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History of the Jews in Poland

Index History of the Jews in Poland

The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over 1,000 years. [1]

616 relations: Adam Czerniaków, Adam Michnik, Adam Ulam, Adolf Berman, Adolf Hitler, Aftermath of World War I, Agudat Yisrael, Al-Andalus, Aleksander (Hasidic dynasty), Aleksander Wat, Alexander I of Russia, Alexander II of Russia, Alexander III of Russia, Alexander Jagiellon, Alfred Tarski, Alhambra Decree, Alice Teichova, Alina Cała, Aliyah, Allies of World War II, Alojzy Ehrlich, Alvydas Nikžentaitis, American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Anatol Fejgin, Andrzej Zamoyski, Animal rights, Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1946), Anti-Defamation League, Anti-Fascist Military Organisation, Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946, Antisemitism, Antisemitism in the Russian Empire, Antony Polonsky, Apolinary Hartglas, Arabs, Arthur Rubinstein, Artur Gold, Artur Markowicz, Ashkenazi Jews, Attribution (copyright), Auschwitz concentration camp, Auschwitz cross, Austria, Austria-Hungary, Austrian krone, Łódź, Łódź Ghetto, Żegota, Żydokomuna, Baal Shem Tov, ..., Baptism, Bar Confederation, Baruch Steinberg, Battle of Monte Cassino, BBC, Bełżec extermination camp, Beer, Beit Warszawa Synagogue, Belarus, Berek Joselewicz, Bernd Wegner, Biała (Supraśl), Białystok, Białystok Ghetto, Białystok Ghetto uprising, Białystok pogrom, Bielawa, Bielsko-Biała, Black Death, Black market, Blood libel, Blue Army (Poland), Bobov (Hasidic dynasty), Bochnia, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Bohemia, Bolesław Bierut, Bolesław I the Tall, Bolesław III Wrymouth, Bolesław Leśmian, Bolesław the Pious, Bolków, Bracteate, Brest, Belarus, Bricha, Bruno Schulz, Brześć Ghetto, Bukhara, Cambridge University Press, Cantonist, Capital punishment, Casimir II the Just, Casimir III the Great, Casimir IV Jagiellon, Catherine the Great, Catholic Church, Caucasus, Cemetery, Central Committee of Polish Jews, Central Statistical Office (Poland), Centre for Public Opinion Research, Chabad, Chaim Goldberg, Chancellor (Poland), Charles X Gustav of Sweden, Chełmno extermination camp, Chief Rabbi, Christian, Christianity, Citizenship, Commerce, Commission of National Education, Communism, Communist Party of Poland, Congress Poland, Cossacks, Counter-Reformation, Crimean Khanate, Częstochowa Ghetto, Czechoslovakia, Dariusz Stola, David HaLevi Segal, David Kahane, De-Stalinization, Death squad, Deluge (history), Dzierżoniów, Eastern Bloc, Eastern Europe, Einsatzgruppen, Ekstraklasa, Emancipation reform of 1861, Emanuel Ringelblum, Emanuel Schlechter, Emil August Fieldorf, Esperanto, Esterka, Europe, European Council, European Union, Extermination camp, Extraordinary State Commission, Farm Animal Welfare Committee, Final Solution, First Crusade, First Partition of Poland, Folkspartei, Forced labour under German rule during World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt, French Revolution, Galicia Jewish Museum, Galician Jews, Gazeta Polska (1929–39), Gazeta Wyborcza, Góra Kalwaria, Gęsiówka, General Government, General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia, General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland, General Zionists, Genocide, Georges Charpak, Ger (Hasidic dynasty), German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews, German Empire, German-occupied Poland, Gesta principum Polonorum, Gestapo, Ghetto, Ghetto benches, Ghetto uprising, Gniezno, God's Playground, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Great Depression, Greater Poland, Grodno Governorate, Grossaktion Warsaw (1942), Gruppenführer, Gulag, Gunnar S. Paulsson, Gymnasium (school), Haganah, Halakha, Haman, Hans Frank, Haredi Judaism, Hasidic Judaism, Haskalah, Hasmonea Lwów, Hebrew alphabet, Hebrew language, Heinrich Himmler, Helena Wolińska-Brus, Henry Morgenthau Sr., Henryk Gold, Henryk Wars, Hilary Minc, Hippocrene Books, History of Poland, History of Poland (1795–1918), History of Poland (1939–1945), History of Poland (1945–1989), History of the Jews in Austria, History of the Jews in Germany, History of the Jews in Hungary, History of the Jews in Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Home Army, Hoover Institution, House of Vasa, Hovevei Zion, Hungary, Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, Ida Kamińska, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, II Corps (Poland), Independence Day (Israel), Infection, Institute of National Remembrance, Internet Archive, Interwar period, Invasion of Poland, Irgun, Isaac Babel, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Israel, Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, Israel–Poland relations, Italy, Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, Jacob Frank, Jacob Pollak, Jadwiga of Poland, Jagiellonian dynasty, Jagiellonian University, Jakub Berman, Jakub Kagan, Jan Brzechwa, Jan Karski, Jan Kiepura, Jan T. Gross, January Uprising, Józef Światło, Józef Klotz, Józef Piłsudski, Józef Różański, Jürgen Stroop, Jedwabne pogrom, Jerzy Jurandot, Jerzy Petersburski, Jewish Agency for Israel, Jewish Combat Organization, Jewish Community Center, Jewish culture, Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków, Jewish Encyclopedia, Jewish ethnic divisions, Jewish Ghetto Police, Jewish Historical Institute, Jewish history, Jewish Military Union, Jewish political movements, Jewish Roots in Poland, Jewish-Polish history (1989–present), Jews, Joanna Michlic, Joel Sirkis, John I Albert, John of Capistrano, Joseph Stalin, Judaism, Judenrat, Judeopolonia, Judith of Bohemia, Julian Tuwim, Jutrzenka Kraków, Kabbalah, Kalisz, Kapo (concentration camp), Katowice Conference, Katyn massacre, Kazimierz Bartel, Khmelnytsky Uprising, Kielce, Kielce Ghetto, Kielce pogrom, Kiev, Kiev Offensive (1920), Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385), Kingdom of Prussia, Kościuszko Uprising, Koliyivshchyna, Koniuchy massacre, Konrad Tom, Kraków, Kraków Ghetto, Kresy, Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Krzysztof Szwagrzyk, KTAV Publishing House, L. L. Zamenhof, Labor rights, Lakhva, Landlord, Latin, Lauder – Morasha School, Leżajsk, Legnica, Leonid Hurwicz, Leopold Infeld, List of Gulag camps, List of Hasidic dynasties, List of Polish rabbis, List of riots, Lithuania, Lithuanian Jews, Louis I of Hungary, Lower Silesia, Lubartów, Lublin, Lublin Ghetto, Lutsk, Lviv, Lwów Ghetto, Lwów pogrom (1918), Machine gun, Magdeburg rights, Main Judaic Library, Majdanek concentration camp, Mandatory Palestine, March of the Living, Marci Shore, Marek Edelman, Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, Marian Hemar, Martin Gilbert, Maurycy Gottlieb, Maurycy Trębacz, Max Bodenheimer, Mówią Wieki, Menachem Begin, Messiah, Michael Schudrich, Midrasz, Mieczysław Moczar, Mieszko I of Poland, Mieszko III the Old, Milicja Obywatelska, Ministry of National Education (Poland), Ministry of Public Security (Poland), Mizrachi (religious Zionism), Mizrahi Jews, Moldova, Molotov cocktail, Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Monument to the Ghetto Heroes, Moors, Mordecai Paldiel, Mordecai Yoffe, Mordechai Anielewicz, Morgenthau Report, Moses Isserles, Moses Schorr, Moses Schorr Centre, Musar movement, Mysticism, Nadvorna (Hasidic dynasty), Names of God in Judaism, National Democracy, Nazi crime, Nazi Germany, Nazi ghettos, Nazism, Nicholas I of Russia, NKVD, NKVD prisoner massacres, Nożyk Synagogue, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, Nobel Prize in Literature, Norman Davies, North America, Numerus clausus, Oświęcim, Oświęcim Synagogue, Occupation of Poland (1939–1945), Okhrana, Operation Barbarossa, Operation Reinhard, Opoczno, Oral medicine, Orthodox Judaism, Ottoman Empire, Oxford University Press, Pale of Settlement, Paradise, Paris Peace Conference, 1919, Partitions of Poland, Płock, Peace of Riga, Peter Stachura, Pew Research Center, Philadelphia, Piast dynasty, Pilpul, Pinsk massacre, Piotrków Trybunalski, Poale Zion, Pogrom, Poland, Poland national football team, Polesie Voivodeship, POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews, Polish Academy of Sciences, Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany, Polish Armed Forces in the West, Polish army order of battle in 1939, Polish Cemetery at Monte Cassino, Polish census of 1931, Polish contribution to World War II, Polish government-in-exile, Polish language, Polish Legions in World War I, Polish legislative election, 1919, Polish legislative election, 1947, Polish People's Army, Polish People's Republic, Polish resistance movement in World War II, Polish Righteous Among the Nations, Polish Socialist Party, Polish Underground State, Polish United Workers' Party, Polish Wikipedia, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Polish–Lithuanian union, Polish–Soviet War, Polish–Ukrainian War, Politburo, Polonization, Population transfer in the Soviet Union, Poruchik, Poznań, Prime Minister of Israel, Prince Hassan bin Talal, Princeton University Press, Prisoner of war, Protectorate, Prussia, Przemyśl, Qahal, Rabbi, Rabbinic Judaism, Radhanite, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Radom, Radom Ghetto, Raphael Lemkin, Rector (academia), Reform Judaism, Reformation, Religious Zionism, Remah Synagogue, Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust, Resistance movement, Righteous Among the Nations, Roman Romkowski, Romania, Ronald Lauder, Rowman & Littlefield, Russia, Russian Civil War, Russian Empire, Russian Orthodox Church, Russian ruble, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Rzeszów, Sabbatai Zevi, Salomon Morel, Samuel Eilenberg, Sandomierz, Schutzstaffel, Second International, Second Polish Republic, Sejm, Sephardi Jews, Serfdom, Sevastopol, Sh'erit ha-Pletah, Shalom Shachna, Shechita, Shtetl, Shulchan Aruch, Sich Riflemen, Siege of Kraków (1657), Siege of Warsaw (1939), Sigismund I the Old, Sigismund II Augustus, Silesia, Simon Dubnow, Six-Day War, Slavery in the Ottoman Empire, Slavic Review, Sobibór extermination camp, Socialism, Solomon Luria, South America, Sovereign state, Soviet Army, Soviet invasion of Poland, Soviet Union, St. Martin's Press, Standard of living, Stanford University, Stanisław Aronson, Stanisław August Poniatowski, Stanisław Krajewski, Stanisławów Ghetto, Stanislaw Ulam, Star of David, Starvation, Status quo, Statute of Kalisz, Statutes of Casimir the Great, Statutes of Nieszawa, Stefan Czarniecki, Stroop Report, Stunning, Supreme National Committee, Swedish Empire, Synagogue, Szlachta, Szmalcownik, Szmul Zygielbojm, Szymon Kataszek, Tabloid (newspaper format), Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist), Talmud, Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture, Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties, Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union, The Dybbuk, The Economist, The Forward, The Holocaust, The Holocaust in Poland, The Journal of Modern History, The New York Times, Theresienstadt concentration camp, Three hares, Timothy D. Snyder, Toledo, Spain, Toleration, Torah, Tortosa, Trade union, Transliteration, Treblinka extermination camp, Turkey, Tykocin, Typhoid fever, U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad, Ukraine, Umschlagplatz, Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland, Union of Lublin, United States, United States Department of State, University of California Press, University of Warsaw, University of Wrocław, Vilna Troupe, Vilnius, Virtual Shtetl, Wacław Micuta, Walter Laqueur, Warsaw, Warsaw Ghetto, Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, Warsaw Uprising, Władysław Anders, Władysław Gomułka, Władysław I Herman, Władysław II Jagiełło, Władysław III Spindleshanks, Władysław Raczkiewicz, Władysław Sikorski, Władysław Szpilman, Western Europe, Wikimedia Commons, William W. Hagen, Witold Pilecki, Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939), Woodrow Wilson, Workers' Defence Committee, World War I, World War II, Wrocław, Yad Vashem, Yalta, Yehuda Bauer, Yehuda HaKohen ben Meir, Yeshiva, Yiddish, Yiddish theatre, Yitzhak Gruenbaum, Yitzhak Shamir, Yitzhak Zuckerman, YIVO, Yom HaShoah, Yugoslavia, Zamość, Zgoda labour camp, Zionism, Zygmunt Białostocki, 1905 Russian Revolution, 1968 Polish political crisis. Expand index (566 more) »

Adam Czerniaków

Adam Czerniaków (30 November 1880 – 23 July 1942) was a Polish-Jewish engineer and senator; head of the Warsaw Ghetto Jewish Council (Judenrat) during World War II.

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Adam Michnik

Adam Michnik (born 17 October 1946) is a Polish historian, essayist, former dissident, public intellectual, and editor-in-chief of the Polish newspaper, Gazeta Wyborcza.

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Adam Ulam

Adam Bruno Ulam (8 April 1922 – 28 March 2000) was a Polish-American historian of Jewish descent and political scientist at Harvard University.

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Adolf Berman

Adolf Avraham Berman (17 October 1906 – 3 February 1978) was a Polish-Israeli activist and communist politician.

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Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was a German politician, demagogue, and revolutionary, who was the leader of the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and Führer ("Leader") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945.

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Aftermath of World War I

The aftermath of World War I saw drastic political, cultural, economic, and social change across Eurasia (Europe and Asia), Africa, and even in areas outside those that were directly involved.

