutral pion and a positron.
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Quantum fluctuation
In quantum physics, a quantum fluctuation (or vacuum state fluctuation or vacuum fluctuation) is the temporary change in the amount of energy in a point in space, as explained in Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
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Quantum gravity
Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics, and where quantum effects cannot be ignored, such as near compact astrophysical objects where the effects of gravity are strong.
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Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics, quantum theory, the wave mechanical model, or matrix mechanics), including quantum field theory, is a fundamental theory in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles.
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Quark
A quark is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter.
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Quark–gluon plasma
A quark–gluon plasma (QGP) or quark soup is a state of matter in quantum chromodynamics (QCD) which exists at extremely high temperature and/or density.
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Quasar
A quasar (also known as a QSO or quasi-stellar object) is an extremely luminous active galactic nucleus (AGN).
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Quintessence (physics)
In physics, quintessence is a hypothetical form of dark energy, more precisely a scalar field, postulated as an explanation of the observation of an accelerating rate of expansion of the universe.
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Radiometric dating
Radiometric dating or radioactive dating is a technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when they were formed.
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Ralph Asher Alpher
Ralph Asher Alpher (February 3, 1921 – August 12, 2007) was an American cosmologist, who carried out pioneering work in the early 1950s on the Big Bang model, including big bang nucleosynthesis and predictions of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
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Random House
Random House is an American book publisher and the largest general-interest paperback publisher in the world.
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Recessional velocity
Recessional velocity is the rate at which an astronomical object is moving away, typically from Earth.
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Recombination (cosmology)
In cosmology, recombination refers to the epoch at which charged electrons and protons first became bound to form electrically neutral hydrogen atoms.
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Redshift
In physics, redshift happens when light or other electromagnetic radiation from an object is increased in wavelength, or shifted to the red end of the spectrum.
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Reionization
In the field of Big Bang theory, and cosmology, reionization is the process that caused the matter in the universe to reionize after the lapse of the "dark ages".
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Relationship between religion and science
Various aspects of the relationship between religion and science have been addressed by philosophers, theologians, scientists, and others.
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Relativistic speed
Relativistic speed refers to speed at which relativistic effects become significant to the desired accuracy of measurement of the phenomenon being observed.
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Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory
Since the emergence of the Big Bang theory as the dominant physical cosmological paradigm, there have been a variety of reactions by religious groups regarding its implications for religious cosmologies.
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Richard C. Tolman
Richard Chace Tolman (March 4, 1881 – September 5, 1948) was an American mathematical physicist and physical chemist who was an authority on statistical mechanics.
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Robert Herman
Robert Herman (August 29, 1914 – February 13, 1997) was a United States scientist, best known for his work with Ralph Alpher in 1948-50, on estimating the temperature of cosmic microwave background radiation from the Big Bang explosion.
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Robert Woodrow Wilson
Robert Woodrow Wilson (born January 10, 1936) is an American astronomer, 1978 Nobel laureate in physics, who with Arno Allan Penzias discovered in 1964 the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB).
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Roger Penrose
Sir Roger Penrose (born 8 August 1931) is an English mathematical physicist, mathematician and philosopher of science.
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Russia
Russia (rɐˈsʲijə), officially the Russian Federation (p), is a country in Eurasia. At, Russia is the largest country in the world by area, covering more than one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area, and the ninth most populous, with over 144 million people as of December 2017, excluding Crimea. About 77% of the population live in the western, European part of the country. Russia's capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world; other major cities include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg and Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares land borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both with Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and North Korea. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait. The East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century. In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century. The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland on the west to Alaska on the east. Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the world's first constitutionally socialist state. The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II, and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the world's second largest economy, largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, twelve independent republics emerged from the USSR: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and the Baltic states regained independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality and a successor of the Soviet Union. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic. The Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas globally. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and an active global partner of ASEAN, as well as a member of the G20, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO), as well as being the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), along with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
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Scale factor
A scale factor is a number which scales, or multiplies, some quantity.
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Scale invariance
In physics, mathematics, statistics, and economics, scale invariance is a feature of objects or laws that do not change if scales of length, energy, or other variables, are multiplied by a common factor, thus represent a universality.
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Science (journal)
Science, also widely referred to as Science Magazine, is the peer-reviewed academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and one of the world's top academic journals.
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Science Daily
Science Daily is an American website that aggregates press releases and publishes lightly edited press releases (a practice called churnalism) about science, similar to Phys.org and EurekAlert!.
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Scientific American
Scientific American (informally abbreviated SciAm) is an American popular science magazine.
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Scientific consensus
Scientific consensus is the collective judgment, position, and opinion of the community of scientists in a particular field of study.