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Agudat Yisrael

Agudat Yisrael (אֲגוּדָּת יִשְׂרָאֵל, lit. Union of Israel, also transliterated Agudath Israel, or, in Yiddish, Agudas Yisroel) is an ultra-Orthodox Jewish political party in Israel.

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Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus (الأنْدَلُس, trans.; al-Ándalus; al-Ândalus; al-Àndalus; Berber: Andalus), also known as Muslim Spain, Muslim Iberia, or Islamic Iberia, was a medieval Muslim territory and cultural domain occupying at its peak most of what are today Spain and Portugal.

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Aleksander (Hasidic dynasty)

The Aleksander (Alt. Alexander, Hebrew script: אלכסנדר) hasidic movement flourished in Poland from 1880 until it was largely destroyed by Nazi Germany during World War II.

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Aleksander Wat

Aleksander Wat was the pen name of Aleksander Chwat (1 May 1900 – 29 July 1967), a Polish poet, writer, art theoretician, memorist, and one of the precursors of the Polish futurism movement in the early 1920s, considered to be one of the more important Polish writers of the mid 20th century.

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Alexander I of Russia

Alexander I (Александр Павлович, Aleksandr Pavlovich; –) reigned as Emperor of Russia between 1801 and 1825.

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Alexander II of Russia

Alexander II (p; 29 April 1818 – 13 March 1881) was the Emperor of Russia from the 2nd March 1855 until his assassination on 13 March 1881.

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Alexander III of Russia

Alexander III (r; 1845 1894) was the Emperor of Russia, King of Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland from until his death on.

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Alexander Jagiellon

Alexander I Jagiellon (Aleksander Jagiellończyk; Aleksandras Jogailaitis) (5 August 1461 – 19 August 1506) of the House of Jagiellon was the Grand Duke of Lithuania and later also King of Poland.

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Alfred Tarski

Alfred Tarski (January 14, 1901 – October 26, 1983), born Alfred Teitelbaum,School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews,, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews.

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Alhambra Decree

The Alhambra Decree (also known as the Edict of Expulsion; Spanish: Decreto de la Alhambra, Edicto de Granada) was an edict issued on 31 March 1492, by the joint Catholic Monarchs of Spain (Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon) ordering the expulsion of practicing Jews from the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon and its territories and possessions by 31 July of that year.

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Alice Teichova

Alice Teichova (19 September 1920 – 12 March 2015) was an Austrian-born British economist and economic historian.

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Alina Cała

Alina Cała (born 19 May 1953 in Warsaw) is a Polish writer, historian and sociologist.

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Aliyah

Aliyah (עֲלִיָּה aliyah, "ascent") is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to the Land of Israel (Eretz Israel in Hebrew).

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Allies of World War II

The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War (1939–1945).

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Alojzy Ehrlich

Alojzy "Alex" Ehrlich (1914 – 7 December 1992), also called "King of the Chiselers," was a Polish table tennis player, widely regarded as one of the best players in Polish history of this sport, who three times won silver in the World Championships.

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Alvydas Nikžentaitis

Alvydas Nikžentaitis (born on October 18, 1961) is a Lithuanian historian, senior research fellow of the Lithuanian Institute of History and president of Lithuanian National Historians Committee.

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American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee

The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, also known as the Joint or the JDC, is a Jewish relief organization based in New York City.

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Anatol Fejgin

Anatol Fejgin (Warsaw, September 25, 1909 – July 28, 2002 also in Warsaw) was a Polish-Jewish communist before World War II, and after 1949, commander of the Stalinist political police at the Ministry of Public Security of Poland, in charge of its notorious Special Bureau (the 10th Department).

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Andrzej Zamoyski

Count Andrzej Hieronim Franciszek Zamoyski (12 February 1716 – 10 February 1792) was a Polish noble (szlachcic).

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Animal rights

Animal rights is the idea in which some, or all, non-human animals are entitled to the possession of their own lives and that their most basic interests—such as the need to avoid suffering—should be afforded the same consideration as similar interests of human beings.

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Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1946)

The anti-communist resistance in Poland, also referred to as the Polish anti-Communist insurrection fought between 1944 and 1946 (and up until 1953), was an armed struggle by the Polish Underground against the Soviet takeover of Poland at the end of World War II in Europe.

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Anti-Defamation League

The Anti-Defamation League (ADL; formerly known as the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith) is an international Jewish non-governmental organization based in the United States.

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Anti-Fascist Military Organisation

Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa (Polish for Anti-Fascist Military Organisation) was an underground organization formed in 1942 in the Ghetto in Białystok by former officers of the Polish Land Forces.

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Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946

The anti-Jewish violence in Poland from 1944 to 1946 refers to a series of violent incidents in Poland that immediately followed the end of World War II in Europe and influenced the postwar history of the Jews as well as Polish-Jewish relations.

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Antisemitism

Antisemitism (also spelled anti-Semitism or anti-semitism) is hostility to, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews.

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Antisemitism in the Russian Empire

Antisemitism in the Russian Empire included numerous pogroms and the designation of the Pale of Settlement, from which Jews were forbidden to migrate into the interior of Russia, unless they converted to the Russian Orthodox state religion.

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Antony Polonsky

Antony Barry Polonsky (born 23 September 1940, Johannesburg, South Africa) is Albert Abramson Professor of Holocaust Studies at Brandeis University.

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Apolinary Hartglas

Maksymilian Apolinary Hartglas (April 7, 1883 – March 7, 1953) was a Zionist activist and one of the main political leaders of Polish Jews during the interwar period, a lawyer, a publicist, and a Sejm deputy from 1919 to 1930.

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Arabs

Arabs (عَرَب ISO 233, Arabic pronunciation) are a population inhabiting the Arab world.

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Arthur Rubinstein

Arthur Rubinstein (Artur Rubinstein; 28 January 188720 December 1982) was a Polish American classical pianist.

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Artur Gold

Artur (Arthur) Gold (born 17 March 1897, Warsaw, died 1943 in Treblinka) was a Polish Jewish violinist and dance-music composer during the Interbellum.

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Artur Markowicz

Artur Markowicz (1872 – 1934) was a Jewish realist painter and graphic artist born in Podgórze district of Kraków (Cracow), Poland.

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Ashkenazi Jews

Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or simply Ashkenazim (אַשְׁכְּנַזִּים, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation:, singular:, Modern Hebrew:; also), are a Jewish diaspora population who coalesced in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium.

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Attribution (copyright)

Attribution in copyright law, is acknowledgement as credit to the copyright holder or author of a work.

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Auschwitz concentration camp

Auschwitz concentration camp was a network of concentration and extermination camps built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II.

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Auschwitz cross

The Auschwitz cross is a cross erected near the Auschwitz concentration camp.

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Austria

Austria (Österreich), officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich), is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.8 million people in Central Europe.

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Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the Dual Monarchy in English-language sources, was a constitutional union of the Austrian Empire (the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, or Cisleithania) and the Kingdom of Hungary (Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen or Transleithania) that existed from 1867 to 1918, when it collapsed as a result of defeat in World War I. The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867.

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Austrian krone

The Krone (pl. Kronen) was the currency of Austria (then called Deutschösterreich) and Liechtenstein after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1919) until the introduction of the Schilling (1925) and the Franken, respectively.

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Łódź

Łódź (לאדזש, Lodzh; also written as Lodz) is the third-largest city in Poland and an industrial hub.

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Łódź Ghetto

The Łódź Ghetto (Ghetto Litzmannstadt) was a World War II ghetto established by the Nazi German authorities for Polish Jews and Roma following the 1939 invasion of Poland.

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Żegota

Żegota (full codename: the "Konrad Żegota Committee"Yad Vashem Shoa Resource Center) was the Polish Council to Aid Jews with the Government Delegation for Poland (Rada Pomocy Żydom przy Delegaturze Rządu RP na Kraj), an underground Polish resistance organization, and part of the Polish Underground State, active 1942–45 in German-occupied Poland.

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Żydokomuna

Żydokomuna ((Polish for "Jew-communism"; related to "Jewish Bolshevism") is a pejorative antisemitic stereotype suggesting that most Jews collaborated with the Soviet Union in importing communism into Poland or that there was an exclusively Jewish conspiracy to do so. Some Poles saw communism as part of a wider Jewish-led conspiracy to seize power, despite Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's antisemitism and other communists' view of religious, bourgeois, and Zionist Jews as enemies of communism. The stereotype of Żydokomuna originated as anti-communist propaganda at the time of the Polish-Soviet War (1919–21) and continued through the interwar period, despite only 2-7% of Polish Jews having voted for the Communist Party and its fronts, while most Polish Jews supported the Piłsudski government. After Piłsudski died in 1935, rising state antisemitism attracted secular, non-Zionist Polish Jews to a Soviet alternative; in the 1939-1941 Soviet annexation of eastern Poland, the stereotype was reinforced when Moscow initially put local Polish Jewish communists in positions of authority before replacing them with their own officials. The "Jew-communism" stereotype endured in postwar Poland (1944–56) because Polish anti-communists saw Poland's Soviet-controlled communist government as the fruition of prewar communist anti-Polish agitation and associated it with the Soviets' appointment of Jews to positions of responsibility in the Polish government. The stereotype was again reinforced by the prominent role of a small number of Jews in Poland's Stalinist regime: 37.1% of postwar Poland's Security Office and communist authorities were of Jewish origin, a group that was less than 0.1% of the total Polish Jewish population. It was described in intelligence reports as very loyal to the Soviets.Krzysztof Szwagrzyk, OBEP Wrocław,, Biuletyn IPN (Bulletin of the Institute of National Remebrance"), 11/2005. Some Polish historians have questioned the loyalty of Jews who returned to Poland from the USSR after the Soviet takeover of Poland, raising concern about potential revival of the Żydokomuna concept.

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Baal Shem Tov

Israel ben Eliezer (born circa 1700, died 22 May 1760), known as the Baal Shem Tov (בעל שם טוב) or as the Besht, was a Jewish mystical rabbi considered the founder of Hasidic Judaism.

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Baptism

Baptism (from the Greek noun βάπτισμα baptisma; see below) is a Christian sacrament of admission and adoption, almost invariably with the use of water, into Christianity.

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Bar Confederation

The Bar Confederation (Konfederacja barska; 1768–1772) was an association of Polish nobles (szlachta) formed at the fortress of Bar in Podolia in 1768 to defend the internal and external independence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth against Russian influence and against King Stanisław II Augustus with Polish reformers, who were attempting to limit the power of the Commonwealth's wealthy magnates.

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Baruch Steinberg

Baruch or Boruch Steinberg (17 December 1897–after 9 April 1940) was a Polish rabbi and military officer.

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Battle of Monte Cassino

The Battle of Monte Cassino (also known as the Battle for Rome and the Battle for Cassino) was a costly series of four assaults by the Allies against the Winter Line in Italy held by Axis forces during the Italian Campaign of World War II.

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BBC

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster.

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Bełżec extermination camp

Bełżec (in Belzec) was a Nazi German extermination camp built by the SS for the purpose of implementing the secretive Operation Reinhard, the plan to eradicate Polish Jewry, a key part of the "Final Solution" which entailed the murder of some 6 million Jews in the Holocaust.

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Beer

Beer is one of the oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drinks in the world, and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea.

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Beit Warszawa Synagogue

Note: "Beit Warszawa" is ambiguous, and refers to 3 different Beit Warszawa organizations operating in Poland. Beit Warszawa Synagogue is a liberal Jewish synagogue officially opened in 1999 in Warsaw.

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Belarus

Belarus (Беларусь, Biełaruś,; Беларусь, Belarus'), officially the Republic of Belarus (Рэспубліка Беларусь; Республика Беларусь), formerly known by its Russian name Byelorussia or Belorussia (Белоруссия, Byelorussiya), is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe bordered by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest.

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Berek Joselewicz

Berek Joselewicz (September 17, 1764 – May 15, 1809) was a Jewish-Polish merchant and a colonel of the Polish Army during the Kościuszko Uprising.

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Bernd Wegner

Bernd Wegner (born 1949) is a German historian who specialised in military history and the history of Nazism.

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Biała (Supraśl)

Biała is a river in eastern Poland in Podlaskie Voivodeship, a left tributary of the Supraśl River, with a length of 29.9 kilometres and a basin area of 119 km2.

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Białystok

Białystok (Bielastok, Balstogė, Belostok, Byalistok) is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship.

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Białystok Ghetto

The Białystok Ghetto (getto w Białymstoku) was a World War II Jewish ghetto set up by Nazi Germany between July 26 and early August 1941 in the newly formed Bezirk Bialystok district within Nazi occupied Poland.

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Białystok Ghetto uprising

The Białystok Ghetto uprising was a Jewish insurrection in the Białystok Ghetto against the Nazi German occupation authorities during World War II.

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Białystok pogrom

The Belostok (Białystok) pogrom occurred between 14–16 June 1906 (1–3 June Old Style) in Białystok, then part of the Russian Empire, now in Poland.

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Bielawa

Bielawa (Langenbielau; Bjelawa), population 31,988 (2010), is a town in southwestern Poland.

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Bielsko-Biała

Bielsko-Biała (Bílsko-Bělá; Bielitz-Biala) is a city in Southern Poland with the population of approximately 174,000 (December 2013).

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Black Death

The Black Death, also known as the Great Plague, the Black Plague, or simply the Plague, was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated people in Eurasia and peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351.

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Black market

A black market, underground economy, or shadow economy is a clandestine market or transaction that has some aspect of illegality or is characterized by some form of noncompliant behavior with an institutional set of rules.

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Blood libel

Blood libel (also blood accusation) is an accusationTurvey, Brent E. Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis, Academic Press, 2008, p. 3.

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Blue Army (Poland)

The Blue Army (Polish: Błękitna Armia), or Haller's Army was a Polish military contingent created in France during the latter stages of World War I. The name came from the French-issued blue military uniforms worn by the soldiers.

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Bobov (Hasidic dynasty)

Bobov (or Bobover Hasidism) (חסידות באבוב) is a Hasidic community within Haredi Judaism originating in Bobowa, Galicia, in southern Poland, and now headquartered in the neighborhood of Borough Park in Brooklyn, New York.

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Bochnia

Bochnia (German: Salzberg) is a town of 30,000 inhabitants on the river Raba in southern Poland.

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Bohdan Khmelnytsky

Zynoviy Bohdan Khmelnytsky (Ruthenian language: Ѕѣнові Богдан Хмелнiцкiи; modern Bohdan Zynoviy Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky; Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki; 6 August 1657) was a Polish–Lithuanian-born Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (now part of Ukraine).

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Bohemia

Bohemia (Čechy;; Czechy; Bohême; Bohemia; Boemia) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech lands in the present-day Czech Republic.

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Bolesław Bierut

Bolesław Bierut (18 April 1892 – 12 March 1956) was a Polish Communist leader, NKVD agent, and a hard-line Stalinist who became President of Poland after the defeat of the Nazi forces in.

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Bolesław I the Tall

Bolesław I the Tall (Bolesław I Wysoki) (b. 1127 – d. Leśnica, 7 or 8 December 1201) was a Duke of Wroclaw from 1163 until his death in 1201.

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Bolesław III Wrymouth

Bolesław III Wrymouth (also known as Boleslaus III the Wry-mouthed, Bolesław III Krzywousty) (20 August 1086 – 28 October 1138), was a Duke of Lesser Poland, Silesia and Sandomierz between 1102 and 1107 and over the whole Poland between 1107 and 1138.

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Bolesław Leśmian

Bolesław Leśmian (born Bolesław Lesman; January 22, 1877 – November 5, 1937) was a Polish poet, artist and member of the Polish Academy of Literature.

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Bolesław the Pious

Bolesław the Pious (Bolesław Pobożny) (1224/27 – 14 April 1279) was a Duke of Greater Poland during 1239–1247 (according to some historians during 1239–1241 sole Duke of Ujście), Duke of Kalisz during 1247–1249, Duke of Gniezno during 1249–1250, Duke of Gniezno-Kalisz during 1253–1257, Duke of whole Greater Poland and Poznań during 1257–1273, in 1261 ruler over Ląd, regent of the Duchies of Mazovia, Płock and Czersk during 1262–1264, ruler over Bydgoszcz during 1268–1273, Duke of Inowrocław during 1271–1273, and Duke of Gniezno-Kalisz from 1273 until his death.

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Bolków

Bolków (Bolkenhain) is a town in Jawor County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland.

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Bracteate

A bracteate (from the Latin bractea, a thin piece of metal) is a flat, thin, single-sided gold medal worn as jewelry that was produced in Northern Europe predominantly during the Migration Period of the Germanic Iron Age (including the Vendel era in Sweden).

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Brest, Belarus

Brest (Брэст There is also the name "Berestye", but it is found only in the Old Russian language and Tarashkevich., Брест Brest, Берестя Berestia, בריסק Brisk), formerly Brest-Litoŭsk (Брэст-Лiтоўск) (Brest-on-the-Bug), is a city (population 340,141 in 2016) in Belarus at the border with Poland opposite the Polish city of Terespol, where the Bug and Mukhavets rivers meet.

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Bricha

Bricha (בריחה, translit. Briẖa, "escape" or "flight"), also called the Bericha Movement, was the underground organized effort that helped Jewish Holocaust survivors escape post–World War II Europe to the British Mandate for Palestine in violation of the White Paper of 1939.

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Bruno Schulz

Bruno Schulz (July 12, 1892 – November 19, 1942) was a Polish Jewish writer, fine artist, literary critic and art teacher.

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Brześć Ghetto

The Brześć Ghetto or the Ghetto in Brest on the Bug, also: Brześć nad Bugiem Ghetto, and Brest-Litovsk Ghetto (getto w Brześciu nad Bugiem, בריסק or בריסק-ד׳ליטע.) was a World War II Jewish ghetto created by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland in December 1941, six months after the German troops had overrun the Soviet-occupied zone of the Second Polish Republic under the codename Operation Barbarossa.

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Bukhara

Bukhara (Uzbek Latin: Buxoro; Uzbek Cyrillic: Бухоро) is a city in Uzbekistan.

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Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press (CUP) is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge.

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Cantonist

Cantonists (Russian language: кантонисты; more properly: военные кантонисты, "military cantonists") were underage sons of Russian conscripts who from 1721 were educated in special "canton schools" (Кантонистские школы) for future military service (the schools were called garrison schools in the 18th century).

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Capital punishment

Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government-sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime.

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Casimir II the Just

Casimir II the Just (Kazimierz II Sprawiedliwy; 1138 – 5 May 1194) was a Lesser Polish Duke at Wiślica during 1166–1173, and at Sandomierz after 1173.

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Casimir III the Great

Casimir III the Great (Kazimierz III Wielki; 30 April 1310 – 5 November 1370) reigned as the King of Poland from 1333 to 1370.

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Casimir IV Jagiellon

Casimir IV KG (Kazimierz IV Andrzej Jagiellończyk; Kazimieras Jogailaitis; 30 November 1427 – 7 June 1492) of the Jagiellonian dynasty was Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1440 and King of Poland from 1447, until his death.

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Catherine the Great

Catherine II (Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна Yekaterina Alekseyevna; –), also known as Catherine the Great (Екатери́на Вели́кая, Yekaterina Velikaya), born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, was Empress of Russia from 1762 until 1796, the country's longest-ruling female leader.

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Catholic Church

The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.299 billion members worldwide.

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Caucasus

The Caucasus or Caucasia is a region located at the border of Europe and Asia, situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea and occupied by Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia.

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Cemetery

A cemetery or graveyard is a place where the remains of dead people are buried or otherwise interred.

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Central Committee of Polish Jews

The Central Committee of Polish Jews also referred to as the Central Committee of Jews in Poland and abbreviated CKŻP, (Centralny Komitet Żydów w Polsce, צענטראל קאמיטעט פון די יידן אין פוילן; tr:Centraler Komitet fun di Jidn in Pojln) was a state-sponsored political representation of Jews in Poland at the end of World War II.

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Central Statistical Office (Poland)

The Central Statistical Office (Główny Urząd Statystyczny; GUS) is Poland's chief government executive agency charged with collecting and publishing statistics related to the country's economy, population, and society, at the national and local levels.

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Centre for Public Opinion Research

Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej (CBOS) (Centre for Public Opinion Research) is an opinion polling institute in Poland, based in Warsaw.

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Chabad

Chabad, also known as Lubavitch, Habad and Chabad-Lubavitch, is an Orthodox Jewish, Hasidic movement.

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Chaim Goldberg

Chaim Goldberg (March 20, 1917 – June 26, 2004) was a Polish-Jewish artist, painter, sculptor, and engraver.

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Chancellor (Poland)

Chancellor of Poland (Kanclerz -, from cancellarius) was one of the highest officials in the historic Poland.

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Charles X Gustav of Sweden

Charles X Gustav, also Carl Gustav (Karl X Gustav; 8 November 1622 – 13 February 1660), was King of Sweden from 1654 until his death.

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Chełmno extermination camp

Chełmno extermination camp (Vernichtungslager Kulmhof), built during World War II, was the first of the Nazi German extermination camps and was situated north of the metropolitan city of Łódź (renamed to Litzmannstadt), near the village of Chełmno nad Nerem (Kulmhof an der Nehr in German).

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Chief Rabbi

Chief Rabbi is a title given in several countries to the recognised religious leader of that country's Jewish community, or to a rabbinic leader appointed by the local secular authorities.

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Christian

A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ.

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Christianity

ChristianityFrom Ancient Greek Χριστός Khristós (Latinized as Christus), translating Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, Māšîăḥ, meaning "the anointed one", with the Latin suffixes -ian and -itas.

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Citizenship

Citizenship is the status of a person recognized under the custom or law as being a legal member of a sovereign state or belonging to a nation.

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Commerce

Commerce relates to "the exchange of goods and services, especially on a large scale.” Commerce includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural and technological systems that operate in any country or internationally.

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Commission of National Education

The Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, abbreviated KEN, Edukacinė komisija, Адукацыйная камісія) was the central educational authority in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created by the Sejm and the King Stanisław August Poniatowski on October 14, 1773.

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Communism

In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal") is the philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money and the state.

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Communist Party of Poland

The Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski, KPP) was a communist party in Poland.

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Congress Poland

The Kingdom of Poland, informally known as Congress Poland or Russian Poland, was created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a sovereign state of the Russian part of Poland connected by personal union with the Russian Empire under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland until 1832.

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Cossacks

Cossacks (козаки́, translit, kozaky, казакi, kozacy, Czecho-Slovak: kozáci, kozákok Pronunciations.

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Counter-Reformation

The Counter-Reformation, also called the Catholic Reformation or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, beginning with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War (1648).

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Crimean Khanate

The Crimean Khanate (Mongolian: Крымын ханлиг; Crimean Tatar / Ottoman Turkish: Къырым Ханлыгъы, Qırım Hanlığı, rtl or Къырым Юрту, Qırım Yurtu, rtl; Крымское ханство, Krymskoje hanstvo; Кримське ханство, Krymśke chanstvo; Chanat Krymski) was a Turkic vassal state of the Ottoman Empire from 1478 to 1774, the longest-lived of the Turkic khanates that succeeded the empire of the Golden Horde.

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Częstochowa Ghetto

The Częstochowa Ghetto was a World War II ghetto set up by Nazi Germany for the purpose of persecution and exploitation of local Jews in the city of Częstochowa during the German occupation of Poland.

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Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia, or Czecho-Slovakia (Czech and Československo, Česko-Slovensko), was a sovereign state in Central Europe that existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until its peaceful dissolution into the:Czech Republic and:Slovakia on 1 January 1993.

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Dariusz Stola

Dariusz Stola (born 11 December 1963 in Warsaw, Poland) is a professor of history at the Institute of Political Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences.

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David HaLevi Segal

David ha-Levi Segal (c. 1586 – 20 February 1667), also known as the Turei Zahav (abbreviated Taz) after the title of his significant halakhic commentary on the Shulchan Aruch, was one of the greatest Polish rabbinical authorities.

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David Kahane

David Kahane ('''דוד כהנא'''., Dawid Kahane.; Grzymałów, 15 March 1903 – 24 September 1998, Jerusalem), religious teacher, a doctor of philosophy, member of the Mizrachi party leadership in Lwów, Holocaust survivor, Chief rabbi of the Polish post-war army.

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De-Stalinization

De-Stalinization (Russian: десталинизация, destalinizatsiya) consisted of a series of political reforms in the Soviet Union after the death of long-time leader Joseph Stalin in 1953, and the ascension of Nikita Khrushchev to power.

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Death squad

A death squad is an armed group that conducts extrajudicial killings or forced disappearances of persons for the purposes of political repression, genocide, or revolutionary terror.

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Deluge (history)

The term Deluge (pоtор szwedzki, švedų tvanas) denotes a series of mid-17th-century campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Dzierżoniów

Dzierżoniów (Reichenbach im Eulengebirge; from 1945-1946 Rychbach, Drobniszew) is a town located at the foot of the Owl Mountains in southwestern Poland, within the Lower Silesian Voivodeship (from 1975–1998 in the former Wałbrzych Voivodeship).

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Eastern Bloc

The Eastern Bloc was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact.

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Eastern Europe

Eastern Europe is the eastern part of the European continent.

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Einsatzgruppen

Einsatzgruppen ("task forces" or "deployment groups") were Schutzstaffel (SS) paramilitary death squads of Nazi Germany that were responsible for mass killings, primarily by shooting, during World War II (1939–45).

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Ekstraklasa

The Ekstraklasa is the top Polish professional league for men's association football clubs (it is the country's primary football competition).

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Emancipation reform of 1861

The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia (translit, literally: "the peasants Reform of 1861") was the first and most important of liberal reforms passed during the reign (1855-1881) of Emperor Alexander II of Russia.

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Emanuel Ringelblum

Emanuel Ringelblum (November 21, 1900 – March 7, 1944) was a Polish-Jewish historian, politician and social worker, known for his Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto, Notes on the Refugees in Zbąszyn chronicling the deportation of Jews from the town of Zbąszyń, and the so-called Ringelblum's Archives of the Warsaw Ghetto.

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Emanuel Schlechter

Emanuel Schlechter (pseudonyms Eman, Olgierd Lech) (Emanuel Szlechter) (9 October 1904 – 1943) was born and died in Lwów.

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Emil August Fieldorf

Emil August Fieldorf “Nil” (20 March 1895 – 24 February 1953) was a Polish brigadier general and a Second World War hero.

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Esperanto

Esperanto (or; Esperanto) is a constructed international auxiliary language.

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Esterka

Esterka was the legendary Jewish mistress of Casimir the Great, the King of Poland between 1333 and 1370.

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Europe

Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere.

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European Council

The European Council, charged with defining the European Union's (EU) overall political direction and priorities, is the institution of the EU that comprises the heads of state or government of the member states, along with the President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission.

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European Union

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of EUnum member states that are located primarily in Europe.

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Extermination camp

Nazi Germany built extermination camps (also called death camps or killing centers) during the Holocaust in World War II, to systematically kill millions of Jews, Slavs, Communists, and others whom the Nazis considered "Untermenschen" ("subhumans").

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Extraordinary State Commission

The Extraordinary State Commission was a Soviet government agency formed by the Council of People's Commissars on 2 November 1942, by a decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.

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Farm Animal Welfare Committee

The Farm Animal Welfare Committee (FAWC) is an independent advisory body established by the Government of Great Britain in 2011.