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Scientific modelling
Scientific modelling is a scientific activity, the aim of which is to make a particular part or feature of the world easier to understand, define, quantify, visualize, or simulate by referencing it to existing and usually commonly accepted knowledge.
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Scientific theory
A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can be repeatedly tested, in accordance with the scientific method, using a predefined protocol of observation and experiment.
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Second
The second is the SI base unit of time, commonly understood and historically defined as 1/86,400 of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60 seconds each.
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Shape of the universe
The shape of the universe is the local and global geometry of the universe.
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Simon & Schuster
Simon & Schuster, Inc., a subsidiary of CBS Corporation, is an American publishing company founded in New York City in 1924 by Richard Simon and Max Schuster.
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Singularity (mathematics)
In mathematics, a singularity is in general a point at which a given mathematical object is not defined, or a point of an exceptional set where it fails to be well-behaved in some particular way, such as differentiability.
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Source counts
The source counts distribution of radio-sources from a radio-astronomical survey is the cumulative distribution of the number of sources (N) brighter than a given flux density (S).
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Space.com
Space.com is a space and astronomy news website.
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Spacetime
In physics, spacetime is any mathematical model that fuses the three dimensions of space and the one dimension of time into a single four-dimensional continuum.
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Special relativity
In physics, special relativity (SR, also known as the special theory of relativity or STR) is the generally accepted and experimentally well-confirmed physical theory regarding the relationship between space and time.
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Spectral density
The power spectrum S_(f) of a time series x(t) describes the distribution of power into frequency components composing that signal.
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Spectral line
A spectral line is a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum, resulting from emission or absorption of light in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies.
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Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation.
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Spiral galaxy
Spiral galaxies form a class of galaxy originally described by Edwin Hubble in his 1936 work The Realm of the Nebulae(pp. 124–151) and, as such, form part of the Hubble sequence.
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Springer Science+Business Media
Springer Science+Business Media or Springer, part of Springer Nature since 2015, is a global publishing company that publishes books, e-books and peer-reviewed journals in science, humanities, technical and medical (STM) publishing.
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Standard Model
The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces (the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, and not including the gravitational force) in the universe, as well as classifying all known elementary particles.
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Star
A star is type of astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity.
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Star formation
Star formation is the process by which dense regions within molecular clouds in interstellar space, sometimes referred to as "stellar nurseries" or "star-forming regions", collapse and form stars.
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Static universe
A static universe, also referred to as a "stationary" or "infinite" or "static infinite" universe, is a cosmological model in which the universe is both spatially infinite and temporally infinite, and space is neither expanding nor contracting.
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Steady State theory
In cosmology, the Steady State theory is an alternative to the Big Bang model of the evolution of our universe.
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Stellar age estimation
Various methods and tools are involved in stellar age estimation, an attempt to identify within reasonable degrees of confidence what the age of a star is.
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Stellar evolution
Stellar evolution is the process by which a star changes over the course of time.
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Stellar nucleosynthesis
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the theory explaining the creation (nucleosynthesis) of chemical elements by nuclear fusion reactions between atoms within the stars.
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Stellar population
During 1944, Walter Baade categorized groups of stars within the Milky Way into bluer stars associated with the spiral arms and the general position of yellow stars near the central galactic bulge or within globular star clusters.
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Stellar wind
A stellar wind is a flow of gas ejected from the upper atmosphere of a star.
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Stephen Hawking
Stephen William Hawking (8 January 1942 – 14 March 2018) was an English theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author, who was director of research at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology at the University of Cambridge at the time of his death.
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String theory
In physics, string theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings.
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Structure formation
In physical cosmology, structure formation is the formation of galaxies, galaxy clusters and larger structures from small early density fluctuations.
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Subatomic particle
In the physical sciences, subatomic particles are particles much smaller than atoms.
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Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect
The Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect (named after Rashid Sunyaev and Yakov B. Zel'dovich and often abbreviated as the SZ effect) is the distortion of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) through inverse Compton scattering by high energy electrons in galaxy clusters, in which the low energy CMB photons receive an average energy boost during collision with the high energy cluster electrons.
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Supercluster
A supercluster is a large group of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy groups; it is among the largest-known structures of the cosmos.
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Supernova nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis is a theory of the nucleosynthesis of the natural abundances of the chemical elements in supernova explosions, advanced as the nucleosynthesis of elements from carbon to nickel in massive stars by Fred Hoyle in 1954.
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TalkOrigins Archive
The TalkOrigins Archive is a website that presents mainstream science perspectives on the antievolution claims of young-earth, old-earth, and "intelligent design" creationists.
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Telescope
A telescope is an optical instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light).
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Temperature
Temperature is a physical quantity expressing hot and cold.
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Tests of general relativity
Tests of general relativity serve to establish observational evidence for the theory of general relativity.