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Final Solution

The Final Solution (Endlösung) or the Final Solution to the Jewish Question (die Endlösung der Judenfrage) was a Nazi plan for the extermination of the Jews during World War II.

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First Crusade

The First Crusade (1095–1099) was the first of a number of crusades that attempted to recapture the Holy Land, called for by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont in 1095.

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First Partition of Poland

The First Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in 1772 as the first of three partitions that ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795.

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Folkspartei

The Folkspartei (ייִדישע פֿאָלקספּאַרטײַ, yidishe folkspartei, 'Jewish People's Party, folkist party) was founded after the 1905 pogroms in the Russian Empire by Simon Dubnow and Israel Efrojkin.

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Forced labour under German rule during World War II

The use of forced labour and slavery in Nazi Germany and throughout German-occupied Europe during World War II took place on an unprecedented scale.

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Franklin D. Roosevelt

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Sr. (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945.

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French Revolution

The French Revolution (Révolution française) was a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France and its colonies that lasted from 1789 until 1799.

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Galicia Jewish Museum

The Galicia Jewish Museum (Polish: Żydowskie Muzeum Galicja) is located in the historic Jewish district of Kazimierz in Kraków, Poland.

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Galician Jews

Galician Jews or Galitzianers are a subdivision of the Ashkenazim geographically originating from Galicia, from western Ukraine (current Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, and Ternopil regions) and from the south-eastern corner of Poland (Podkarpackie and Lesser Poland voivodeships).

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Gazeta Polska (1929–39)

Gazeta Polska was an important newspaper in the interwar Poland, published from 1929 to 1939 in Warsaw.

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Gazeta Wyborcza

Gazeta Wyborcza (meaning Electoral Newspaper in English) is a newspaper published in Warsaw, Poland.

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Góra Kalwaria

Góra Kalwaria is a town on the Vistula River in the Mazovian Voivodship, Poland, about southeast of Warsaw.

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Gęsiówka

Gęsiówka is the colloquial Polish name for a prison that once existed on Gęsia ("Goose") Street in Warsaw, Poland, and which, under German occupation during World War II, became a Nazi concentration camp.

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General Government

The General Government (Generalgouvernement, Generalne Gubernatorstwo, Генеральна губернія), also referred to as the General Governorate, was a German zone of occupation established after the joint invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939 at the onset of World War II.

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General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia

The General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia (אַלגעמײַנער ײדישער אַרבעטער בּונד אין ליטע פוילין און רוסלאַנד, Algemeyner Yidisher Arbeter Bund in Litah, Poyln un Rusland), generally called The Bund (בונד, cognate to Bund, meaning federation or union) or the Jewish Labour Bund, was a secular Jewish socialist party in the Russian Empire, active between 1897 and 1920.

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General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland

The General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland (אַלגעמײַנער ײדישער אַרבעטער בּונד אין פוילין tr: Algemeyner yidisher arbeter bund in poyln, Ogólno-Żydowski Związek Robotniczy "Bund" w Polsce) was a Jewish socialist party in Poland which promoted the political, cultural and social autonomy of Jewish workers, sought to combat antisemitism and was generally opposed to Zionism.

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General Zionists

The General Zionists (הַצִיּוֹנִים הַכְּלָלִיים, translit. HaTzionim HaKlaliym) were a centre-right Zionist movement and a political party in Israel.

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Genocide

Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people (usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group) in whole or in part.

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Georges Charpak

Georges Charpak (born Jerzy Charpak, 8 March 1924 – 29 September 2010) was a Polish-born French physicist from a Jewish family who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1992.

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Ger (Hasidic dynasty)

Ger, or Gur (or Gerrer when used as an adjective) is a Hasidic dynasty originating from Ger, the Yiddish name of Góra Kalwaria, a small town in Poland.

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German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews

The German Committee for the Freeing of Russian Jews (German, 'Deutsches Komitee zur Befreiung der russischen Juden') was created in August 1914 by Max Bodenheimer with Franz Oppenheimer, Adolf Friedman and Leo Motzkin to lobby for the socio-political liberation of Jewish people living in the Russian Empire and ensure their protection from pogroms.

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German Empire

The German Empire (Deutsches Kaiserreich, officially Deutsches Reich),Herbert Tuttle wrote in September 1881 that the term "Reich" does not literally connote an empire as has been commonly assumed by English-speaking people.

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German-occupied Poland

German-occupied Poland during World War II consisted of two major parts with different type of administration.

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Gesta principum Polonorum

The Gesta principum Polonorum (Deeds of the Princes of the Poles) is a medieval gesta, or deeds narrative, concerned with Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth, his ancestors, and the Polish principality during and before his reign.

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Gestapo

The Gestapo, abbreviation of Geheime Staatspolizei (Secret State Police), was the official secret police of Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe.

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Ghetto

A ghetto is a part of a city in which members of a minority group live, typically as a result of social, legal, or economic pressure.

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Ghetto benches

Ghetto benches (known in Polish as getto ławkowe) was a form of official segregation in the seating of students, introduced in 1935 at the Lwow Polytechnic.

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Ghetto uprising

The ghetto uprisings during World War II were a series of armed revolts against the regime of Nazi Germany between 1941 and 1943 in the newly established Jewish ghettos across Nazi-occupied Europe.

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Gniezno

Gniezno (Gnesen) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań, with about 70,000 inhabitants.

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God's Playground

God's Playground: A History of Poland is a history book in two volumes written by Norman Davies, covering a thousand-year history of Poland.

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Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state that lasted from the 13th century up to 1795, when the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and Austria.

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Great Depression

The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place mostly during the 1930s, beginning in the United States.

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Greater Poland

Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (Großpolen; Latin: Polonia Maior), is a historical region of west-central Poland.

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Grodno Governorate

The Grodno Governorate, (translit, Gubernia grodzieńska, translit, Gardino gubernija) was a governorate (guberniya) of the Russian Empire.

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Grossaktion Warsaw (1942)

The Grossaktion or Gross-Aktion Warsaw (Großaktion Warschau, Great Action) was a secretive Nazi German operation of the mass extermination of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto beginning 22 July 1942.

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Gruppenführer

Gruppenführer ("group leader") was an early paramilitary rank of the Nazi Party (NSDAP), first created in 1925 as a senior rank of the SA.

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Gulag

The Gulag (ГУЛАГ, acronym of Главное управление лагерей и мест заключения, "Main Camps' Administration" or "Chief Administration of Camps") was the government agency in charge of the Soviet forced labor camp system that was created under Vladimir Lenin and reached its peak during Joseph Stalin's rule from the 1930s to the 1950s.

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Gunnar S. Paulsson

Gunnar Svante Paulsson (also known as Steve Paulsson) is a Swedish-born Canadian historian, university lecturer and author who has taught in Britain, Canada, Germany and Italy.

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Gymnasium (school)

A gymnasium is a type of school with a strong emphasis on academic learning, and providing advanced secondary education in some parts of Europe comparable to British grammar schools, sixth form colleges and US preparatory high schools.

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Haganah

Haganah (הַהֲגָנָה, lit. The Defence) was a Jewish paramilitary organization in the British Mandate of Palestine (1921–48), which became the core of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).

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Halakha

Halakha (הֲלָכָה,; also transliterated as halacha, halakhah, halachah or halocho) is the collective body of Jewish religious laws derived from the Written and Oral Torah.

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Haman

Haman (also known as Haman the Agagite המן האגגי, or Haman the evil המן הרשע) is the main antagonist in the Book of Esther, who, according to the Hebrew Bible, was a vizier in the Persian empire under King Ahasuerus, traditionally identified as Xerxes I. As his name indicates, Haman was a descendant of Agag, the king of the Amalekites, a people who were wiped out in certain areas by King Saul and David.

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Hans Frank

Hans Michael Frank (23 May 1900 – 16 October 1946) was a German war criminal and lawyer who worked for the Nazi Party during the 1920s and 1930s, and later became Adolf Hitler's personal lawyer.

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Haredi Judaism

Haredi Judaism (חֲרֵדִי,; also spelled Charedi, plural Haredim or Charedim) is a broad spectrum of groups within Orthodox Judaism, all characterized by a rejection of modern secular culture.

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Hasidic Judaism

Hasidism, sometimes Hasidic Judaism (hasidut,; originally, "piety"), is a Jewish religious group.

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Haskalah

The Haskalah, often termed Jewish Enlightenment (השכלה; literally, "wisdom", "erudition", Yiddish pronunciation Heskole) was an intellectual movement among the Jews of Central and Eastern Europe, with certain influence on those in Western Europe and the Muslim world.

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Hasmonea Lwów

Hasmonea Lwów was a Polish-Jewish sports club based in the city of Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine).

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Hebrew alphabet

The Hebrew alphabet (אָלֶף־בֵּית עִבְרִי), known variously by scholars as the Jewish script, square script and block script, is an abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language, also adapted as an alphabet script in the writing of other Jewish languages, most notably in Yiddish (lit. "Jewish" for Judeo-German), Djudío (lit. "Jewish" for Judeo-Spanish), and Judeo-Arabic.

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Hebrew language

No description.

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Heinrich Himmler

Heinrich Luitpold Himmler (7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945) was Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel (Protection Squadron; SS), and a leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) of Germany.

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Helena Wolińska-Brus

Helena Wolińska-Brus (28 February 1919 – 26 November 2008) was a military prosecutor in postwar communist Poland with the rank of lieutenant-colonel (podpułkownik), involved in Stalinist regime show trials of the 1950s.

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Henry Morgenthau Sr.

Henry Morgenthau (April 26, 1856 – November 25, 1946) was an American lawyer, businessman and United States ambassador, most famous as the American ambassador to the Ottoman Empire during the First World War.

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Henryk Gold

Henryk Gold (19029 January 1977 in New York City, United States) was a Polish Jewish composer, arranger, and orchestra director.

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Henryk Wars

Henryk Wars (born Henryk Warszawski; 29 December 1902 – 1 September 1977) was a Polish pop music composer.

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Hilary Minc

Hilary Minc (24 August 1905, Kazimierz Dolny – 26 November 1974, Warsaw) was a communist politician in Stalinist Poland and a pro-Soviet Marxist economist.

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Hippocrene Books

Hippocrene Books is an independent US publishing press located at 171 Madison Avenue, New York City, NY 10016.

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History of Poland

The history of Poland has its roots in the migrations of Slavs, who established permanent settlements in the Polish lands during the Early Middle Ages.

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History of Poland (1795–1918)

In 1795 the third and the last of the three 18th-century partitions of Poland ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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History of Poland (1939–1945)

The history of Poland from 1939 to 1945 encompasses primarily the period from the Invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany to the end of World War II.

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History of Poland (1945–1989)

The history of Poland from 1945 to 1989 spans the period of Soviet dominance and communist rule imposed after the end of World War II over Poland, as reestablished within new borders.

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History of the Jews in Austria

The history of the Jews in Austria probably begins with the exodus of Jews from Judea under Roman occupation.

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History of the Jews in Germany

Jewish settlers founded the Ashkenazi Jewish community in the Early (5th to 10th centuries CE) and High Middle Ages (circa 1000–1299 CE).

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History of the Jews in Hungary

Jews have a long history in the country now known as Hungary, with some records even predating the AD 895 Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin by over 600 years.

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History of the Jews in Spain

Spanish Jews once constituted one of the largest and most prosperous Jewish communities in the world.

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Holy Roman Empire

The Holy Roman Empire (Sacrum Romanum Imperium; Heiliges Römisches Reich) was a multi-ethnic but mostly German complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806.

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Home Army

The Home Army (Armia Krajowa;, abbreviated AK) was the dominant Polish resistance movement in Poland, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, during World War II.

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Hoover Institution

The Hoover Institution is an American public policy think tank and research institution located at Stanford University in California.

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House of Vasa

The House of Vasa (Vasaätten, Wazowie, Vaza) was an early modern royal house founded in 1523 in Sweden, ruling Sweden 1523–1654, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1587–1668, and the Tsardom of Russia 1610–1613 (titular until 1634).

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Hovevei Zion

Hovevei Zion (חובבי ציון, lit. Lovers of Zion), also known as Hibbat Zion (חיבת ציון), refers to a variety of organizations which began in 1881 in response to the Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire and were officially constituted as a group at a conference led by Leon Pinsker in 1884.

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Hungary

Hungary (Magyarország) is a country in Central Europe that covers an area of in the Carpathian Basin, bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Austria to the northwest, Romania to the east, Serbia to the south, Croatia to the southwest, and Slovenia to the west.

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Ibrahim ibn Yaqub

Ibrahim ibn Yaqub (961–62; sometimes Ibrâhîm ibn Ya`qûb al-Tartushi or al-Ṭurṭûshî; also Abraham ben Jacob) was a 10th-century Hispano-Arabic, Sephardi Jewish traveller, probably a merchant, who may have also engaged in diplomacy and espionage.

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Ida Kamińska

Ida Kamińska (September 18, 1899 – May 21, 1980) was a Polish-Jewish actress and director.

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Ignacy Jan Paderewski

Ignacy Jan Paderewski (– 29 June 1941) was a Polish pianist and composer, politician, statesman and spokesman for Polish independence.

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II Corps (Poland)

The Polish II Corps (Drugi Korpus Wojska Polskiego), 1943–1947, was a major tactical and operational unit of the Polish Armed Forces in the West during World War II.

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Independence Day (Israel)

Independence Day (יום העצמאות Yom Ha'atzmaut, lit. "Day of Independence") is the national day of Israel, commemorating the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948.

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Infection

Infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they produce.

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Institute of National Remembrance

The Institute of National Remembrance – Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation (Instytut Pamięci Narodowej – Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu; IPN) is a Polish government-affiliated research institute with lustration prerogatives, as well as prosecution powers.

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Internet Archive

The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge." It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, movies/videos, moving images, and nearly three million public-domain books.

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Interwar period

In the context of the history of the 20th century, the interwar period was the period between the end of the First World War in November 1918 and the beginning of the Second World War in September 1939.

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Invasion of Poland

The Invasion of Poland, known in Poland as the September Campaign (Kampania wrześniowa) or the 1939 Defensive War (Wojna obronna 1939 roku), and in Germany as the Poland Campaign (Polenfeldzug) or Fall Weiss ("Case White"), was a joint invasion of Poland by Germany, the Soviet Union, the Free City of Danzig, and a small Slovak contingent that marked the beginning of World War II.

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Irgun

The Irgun (ארגון; full title:, lit. "The National Military Organization in the Land of Israel") was a Zionist paramilitary organization that operated in Mandate Palestine between 1931 and 1948.

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Isaac Babel

Isaac Emmanuilovich Babel (p; – 27 January 1940) was a Russian-language journalist, playwright, literary translator, historian and Bolshevik revolutionary.

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Isaac Bashevis Singer

Isaac Bashevis Singer (יצחק באַשעװיס זינגער; November 21, 1902 – July 24, 1991) was a Polish-born Jewish writer in Yiddish, awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1978.

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Israel

Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea.

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Israel Central Bureau of Statistics

The Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (הלשכה המרכזית לסטטיסטיקה, HaLishka HaMerkazit LiStatistika), abbreviated CBS, is an Israeli government office established in 1949 to carry out research and publish statistical data on all aspects of Israeli life, including population, society, economy, industry, education, and physical infrastructure.

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Israel–Poland relations

Israel–Poland relations refers to the diplomatic relations between Israel and Poland.

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Italy

Italy (Italia), officially the Italian Republic (Repubblica Italiana), is a sovereign state in Europe.

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Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski

Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski (3 September 1921 – 21 July 2016) was a Polish-born polymath and inventor with 50 patents to his credit.

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Jacob Frank

Jacob Joseph Frank (יעקב פרנק, Jakub Józef Frank, born Jakub Lejbowicz; 1726 – December 10, 1791) was an 18th-century Polish-Jewish religious leader who claimed to be the reincarnation of the self-proclaimed messiah Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676) and also of the biblical patriarch Jacob.

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Jacob Pollak

Rabbi Jacob Pollak (other common spelling Yaakov Pollack) was the founder of the Polish method of halakhic and Talmudic study known as the Pilpul; born about 1460; died at Lublin in 1541.

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Jadwiga of Poland

Jadwiga, also known as Hedwig (Hedvig; 1373/4 – 17 July 1399), was the first female monarch of the Kingdom of Poland, reigning from 16 October 1384 until her death.

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Jagiellonian dynasty

The Jagiellonian dynasty was a royal dynasty, founded by Jogaila (the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who in 1386 was baptized as Władysław, married Queen regnant (also styled "King") Jadwiga of Poland, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło. The dynasty reigned in several Central European countries between the 14th and 16th centuries. Members of the dynasty were Kings of Poland (1386–1572), Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377–1392 and 1440–1572), Kings of Hungary (1440–1444 and 1490–1526), and Kings of Bohemia (1471–1526). The personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (converted in 1569 with the Treaty of Lublin into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) is the reason for the common appellation "Poland–Lithuania" in discussions about the area from the Late Middle Ages onward. One Jagiellonian briefly ruled both Poland and Hungary (1440–44), and two others ruled both Bohemia and Hungary (1490–1526) and then continued in the distaff line as a branch of the House of Habsburg. The Polish "Golden Age", the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance. The cultural flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk.

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Jagiellonian University

The Jagiellonian University (Polish: Uniwersytet Jagielloński; Latin: Universitas Iagellonica Cracoviensis, also known as the University of Kraków) is a research university in Kraków, Poland.

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Jakub Berman

Jakub Berman (26 December 1901 – 10 April 1984) was a prominent communist in prewar Poland.

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Jakub Kagan

Jakub Kagan (7 February 1896 – 1942) was a popular Polish-Jewish composer, pianist, jazz musician and arranger.

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Jan Brzechwa

Jan Brzechwa, (15 August 1898 – 2 July 1966) was a Polish poet and author, known mostly for his contribution to children's literature.

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Jan Karski

Jan Karski (24 June 1914 – 13 July 2000) was a Polish World War II resistance-movement soldier, and later a professor at Georgetown University.

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Jan Kiepura

Jan Wiktor Kiepura (May 16, 1902 – August 15, 1966) was a Polish singer (tenor) and actor.

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Jan T. Gross

Jan Tomasz Gross (born 1947) is a Polish-American sociologist and historian.

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January Uprising

The January Uprising (Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m. sukilimas, Belarusian: Паўстанне 1863-1864 гадоў, Польське повстання) was an insurrection instigated principally in the Russian Partition of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against its occupation by the Russian Empire.

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Józef Światło

Józef Światło, born Izaak Fleischfarb (1 January 1915 – 2 September 1994), was a high-ranking official in the Ministry of Public Security of Poland (MBP) who served as deputy director of the 10th Department run by Anatol Fejgin.

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Józef Klotz

Józef Klotz (2 January 1900–1941), born in Kraków, was a Polish Jewish footballer.

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Józef Piłsudski

Józef Klemens Piłsudski (5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman; he was Chief of State (1918–22), "First Marshal of Poland" (from 1920), and de facto leader (1926–35) of the Second Polish Republic as the Minister of Military Affairs.

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Józef Różański

Józef Różański (b. Josek Goldberg; The Doomed Soldiers, 2010. Warsaw, 13 July 1907 – 21 August 1981, Warsaw) was a Officer in the Soviet NKVD Secret Police and later, a Colonel in the Ministry of Public Security and Intelligence of Poland.

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Jürgen Stroop

Jürgen Stroop (born Josef Stroop, 26 September 1895 – 6 March 1952) was a German SS commander during the Nazi era, who served as SS and Police Leader in occupied Poland.

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Jedwabne pogrom

The Jedwabne pogrom (Pogrom w Jedwabnem) was a World War II massacre committed in the town of Jedwabne, German-occupied Poland, on 10 July 1941.

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Jerzy Jurandot

Jerzy Jurandot, born Jerzy Glejgewicht (19 March 1911 – 16 August 1979), was a popular Polish-Jewish poet, dramatist, satirist and songwriter.

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Jerzy Petersburski

Jerzy Petersburski (1895 – 1979) was a Polish pianist and composer of popular music, renowned mostly for his Tangos, some of which (such as To ostatnia niedziela, Już nigdy and Tango Milonga) were milestones in popularization of the musical genre in Poland and are still widely known today, more than half a century after their creation.

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Jewish Agency for Israel

The Jewish Agency for Israel (הסוכנות היהודית לארץ ישראל, HaSochnut HaYehudit L'Eretz Yisra'el) is the largest Jewish nonprofit organization in the world.

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Jewish Combat Organization

The Jewish Combat Organization (Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa, ŻOB; ייִדישע קאַמף אָרגאַניזאַציע Yidishe Kamf Organizatsie; often translated to English as the Jewish Fighting Organization) was a World War II resistance movement in occupied Poland, which was instrumental in engineering the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.

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Jewish Community Center

A Jewish Community Center or Jewish Community Centre (JCC) is a general recreational, social, and fraternal organization serving the Jewish community in a number of cities.

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Jewish culture

Jewish culture is the culture of the Jewish people from the formation of the Jewish nation in biblical times through life in the diaspora and the modern state of Israel.

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Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków

The Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków (Festiwal Kultury Żydowskiej w Krakowie, ייִדישער קולטור־פֿעסטיוואַל אין קראָקע) is an annual cultural event organized since 1988 in the once Jewish district of Kazimierz (part of Kraków) by the Jewish Culture Festival Society headed by Janusz Makuch, a self-described meshugeneh, fascinated with all things Jewish.

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Jewish Encyclopedia

The Jewish Encyclopedia is an English encyclopedia containing over 15,000 articles on the history, culture, and state of Judaism and the Jews up to the early 20th century.

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Jewish ethnic divisions

Jewish ethnic divisions refers to a number of distinctive communities within the world's ethnically Jewish population.

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Jewish Ghetto Police

The Jewish Ghetto Police or Jewish Police Service (Jüdische Ghetto-Polizei or Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst), also called the Jewish Police by Jews, were auxiliary police units organized within the Jewish ghettos of German-occupied Poland by local Judenrat (Jewish council) collaborating with the German Nazis.

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Jewish Historical Institute

The Jewish Historical Institute (Żydowski Instytut Historyczny or ŻIH) also known as the Emanuel Ringelblum Jewish Historical Institute, is a research foundation in Warsaw, Poland, primarily dealing with the history of Jews in Poland.

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Jewish history

Jewish history is the history of the Jews, and their religion and culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions and cultures.

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Jewish Military Union

Żydowski Związek Wojskowy (ŻZW, Polish for Jewish Military Union) was an underground resistance organization operating during World War II in the area of the Warsaw Ghetto, which fought during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and 1944 Warsaw Uprising.

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Jewish political movements

Jewish political movements refer to the organized efforts of Jews to build their own political parties or otherwise represent their interest in politics outside the Jewish community.

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Jewish Roots in Poland

Jewish Roots in Poland (full title: Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories) is a book created by genealogist Miriam Weiner and co-published by The Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation and YIVO Institute for Jewish Research.

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Jewish-Polish history (1989–present)

With the end of Communism in Poland the Jewish cultural, social, and religious life has been undergoing a revival.

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Jews

Jews (יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3, Israeli pronunciation) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and a nation, originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history" and Hebrews of the Ancient Near East.

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Joanna Michlic

Joanna Beata Michlic is an American scholar of Polish-Jewish history and the Holocaust in Poland.

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Joel Sirkis

Joel ben Samuel Sirkis (יואל בן שמואל סירקיש) also known as the Bach - בית חדש) ב"ח)—an abbreviation of his magnum opus, Bayit Chadash—was a prominent Jewish posek and halakhist. He lived in central Europe and held rabbinical positions in Belz, Brest-Litovsk and Kraków. He lived from 1561 to 1640.

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John I Albert

John I Albert (Jan I Olbracht) (27 December 1459 – 17 June 1501) was King of Poland (1492–1501) and Duke of Głogów (1491–1498).

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John of Capistrano

Saint John of Capestrano (Italian: San Giovanni da Capestrano, Hungarian: Kapisztrán János, Polish: Jan Kapistran, Croatian: Ivan Kapistran, Serbian: Јован Капистран, Jovan Kapistran) (24 June 1386 – 23 October 1456) was a Franciscan friar and Catholic priest from the Italian town of Capestrano, Abruzzo.

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Joseph Stalin

Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was a Soviet revolutionary and politician of Georgian nationality.

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Judaism

Judaism (originally from Hebrew, Yehudah, "Judah"; via Latin and Greek) is the religion of the Jewish people.

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Judenrat

A Judenrat ("Jewish council") was a World War II Jewish-German-collaborative administrative agency imposed by Germany, principally within the ghettos of occupied Europe, including those of German-occupied Poland.

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Judeopolonia

Judeopolonia is a conspiracy theory positing future Jewish domination of Poland.

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Judith of Bohemia

Judith of Bohemia (c. 1056/58 – 25 December 1086), also known as Judith Přemyslid, was a Bohemian princess of the Přemyslid dynasty, and Duchess of Poland by marriage.

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Julian Tuwim

Julian Tuwim (September 13, 1894 – December 27, 1953), known also under the pseudonym "Oldlen" as a lyricist,.

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Jutrzenka Kraków

Jutrzenka Kraków was a Jewish minority Polish football club during the interwar period.

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Kabbalah

Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה, literally "parallel/corresponding," or "received tradition") is an esoteric method, discipline, and school of thought that originated in Judaism.

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Kalisz

Kalisz (Old Greek: Καλισία, Latin: Calisia, Yiddish: קאַליש, Kalisch) is a city in central Poland with 101,625 inhabitants (December 2017), the capital city of the Kalisz Region.

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Kapo (concentration camp)

A kapo or prisoner functionary (Funktionshäftling, see) was a prisoner in a Nazi concentration camp who was assigned by the SS guards to supervise forced labor or carry out administrative tasks.

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Katowice Conference

The Katowice Conference (also known as the Kattowitz Conference) was a convention of Hovevei Zion groups from various countries held in Kattowitz, Germany (today: Katowice, Poland) in November, 1884.

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Katyn massacre

The Katyn massacre (zbrodnia katyńska, "Katyń massacre" or "Katyn crime"; Катынская резня or Катынский расстрел Katynskij reznya, "Katyn massacre") was a series of mass executions of Polish intelligentsia carried out by the NKVD ("People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs", the Soviet secret police) in April and May 1940.

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Kazimierz Bartel

Kazimierz Władysław Bartel (Casimir Bartel; 3 March 1882 – 26 July 1941) was a Polish mathematician, scholar, diplomat and politician who served as 15th, 17th and 19th Prime Minister of Poland three times between 1926 and 1930 and the Senator of Poland from 1937 until the outbreak of World War II.

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Khmelnytsky Uprising

The Khmelnytsky Uprising (Powstanie Chmielnickiego; Chmelnickio sukilimas; повстання Богдана Хмельницького; восстание Богдана Хмельницкого; also known as the Cossack-Polish War, Chmielnicki Uprising, or the Khmelnytsky insurrection) was a Cossack rebellion within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648–1657, which led to the creation of a Cossack Hetmanate in Ukrainian lands.

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Kielce

Kielce is a city in south central Poland with 199,475 inhabitants.