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The Astrophysical Journal
The Astrophysical Journal, often abbreviated ApJ (pronounced "ap jay") in references and speech, is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of astrophysics and astronomy, established in 1895 by American astronomers George Ellery Hale and James Edward Keeler.
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The First Three Minutes
The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe (1977; second edition 1993) is a book by American physicist Steven Weinberg.
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The Message of The Qur'an
The Message of the Qur'an is an English translation and interpretation of the Qur'an by Muhammad Asad, an Austrian Jew who converted to Islam.
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The Mind of God
The Mind of God is a 1992 non-fiction book by Paul Davies.
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The New York Times
The New York Times (sometimes abbreviated as The NYT or The Times) is an American newspaper based in New York City with worldwide influence and readership.
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The Road to Reality
The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe is a book on modern physics by the British mathematical physicist Roger Penrose, published in 2004.
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Thermodynamic equilibrium
Thermodynamic equilibrium is an axiomatic concept of thermodynamics.
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Thomson scattering
Thomson scattering is the elastic scattering of electromagnetic radiation by a free charged particle, as described by classical electromagnetism.
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Time
Time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events that occur in apparently irreversible succession from the past through the present to the future.
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Timeline of the far future
While predictions of the future can never be absolutely certain, present understanding in various scientific fields allows for the prediction of far-future events, if only in the broadest outline.
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Tired light
Tired light is a class of hypothetical redshift mechanisms that was proposed as an alternative explanation for the redshift-distance relationship.
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Topological defect
In mathematics and physics, a topological soliton or a topological defect is a solution of a system of partial differential equations or of a quantum field theory homotopically distinct from the vacuum solution.
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Type Ia supernova
A type Ia supernova (read "type one-a") is a type of supernova that occurs in binary systems (two stars orbiting one another) in which one of the stars is a white dwarf.
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Ultimate fate of the universe
The ultimate fate of the universe is a topic in physical cosmology, whose theoretical restrictions allow possible scenarios for the evolution and ultimate fate of the universe to be described and evaluated.
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Uncertainty principle
In quantum mechanics, the uncertainty principle (also known as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) is any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, known as complementary variables, such as position x and momentum p, can be known.
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UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO; Organisation des Nations unies pour l'éducation, la science et la culture) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) based in Paris.
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Universe
The Universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy.
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University of California, Berkeley
The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California) is a public research university in Berkeley, California.
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University of California, Los Angeles
The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) is a public research university in the Westwood district of Los Angeles, United States.
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University of New South Wales
The University of New South Wales (UNSW; branded as UNSW Sydney) is an Australian public research university located in the Sydney suburb of Kensington.
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Vacuum energy
Vacuum energy is an underlying background energy that exists in space throughout the entire Universe.
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Velocity
The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with respect to a frame of reference, and is a function of time.
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Vesto Slipher
Vesto Melvin Slipher (November 11, 1875 – November 8, 1969) was an American astronomer who performed the first measurements of radial velocities for galaxies, providing the empirical basis for the expansion of the universe.
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Vintage Books
Vintage Books is a publishing imprint established in 1954 by Alfred A. Knopf.
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Warm dark matter
Warm dark matter (WDM) is a hypothesized form of dark matter that has properties intermediate between those of hot dark matter and cold dark matter, causing structure formation to occur bottom-up from above their free-streaming scale, and top-down below their free streaming scale.
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Weidenfeld & Nicolson
Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd (established 1948), often shortened to W&N or Weidenfeld, is a British publisher of fiction and reference books.
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White dwarf
A white dwarf, also called a degenerate dwarf, is a stellar core remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter.
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Wiley-VCH
Wiley-VCH is a German publisher owned by John Wiley & Sons.
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Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), originally known as the Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP), was a spacecraft operating from 2001 to 2010 which measured temperature differences across the sky in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) – the radiant heat remaining from the Big Bang.
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Willem de Sitter
Willem de Sitter (6 May 1872 – 20 November 1934) was a Dutch mathematician, physicist, and astronomer.
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World Scientific
World Scientific Publishing is an academic publisher of scientific, technical, and medical books and journals headquartered in Singapore.
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World War II
World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although conflicts reflecting the ideological clash between what would become the Allied and Axis blocs began earlier.
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X-ray astronomy
X-ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy which deals with the study of X-ray observation and detection from astronomical objects.
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Zeitschrift für Physik
Zeitschrift für Physik (English: Journal for physics) is a defunct series of German peer-reviewed German scientific journal of physics established in 1920 by Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
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1,000,000,000
1,000,000,000 (one billion, short scale; one thousand million or milliard, yard, long scale) is the natural number following 999,999,999 and preceding 1,000,000,001.
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References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang