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Kielce Ghetto

The Kielce Ghetto (getto w Kielcach, Ghetto von Kielce) was a Jewish World War II ghetto created in 1941 by the Schutzstaffel (SS) in the Polish city of Kielce in the south-western region of the Second Polish Republic, occupied by German forces from 4 September 1939.

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Kielce pogrom

The Kielce Pogrom was an outbreak of violence toward the Jewish community centre's gathering of refugees in the city of Kielce, Poland on 4 July 1946 by Polish soldiers, police officers, and civilians during which 42 Jews were killed and more than 40 were wounded.

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Kiev

Kiev or Kyiv (Kyiv; Kiyev; Kyjev) is the capital and largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper.

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Kiev Offensive (1920)

The 1920 Kiev Offensive (or Kiev Operation), sometimes considered to have started the Soviet-Polish War, was an attempt by the armed forces of the newly re-emerged Poland led by Józef Piłsudski, in alliance with the Ukrainian leader Symon Petliura, to seize the territories of modern-day Ukraine which fell under the Soviet control after the Bolshevik Revolution.

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Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)

The Kingdom of Poland (Polish: Królestwo Polskie; Latin: Regnum Poloniae) was the Polish state from the coronation of the first King Bolesław I the Brave in 1025 to the union with Lithuania and the rule of the Jagiellon dynasty in 1385.

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Kingdom of Prussia

The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen) was a German kingdom that constituted the state of Prussia between 1701 and 1918.

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Kościuszko Uprising

The Kościuszko Uprising was an uprising against Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia led by Tadeusz Kościuszko in the Commonwealth of Poland and the Prussian partition in 1794.

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Koliyivshchyna

Koliyivshchyna (Коліївщина, koliszczyzna) was a major haidamaka rebellion that broke out in Right-bank Ukraine in June 1768, caused by the dissatisfaction of the peasants because of the serfdom oppression, the anti-nobility and anti-Polish moods among the Cossacks and peasants.

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Koniuchy massacre

The Koniuchy (Kaniūkai) massacre was a massacre of Polish and Byelorussian civilians, including women and children, carried out by a Soviet partisan unit along with a contingent of Jewish partisans under their command during the Second World War in the Polish village of Koniuchy (now Kaniūkai, Lithuania) on 29 January 1944.

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Konrad Tom

Konrad Tom (9 April 1887 – 9 August 1957), born Konrad Runowiecki, a Polish Jewish actor, writer, singer and director, born in Warsaw.

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Kraków

Kraków, also spelled Cracow or Krakow, is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland.

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Kraków Ghetto

The Kraków Ghetto was one of 5 major, metropolitan Jewish Ghettos created by Nazi Germany in the new General Government territory during the German occupation of Poland in World War II.

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Kresy

Kresy Wschodnie or Kresy (Eastern Borderlands, or Borderlands) was the Eastern part of the Second Polish Republic during the interwar period constituting nearly half of the territory of the state.

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Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński

Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, (nom de guerre: Jan Bugaj; January 22, 1921 – August 4, 1944) was a Polish poet and Home Army soldier, one of the most renowned authors of the Generation of Columbuses, the young generation of Polish poets of whom several perished in the Warsaw Uprising and during the German occupation of Poland.

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Krzysztof Szwagrzyk

Krzysztof Szwagrzyk (born 15 February 1964 in Strzegom)Antoni Lenkiewicz, Wydawn.

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KTAV Publishing House

KTAV Publishing House is a publishing house located in Brooklyn, New York.

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L. L. Zamenhof

Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof (Ludwik Łazarz Zamenhof; –), credited as L. L. Zamenhof and sometimes as the pseudonymous Dr.

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Labor rights

Labor rights or workers' rights are a group of legal rights and claimed human rights having to do with labor relations between workers and their employers, usually obtained under labor and employment law.

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Lakhva

Lakhva (or Lachva, Lachwa; Belarusian and Russian: Лахва, Łachwa, Lakhve) is a small town in southern Belarus, with a population of approximately 2,100.

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Landlord

A landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, land or real estate which is rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant (also a lessee or renter).

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Latin

Latin (Latin: lingua latīna) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages.

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Lauder – Morasha School

Lauder – Morasha School is a Jewish day school in Warsaw, Poland.

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Leżajsk

Leżajsk (full name The Free Royal City of Leżajsk, Wolne Królewskie Miasto Leżajsk; Лежайськ, Lezhais’k; ליזשענסק-Lizhensk) is a town in southeastern Poland with 13,871 inhabitants.

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Legnica

Legnica (archaic Polish: Lignica, Liegnitz, Lehnice, Lignitium) is a city in southwestern Poland, in the central part of Lower Silesia, on the Kaczawa River (left tributary of the Oder) and the Czarna Woda.

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Leonid Hurwicz

Leonid "Leo" Hurwicz (August 21, 1917 – June 24, 2008) was a Polish American economist and mathematician.

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Leopold Infeld

Leopold Infeld (20 August 1898 – 15 January 1968) was a Polish physicist who worked mainly in Poland and Canada (1938–1950).

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List of Gulag camps

The list below, enumerates the selected sites of the Soviet forced labor camps (known in Russian as the "corrective labor camps") of the Gulag.

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List of Hasidic dynasties

A Hasidic dynasty is a dynasty led by Hasidic Jewish spiritual leaders known as rebbes, and usually has some or all of the following characteristics.

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List of Polish rabbis

The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond has had a great influence on the rise of neo Haredi Judaism all over the world, with a continuous influence that has been felt from the inception of the Hasidic movements and its dynasties by famous rebbes until the present time.

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List of riots

This is a chronological list of known riots.

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Lithuania

Lithuania (Lietuva), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika), is a country in the Baltic region of northern-eastern Europe.

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Lithuanian Jews

Lithuanian Jews or Litvaks are Jews with roots in the present-day Lithuania, Belarus, Latvia, northeastern Suwałki and Białystok region of Poland and some border areas of Russia and Ukraine.

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Louis I of Hungary

Louis I, also Louis the Great (Nagy Lajos; Ludovik Veliki; Ľudovít Veľký) or Louis the Hungarian (Ludwik Węgierski; 5 March 132610 September 1382), was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and King of Poland from 1370.

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Lower Silesia

Lower Silesia (Dolny Śląsk; Dolní Slezsko; Silesia Inferior; Niederschlesien; Silesian German: Niederschläsing; Dolny Ślůnsk) is the northwestern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia; Upper Silesia is to the southeast.

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Lubartów

Lubartów is a town in eastern Poland, with 23,000 inhabitants (2004), situated in Lublin Voivodeship.

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Lublin

Lublin (Lublinum) is the ninth largest city in Poland and the second largest city of Lesser Poland.

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Lublin Ghetto

The Lublin Ghetto was a World War II ghetto created by Nazi Germany in the city of Lublin on the territory of General Government in occupied Poland.

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Lutsk

Lutsk (Luc'k,, Łuck, Luck) is a city on the Styr River in northwestern Ukraine.

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Lviv

Lviv (Львів; Львов; Lwów; Lemberg; Leopolis; see also other names) is the largest city in western Ukraine and the seventh-largest city in the country overall, with a population of around 728,350 as of 2016.

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Lwów Ghetto

The Lwów Ghetto (Ghetto Lemberg; getto we Lwowie) was a World War II Jewish ghetto established and operated by Nazi Germany in the city of Lwów (since 1945 Lviv, Ukraine) in the territory of Nazi-administered General Government in German-occupied Poland.

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Lwów pogrom (1918)

The Lwów pogrom (pogrom lwowski, Lemberg pogrom) was a pogrom of the Jewish population of the city of Lwów (since 1945, Lviv, Ukraine) that took place on November 21–23, 1918 during the Polish–Ukrainian War, in the aftermath of World War I. The Ukrainian National Council proclaimed the formation of the Ukrainian Republic on November 1, 1918 with Lviv as its capital.

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Machine gun

A machine gun is a fully automatic mounted or portable firearm designed to fire bullets in rapid succession from an ammunition belt or magazine, typically at a rate of 300 rounds per minute or higher.

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Magdeburg rights

Magdeburg rights (Magdeburger Recht; also called Magdeburg Law) were a set of town privileges first developed by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (936–973) and based on the Flemish law, which regulated the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages, granted by the local ruler.

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Main Judaic Library

Main Judaic Library (Główna Biblioteka Judaistyczna. „Rzeczpospolita”, s. A5, 7 maja 2016. or Centralna Biblioteka Judaistyczna) is a currently defunct library, which was gathering collections concerning Judaism and the history of Jews in Poland.

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Majdanek concentration camp

Majdanek, or KL Lublin, was a German concentration and extermination camp built and operated by the SS on the outskirts of the city of Lublin during the German occupation of Poland in World War II.

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Mandatory Palestine

Mandatory Palestine (فلسطين; פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה (א"י), where "EY" indicates "Eretz Yisrael", Land of Israel) was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948.

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March of the Living

The March of the Living (Hebrew: Mits'ad HaKhayim) is an annual educational program which brings students from around the world to Poland, where they explore the remnants of the Holocaust.

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Marci Shore

Marci Shore (b. 1972) is an American associate professor of intellectual history at Yale University.

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Marek Edelman

Marek Edelman (מאַרעק עדעלמאַן, born either 1919 in Homel or 1922 in Warsaw – October 2, 2009 in Warsaw, Poland) was a Jewish-Polish political and social activist and cardiologist.

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Marek Jan Chodakiewicz

Marek Jan Chodakiewicz (born 1962 in Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish-American historian specializing in East Central European history of the 19th and 20th century.

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Marian Hemar

Marian Hemar (1901–1972), born Marian Hescheles (other pen names: Jan Mariański, and Marian Wallenrod), was a Polish poet, journalist, playwright, comedy writer, and songwriter.

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Martin Gilbert

Sir Martin John Gilbert (25 October 1936 – 3 February 2015) was a British historian and honorary Fellow of Merton College, University of Oxford.

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Maurycy Gottlieb

Maurycy Gottlieb; February 21/28, 1856 – July 17, 1879) was a Polish Jewish realist painter of the Romantic period.

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Maurycy Trębacz

Maurycy Trębacz (May 3, 1861 – January 29, 1941) was one of the most popular Jewish painters in Poland in the late 19th and early 20th century.

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Max Bodenheimer

Max Isidor Bodenheimer (מקס בודנהיימר; 12 March 1865 in Stuttgart – 19 July, 1940 in Jerusalem) was a lawyer and one of the main figures in German Zionism.

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Mówią Wieki

Mówią Wieki (meaning Centuries Speak in English) is a monthly popular science history magazine published in Poland since 1958.

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Menachem Begin

Menachem Begin (Menaḥem Begin,; Menakhem Volfovich Begin; 16 August 1913 – 9 March 1992) was an Israeli politician, founder of Likud and the sixth Prime Minister of Israel.

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Messiah

In Abrahamic religions, the messiah or messias is a saviour or liberator of a group of people.

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Michael Schudrich

Michael Joseph Schudrich (born June 15, 1955) is the Chief Rabbi of Poland.

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Midrasz

Midrasz (מדרש) is a Polish language monthly journal founded in 1997 by Konstanty Gebert, a renowned Polish journalist, war correspondent and Polish-Jewish activist.

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Mieczysław Moczar

Mieczysław Moczar (original name Mikołaj Diomko, pseudonym Mietek, December 23, 1913 in Łódź – November 1, 1986 in Warsaw) was a Polish communist who played a prominent role in the history of the Polish People's Republic.

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Mieszko I of Poland

Mieszko I (– 25 May 992) was the ruler of the Polans from about 960 until his death.

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Mieszko III the Old

Mieszko III the Old (Mieszko III Stary) (c. 1126/27 – 13 March 1202), of the royal Piast dynasty, was Duke of Greater Poland from 1138 and High Duke of Poland, with interruptions, from 1173 until his death.

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Milicja Obywatelska

Milicja Obywatelska (Citizens' Militia or Civic Militia) was the national police of the People's Republic of Poland.

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Ministry of National Education (Poland)

The Ministry of National Education (Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej, MEN) is a ministerial department of the government of Poland.

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Ministry of Public Security (Poland)

The Ministry of Public Security of Poland (Ministerstwo Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego or MBP) was a postwar communist, secret police, intelligence and counter-espionage service operating from 1945 to 1954 under minister for Public Security general (Generał brygady) Stanisław Radkiewicz, and supervised by Jakub Berman of the Politburo.

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Mizrachi (religious Zionism)

The Mizrachi (תנועת הַמִזְרָחִי, Tnuat HaMizrahi, an acronym for Merkaz Ruhani lit. Religious centre) is the name of the religious Zionist organization founded in 1902 in Vilnius at a world conference of religious Zionists called by Rabbi Yitzchak Yaacov Reines.

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Mizrahi Jews

Mizrahi Jews, Mizrahim (מִזְרָחִים), also referred to as Edot HaMizrach ("Communities of the East"; Mizrahi Hebrew), ("Sons of the East"), or Oriental Jews, are descendants of local Jewish communities in the Middle East from biblical times into the modern era.

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Moldova

Moldova (or sometimes), officially the Republic of Moldova (Republica Moldova), is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south (by way of the disputed territory of Transnistria).

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Molotov cocktail

A Molotov cocktail, also known as a petrol bomb, bottle bomb, poor man's grenade, Molotovin koktaili (Finnish), polttopullo (Finnish), fire bomb (not to be confused with an actual fire bomb) or just Molotov, commonly shortened as Molly, is a generic name used for a variety of bottle-based improvised incendiary weapons.

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Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact

The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, also known as the Nazi–Soviet Pact,Charles Peters (2005), Five Days in Philadelphia: The Amazing "We Want Willkie!" Convention of 1940 and How It Freed FDR to Save the Western World, New York: PublicAffairs, Ch.

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Monument to the Ghetto Heroes

The Ghetto Heroes Monument (pomnik Bohaterów Getta) is a monument in Warsaw, Poland, commemorating the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943 during the Second World War.

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Moors

The term "Moors" refers primarily to the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Malta during the Middle Ages.

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Mordecai Paldiel

Mordecai Paldiel born Markus Wajsfeld (March 10, 1937, Antwerp, Belgium) is a lecturer at Stern College (Yeshiva University) and Queens College in New York.

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Mordecai Yoffe

Mordecai ben Avraham Yoffe (or Jaffe or Joffe) (1530 – 7 March 1612; Hebrew: מרדכי בן אברהם יפה) was a Rabbi, Rosh yeshiva and posek.

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Mordechai Anielewicz

Mordechai Anielewicz (מרדכי אנילביץ'; 1919 – 8 May 1943) was the leader of the Jewish Fighting Organization (Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa, ŻOB), which led the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; the largest Jewish insurrection during the Second World War, which inspired further rebellions in both ghettos and extermination camps.

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Morgenthau Report

The Morgenthau report was a report compiled by Henry Morgenthau, Sr., as member of the "Mission of the United States to Poland" which was appointed by the American Commission to Negotiate Peace formed by President Woodrow Wilson in the aftermath of World War I. The mission consisted of three American members: former US ambassador Henry Morgenthau, Brigadier General Edgar Jadwin of Engineer Corps, and professor of law Homer H. Johnson from Cleveland; and from the British side Sir Stuart M. Samuel.

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Moses Isserles

Moses Isserles (משה בן ישראל איסרלישׂ, Mojżesz ben Israel Isserles) (February 22, 1530 / Adar I, 5290 – May 11, 1572 / Iyar), was an eminent Polish Ashkenazic rabbi, talmudist, and posek.

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Moses Schorr

Moses Schorr, Polish: Mojżesz Schorr (May 10, 1874 – July 8, 1941) was a rabbi, Polish historian, politician, Bible scholar, assyriologist and orientalist.

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Moses Schorr Centre

The Moses Schorr Centre or the Moses Schorr Adult Education Centre founded in Warsaw, Poland (Centrum im.), is a project of Ronald S. Lauder Foundation.

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Musar movement

The Musar movement (also Mussar movement) is a Jewish ethical, educational and cultural movement that developed in 19th century Lithuania, particularly among Orthodox Lithuanian Jews.

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Mysticism

Mysticism is the practice of religious ecstasies (religious experiences during alternate states of consciousness), together with whatever ideologies, ethics, rites, myths, legends, and magic may be related to them.

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Nadvorna (Hasidic dynasty)

Nadvorna is a Hasidic rabbinical dynasty within Orthodox Judaism.

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Names of God in Judaism

The name of God most often used in the Hebrew Bible is the Tetragrammaton (YHWH). It is frequently anglicized as Jehovah and Yahweh and written in most English editions of the Bible as "the " owing to the Jewish tradition viewing the divine name as increasingly too sacred to be uttered.

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National Democracy

National Democracy (Narodowa Demokracja, also known from its abbreviation ND as "Endecja") was a Polish political movement active from the second half of the 19th century under the foreign partitions of the country until the end of the Second Polish Republic.

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Nazi crime

Nazi crime or Hitlerite crime (Zbrodnia nazistowska or zbrodnia hitlerowska) is a legal concept used in some legal systems (for example in Polish law).

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Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler through the Nazi Party (NSDAP).

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Nazi ghettos

Beginning with the invasion of Poland during World War II, the regime of Nazi Germany set up ghettos across occupied Europe in order to segregate and confine Jews, and sometimes Romani people, into small sections of towns and cities furthering their exploitation.

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Nazism

National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus), more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practices associated with the Nazi Party – officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) – in Nazi Germany, and of other far-right groups with similar aims.

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Nicholas I of Russia

Nicholas I (r; –) was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855.

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NKVD

The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (Народный комиссариат внутренних дел, Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del), abbreviated NKVD (НКВД), was the interior ministry of the Soviet Union.

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NKVD prisoner massacres

The NKVD prisoner massacres were a series of mass executions carried out by the Soviet NKVD secret police during World War II against political prisoners across Eastern Europe, primarily Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic states, Bessarabia and other parts of the Soviet Union from which the Red Army was retreating following the Nazi German attack on the Soviet positions in occupied Poland, known as Operation Barbarossa.

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Nożyk Synagogue

The Nożyk Synagogue (Synagoga Nożyków) is the only surviving prewar Jewish house of prayer in Warsaw, Poland.

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Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences

The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (officially Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne, or the Swedish National Bank's Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel), commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Economics, is an award for outstanding contributions to the field of economics, and generally regarded as the most prestigious award for that field.

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Nobel Prize in Literature

The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur) is a Swedish literature prize that has been awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: "den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning").

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Norman Davies

Ivor Norman Richard Davies (born 8 June 1939) is a British-Polish historian noted for his publications on the history of Europe, Poland and the United Kingdom.

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North America

North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere; it is also considered by some to be a northern subcontinent of the Americas.

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Numerus clausus

Numerus clausus ("closed number" in Latin) is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university.

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Oświęcim

Oświęcim (Auschwitz; אָשפּיצין Oshpitzin) is a town in the Lesser Poland (Małopolska) province of southern Poland, situated west of Cracow, near the confluence of the Vistula (Wisła) and Soła rivers.

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Oświęcim Synagogue

The Oświęcim Synagogue, also called the Auschwitz Synagogue, is the only active synagogue in the town of Oświęcim, Poland.

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Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)

The occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during the Second World War (1939–1945) began with the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, and it was formally concluded with the defeat of Germany by the Allies in May 1945.

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Okhrana

The Department for Protecting the Public Security and Order (Отделение по Охранению Общественной Безопасности и Порядка), usually called "guard department" (tr) and commonly abbreviated in modern sources as Okhrana (t) was a secret police force of the Russian Empire and part of the police department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) in the late 19th century, aided by the Special Corps of Gendarmes.

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Operation Barbarossa

Operation Barbarossa (German: Unternehmen Barbarossa) was the code name for the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, which started on Sunday, 22 June 1941, during World War II.

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Operation Reinhard

Operation Reinhard or Operation Reinhardt (Aktion Reinhard or Aktion Reinhardt also Einsatz Reinhard or Einsatz Reinhardt) was the codename given to the secretive German Nazi plan to exterminate the majority of Polish Jews in the General Government district of German-occupied Poland during World War II.

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Opoczno

Opoczno) is a town in south-central Poland, in eastern part of Łódź Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Piotrków Trybunalski Voivodeship (1975–1998). It has a long and rich history, and in the past it used to be one of the most important urban centers of northwestern Lesser Poland. Currently, Opoczno is an important road and rail junction; its patron saint is Saint Cecilia, and the town is famous across Poland for its folklore.

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Oral medicine

Oral medicine (sometimes termed dental medicine, oral and maxillofacial medicine or stomatology) is a specialty focused on the mouth and nearby structures.

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Orthodox Judaism

Orthodox Judaism is a collective term for the traditionalist branches of Judaism, which seek to maximally maintain the received Jewish beliefs and observances and which coalesced in opposition to the various challenges of modernity and secularization.

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Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire (دولت عليه عثمانیه,, literally The Exalted Ottoman State; Modern Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti), also historically known in Western Europe as the Turkish Empire"The Ottoman Empire-also known in Europe as the Turkish Empire" or simply Turkey, was a state that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries.

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Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press (OUP) is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press.

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Pale of Settlement

The Pale of Settlement (Черта́ осе́длости,, דער תּחום-המושבֿ,, תְּחוּם הַמּוֹשָב) was a western region of Imperial Russia with varying borders that existed from 1791 to 1917, in which permanent residency by Jews was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent or temporary residency was mostly forbidden.

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Paradise

Paradise is the term for a place of timeless harmony.

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Paris Peace Conference, 1919

The Paris Peace Conference, also known as Versailles Peace Conference, was the meeting of the victorious Allied Powers following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers.

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Partitions of Poland

The Partitions of Poland were three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 123 years.

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Płock

Płock (pronounced) is a city on the Vistula river in central Poland.

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Peace of Riga

The Peace of Riga, also known as the Treaty of Riga (Traktat Ryski), was signed in Riga on 18 March 1921, between Poland, Soviet Russia (acting also on behalf of Soviet Belarus) and Soviet Ukraine.

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Peter Stachura

Peter D. Stachura is a British historian, writer, lecturer and essayist.

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Pew Research Center

The Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan American fact tank based in Washington, D.C. It provides information on social issues, public opinion, and demographic trends shaping the United States and the world.

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Philadelphia

Philadelphia is the largest city in the U.S. state and Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and the sixth-most populous U.S. city, with a 2017 census-estimated population of 1,580,863.

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Piast dynasty

The Piast dynasty was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland.

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Pilpul

The Hebrew term pilpul (פלפול, from "pepper," loosely meaning "sharp analysis") refers to a method of studying the Talmud through intense textual analysis in attempts to either explain conceptual differences between various halakhic rulings or to reconcile any apparent contradictions presented from various readings of different texts.

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Pinsk massacre

The Pinsk massacre was the mass execution of thirty-five Jewish residents of Pinsk on April 5, 1919 by the Polish Army.

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Piotrków Trybunalski

Piotrków Trybunalski (also known by alternative names) is a city in central Poland with 74,694 inhabitants (2016).

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Poale Zion

Poale Zion (also spelled Poalei Tziyon or Poaley Syjon, meaning "Workers of Zion") was a movement of Marxist–Zionist Jewish workers founded in various cities of Poland, Europe and the Russian Empire in about the turn of the 20th century after the Bund rejected Zionism in 1901.

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Pogrom

The term pogrom has multiple meanings, ascribed most often to the deliberate persecution of an ethnic or religious group either approved or condoned by the local authorities.

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Poland

Poland (Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country located in Central Europe.

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Poland national football team

The Poland national football team (Reprezentacja Polski w piłce nożnej) represents Poland in association football and is controlled by the Polish Football Association, the governing body for football in Poland.

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Polesie Voivodeship

Polesie Voivodeship (województwo poleskie) was an administrative unit of interwar Poland (1918–1939).

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POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews

POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews (Muzeum Historii Żydów Polskich) is a museum on the site of the former Warsaw Ghetto.

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Polish Academy of Sciences

The Polish Academy of Sciences (Polska Akademia Nauk, PAN) is a Polish state-sponsored institution of higher learning.

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Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany

Following the Invasion of Poland at the beginning of World War II, nearly a quarter of the entire territory of the Second Polish Republic was annexed by Nazi Germany and placed directly under the German civil administration.

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Polish Armed Forces in the West

The Polish Armed Forces in the West refers to the Polish military formations formed to fight alongside the Western Allies against Nazi Germany and its allies during World War II.

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Polish army order of battle in 1939

Polish OOB during the invasion of Poland.

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Polish Cemetery at Monte Cassino

The Polish Cemetery at Monte Cassino holds the graves of over a thousand Poles who died storming the bombed-out Benedictine abbey atop the mountain in May 1944, during the Battle of Monte Cassino.

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Polish census of 1931

The Polish census of 1931 or Second General Census in Poland (Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności) was the second census taken in sovereign Poland during the interwar period, performed on December 9, 1931 by the Main Bureau of Statistics.

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Polish contribution to World War II

The European theatre of World War II opened with the German invasion of Poland on Friday September 1, 1939 and the Soviet invasion of Poland on September 17, 1939.

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Polish government-in-exile

The Polish government-in-exile, formally known as the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile (Rząd Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na uchodźstwie), was the government in exile of Poland formed in the aftermath of the Invasion of Poland of September 1939, and the subsequent occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, which brought to an end the Second Polish Republic.

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Polish language

Polish (język polski or simply polski) is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles.

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Polish Legions in World War I

The Polish Legions (Legiony Polskie) was a name of the Polish military force (the first active Polish army in generations) established in August 1914 in Galicia soon after World War I erupted between the opposing alliances of the Triple Entente on one side (including the British Empire, the French Republic and the Russian Empire); and the Central Powers on the other side, including the German Empire and Austria-Hungary.

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Polish legislative election, 1919

Parliamentary elections were held in Poland on 26 January 1919, electing the first Sejm of the Second Polish Republic.

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Polish legislative election, 1947

Parliamentary elections were held in Poland on 19 January 1947,Dieter Nohlen & Philip Stöver (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, p1491 the first since World War II.

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Polish People's Army

The Polish People's Army (Ludowe Wojsko Polskie, LWP) constituted the second formation of the Polish Armed Forces in the East (1943–1945) and later the armed forces (1945–1989) of the Polish communist government of Poland (from 1952, the Polish People's Republic) along with the ruling Polish United Workers' Party.

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Polish People's Republic

The Polish People's Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, PRL) covers the history of contemporary Poland between 1952 and 1990 under the Soviet-backed socialist government established after the Red Army's release of its territory from German occupation in World War II.

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Polish resistance movement in World War II

The Polish resistance movement in World War II, with the Polish Home Army at its forefront, was the largest underground resistance movement in all of occupied Europe, covering both German and Soviet zones of occupation.

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Polish Righteous Among the Nations

The citizens of Poland have the world's highest count of individuals who have been recognized by Yad Vashem of Jerusalem as the Polish Righteous Among the Nations, for saving Jews from extermination during the Holocaust in World War II.

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Polish Socialist Party

The Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna, PPS) was a left-wing Polish political party.

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Polish Underground State

The Polish Underground State (Polskie Państwo Podziemne, also known as the Polish Secret State) is a collective term for the underground resistance organizations in Poland during World War II, both military and civilian, that were loyal to the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile in London.

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Polish United Workers' Party

The Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP; Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza, PZPR) was the Communist party which governed the Polish People's Republic from 1948 to 1989.

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Polish Wikipedia

The Polish Wikipedia () is the Polish-language edition of Wikipedia, a free online encyclopedia.

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Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, after 1791 the Commonwealth of Poland, was a dualistic state, a bi-confederation of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch, who was both the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania.

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Polish–Lithuanian union

The term Polish–Lithuanian Union refers to a series of acts and alliances between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that lasted for prolonged periods of time and led to the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth—the "Republic of the Two Nations"—in 1569 and eventually to the creation of a short-lived unitary state in 1791.

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Polish–Soviet War

The Polish–Soviet War (February 1919 – March 1921) was fought by the Second Polish Republic, Ukrainian People's Republic and the proto-Soviet Union (Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine) for control of an area equivalent to today's western Ukraine and parts of modern Belarus.

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Polish–Ukrainian War

The Polish–Ukrainian War of 1918 and 1919 was a conflict between the Second Polish Republic and Ukrainian forces (both West Ukrainian People's Republic and Ukrainian People's Republic).

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Politburo

A politburo or political bureau is the executive committee for communist parties.

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Polonization

Polonization (or Polonisation; polonizacja)In Polish historiography, particularly pre-WWII (e.g., L. Wasilewski. As noted in Смалянчук А. Ф. (Smalyanchuk 2001) Паміж краёвасцю і нацыянальнай ідэяй. Польскі рух на беларускіх і літоўскіх землях. 1864–1917 г. / Пад рэд. С. Куль-Сяльверставай. – Гродна: ГрДУ, 2001. – 322 с. (2004). Pp.24, 28.), an additional distinction between the Polonization (polonizacja) and self-Polonization (polszczenie się) has been being made, however, most modern Polish researchers don't use the term polszczenie się.

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Population transfer in the Soviet Union

Population transfer in the Soviet Union refers to forced transfer of various groups from the 1930s up to the 1950s ordered by Joseph Stalin and may be classified into the following broad categories: deportations of "anti-Soviet" categories of population (often classified as "enemies of workers"), deportations of entire nationalities, labor force transfer, and organized migrations in opposite directions to fill the ethnically cleansed territories.

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Poruchik

Poruchik (poručnik, poručík, porucznik, пору́чик, поручник, poručík) is an officer rank in the lieutenant's rank group in Slavophone armed forces.

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Poznań

Poznań (Posen; known also by other historical names) is a city on the Warta River in west-central Poland, in the Greater Poland region.

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Prime Minister of Israel

The Prime Minister of Israel (רֹאשׁ הַמֶּמְשָׁלָה, Rosh HaMemshala, lit. Head of the Government, Hebrew acronym: רה״מ; رئيس الحكومة, Ra'īs al-Ḥukūma) is the head of government of Israel and the most powerful figure in Israeli politics.

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Prince Hassan bin Talal

Prince Hassan bin Talal (الحسن بن طلال, born 20 March 1947) is a member of the Jordanian royal family.

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Princeton University Press

Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University.

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Prisoner of war

A prisoner of war (POW) is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict.

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Protectorate

A protectorate, in its inception adopted by modern international law, is a dependent territory that has been granted local autonomy and some independence while still retaining the suzerainty of a greater sovereign state.

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Prussia

Prussia (Preußen) was a historically prominent German state that originated in 1525 with a duchy centred on the region of Prussia.

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Przemyśl

Przemyśl (Premissel, Peremyshl, Перемишль less often Перемишель) is a city in south-eastern Poland with 66,756 inhabitants, as of June 2009.

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Qahal

The Qahal (קהל) was a theocratic organizational structure in ancient Israelite society according to the Hebrew Bible.

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Rabbi

In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah.

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Rabbinic Judaism

Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism (יהדות רבנית Yahadut Rabanit) has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian Talmud.

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Radhanite

The Radhanites (also Radanites, Arabic الرذنية ar-Raðaniyya; Hebrew sing. רדהני Radhani, pl. רדהנים Radhanim) were medieval Jewish merchants.

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Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) is a broadcasting organization that broadcasts and reports news, information, and analysis to countries in Eastern Europe, Central Asia and the Middle East where it says that "the free flow of information is either banned by government authorities or not fully developed".

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Radom

Radom (ראָדעם Rodem) is a city in east-central Poland with 219,703 inhabitants (2013).

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Radom Ghetto

Radom Ghetto was a World War II ghetto set up in March 1941 by Nazi Germany in the city of Radom during occupation of Poland, for the purpose of persecution and exploitation of Polish Jews.

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Raphael Lemkin

Raphael Lemkin (June 24, 1900 – August 28, 1959) was a lawyer of Polish-Jewish descent who is best known for coining the word genocide and initiating the Genocide Convention.

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Rector (academia)

A rector ("ruler", from meaning "ruler") is a senior official in an educational institution, and can refer to an official in either a university or a secondary school.

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Reform Judaism

Reform Judaism (also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism) is a major Jewish denomination that emphasizes the evolving nature of the faith, the superiority of its ethical aspects to the ceremonial ones, and a belief in a continuous revelation not centered on the theophany at Mount Sinai.

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Reformation

The Reformation (or, more fully, the Protestant Reformation; also, the European Reformation) was a schism in Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther and continued by Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin and other Protestant Reformers in 16th century Europe.

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Religious Zionism

Religious Zionism (צִיּוֹנוּת דָּתִית, translit. Tziyonut Datit, or Dati Leumi "National Religious", or Kippah seruga, literally, "knitted skullcap") is an ideology that combines Zionism and Orthodox Judaism.

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Remah Synagogue

The Remah Synagogue, (Synagoga Remuh), is named after Rabbi Moses Isserles c.1525–1572, known by the Hebrew acronym ReMA (רמ״א, pronounced ReMU) who's famed for writing a collection of commentaries and additions that complement Rabbi Yosef Karo's Shulchan Aruch, with Ashkenazi traditions and customs.

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Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust

Polish Jews were the primary victims of the German-organized Holocaust. Throughout the German occupation of Poland, some Poles risked their lives – and the lives of their families – to rescue Jews from the Germans. Poles were, by nationality, the most numerous persons who rescued Jews during the Holocaust. To date, ethnic Poles have been recognized by the State of Israel as Righteous among the Nations – more, by far, than the citizens of any other country. The Home Army (the Polish Resistance) alerted the world to the Holocaust through the reports of Polish Army officer Witold Pilecki, conveyed by Polish Government-in-Exile courier Jan Karski. The Polish Government-in-Exile and the Polish Secret State pleaded, to no avail, for American and British help to stop the Holocaust. Some estimates put the number of Polish rescuers of Jews as high as 3 million, and credit Poles with saving up to some 450,000 Jews, temporarily, from certain death. The rescue efforts were aided by one of the largest resistance movements in Europe, the Polish Underground State and its military arm, the Home Army. Supported by the Government Delegation for Poland, these organizations operated special units dedicated to helping Jews; of those units, the most notable was the Żegota Council, based in Warsaw, with branches in Kraków, Wilno, and Lwów. Polish rescuers of Jews were hampered by the most stringent conditions in all of German-occupied Europe. Occupied Poland was the only country where the Germans decreed that any kind of help to Jews was punishable by death for the rescuer and the rescuer's entire family. Of the estimated 3 million non-Jewish Poles killed in World War II, thousands – perhaps as many as 50,000 – were executed by the Germans solely for saving Jews.

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Resistance movement

A resistance movement is an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to withstand the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability.

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Righteous Among the Nations

Righteous Among the Nations (חֲסִידֵי אֻמּוֹת הָעוֹלָם, khasidei umót ha'olám "righteous (plural) of the world's nations") is an honorific used by the State of Israel to describe non-Jews who risked their lives during the Holocaust to save Jews from extermination by the Nazis.

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Roman Romkowski

Roman Romkowski born Natan Grünspan-Kikiel,Tadeusz Piotrowski, McFarland, 1998.

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Romania

Romania (România) is a sovereign state located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe.

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Ronald Lauder

Ronald Steven Lauder (born February 26, 1944) is an American businessman, art collector, philanthropist, and political activist.

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Rowman & Littlefield

Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group is an independent publishing house founded in 1949.

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Russia

Russia (rɐˈsʲijə), officially the Russian Federation (p), is a country in Eurasia. At, Russia is the largest country in the world by area, covering more than one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area, and the ninth most populous, with over 144 million people as of December 2017, excluding Crimea. About 77% of the population live in the western, European part of the country. Russia's capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world; other major cities include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg and Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares land borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both with Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and North Korea. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait. The East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century. In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century. The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland on the west to Alaska on the east. Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the world's first constitutionally socialist state. The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II, and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the world's second largest economy, largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, twelve independent republics emerged from the USSR: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and the Baltic states regained independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality and a successor of the Soviet Union. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic. The Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas globally. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and an active global partner of ASEAN, as well as a member of the G20, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO), as well as being the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), along with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

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Russian Civil War

The Russian Civil War (Grazhdanskaya voyna v Rossiyi; November 1917 – October 1922) was a multi-party war in the former Russian Empire immediately after the Russian Revolutions of 1917, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future.

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Russian Empire

The Russian Empire (Российская Империя) or Russia was an empire that existed across Eurasia and North America from 1721, following the end of the Great Northern War, until the Republic was proclaimed by the Provisional Government that took power after the February Revolution of 1917.

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Russian Orthodox Church

The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC; Rússkaya pravoslávnaya tsérkov), alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate (Moskóvskiy patriarkhát), is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox patriarchates.

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Russian ruble

The Russian ruble or rouble (рубль rublʹ, plural: рубли́ rubli; sign: ₽, руб; code: RUB) is the currency of the Russian Federation, the two partially recognized republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and the two unrecognized republics of Donetsk and Luhansk.

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Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR or RSFSR; Ru-Российская Советская Федеративная Социалистическая Республика.ogg), also unofficially known as the Russian Federation, Soviet Russia,Declaration of Rights of the laboring and exploited people, article I or Russia (rɐˈsʲijə; from the Ρωσία Rōsía — Rus'), was an independent state from 1917 to 1922, and afterwards the largest, most populous, and most economically developed union republic of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1991 and then a sovereign part of the Soviet Union with priority of Russian laws over Union-level legislation in 1990 and 1991.

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Rzeszów

Rzeszów (Ряшiв, Ŕašiv; Resche (antiquated); Resovia; ריישע, rayshe) is the largest city in southeastern Poland, with a population of 189,637 (01.03.2018).

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Sabbatai Zevi

Sabbatai Zevi (other spellings include Shabbetai Ẓevi, Shabbeṯāy Ṣeḇī, Shabsai Tzvi, and Sabetay Sevi in Turkish) (August 1, 1626 – c. September 17, 1676) was a Sephardic ordained Rabbi, though of Romaniote origin and a kabbalist, active throughout the Ottoman Empire, who claimed to be the long-awaited Jewish Messiah.

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Salomon Morel

Salomon Morel (November 15, 1919 – February 14, 2007) was a Polish-Jewish born Stalinist official, NKVD officer, concentration camp commander and an accused war criminal, who later fled from Poland to Israel and acquired Israeli citizenship.

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Samuel Eilenberg

Samuel Eilenberg (September 30, 1913 – January 30, 1998) was a Polish-born American mathematician who co-founded category theory with Saunders Mac Lane.

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Sandomierz

Sandomierz (pronounced:; Tsoizmer צויזמער) is a town in south-eastern Poland with 25,714 inhabitants (2006), situated in the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (since 1999).

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Schutzstaffel

The Schutzstaffel (SS; also stylized as with Armanen runes;; literally "Protection Squadron") was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Nazi Germany, and later throughout German-occupied Europe during World War II.

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Second International

The Second International (1889–1916), the original Socialist International, was an organization of socialist and labour parties formed in Paris on July 14, 1889.

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Second Polish Republic

The Second Polish Republic, commonly known as interwar Poland, refers to the country of Poland between the First and Second World Wars (1918–1939).

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Sejm

The Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej) is the lower house of the Polish parliament.

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Sephardi Jews

Sephardi Jews, also known as Sephardic Jews or Sephardim (סְפָרַדִּים, Modern Hebrew: Sefaraddim, Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm; also Ye'hude Sepharad, lit. "The Jews of Spain"), originally from Sepharad, Spain or the Iberian peninsula, are a Jewish ethnic division.

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Serfdom

Serfdom is the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism.

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Sevastopol

Sevastopol (Севастополь; Севасто́поль; Акъяр, Aqyar), traditionally Sebastopol, is the largest city on the Crimean Peninsula and a major Black Sea port.

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Sh'erit ha-Pletah

Sh'erit ha-Pletah (lit) is a biblical (Ezra 9:14 and 1 Chronicles 4:43) term used by Jewish refugees who survived the Holocaust to refer to themselves and the communities they formed in postwar Europe following the liberation in the spring of 1945.

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Shalom Shachna

Shalom Shachna (1510 – 1558) was a rabbi and Talmudist, and Rosh yeshiva of several great Acharonim including Moses Isserles, who was also his son-in-law.

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Shechita

In Judaism, shechita (anglicized:; שחיטה;; also transliterated shehitah, shechitah, shehita) is slaughtering of certain mammals and birds for food according to kashrut.

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Shtetl

Shtetlekh (שטעטל, shtetl (singular), שטעטלעך, shtetlekh (plural)) were small towns with large Jewish populations, which existed in Central and Eastern Europe before the Holocaust.

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Shulchan Aruch

The Shulchan Aruch (שֻׁלְחָן עָרוּך, literally: "Set Table"), sometimes dubbed in English as the Code of Jewish Law, is the most widely consulted of the various legal codes in Judaism.

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Sich Riflemen

The Sich Riflemen Halych-Bukovyna Kurin (Січові Cтрільці) were one of the first regular military units of the Army of the Ukrainian People's Republic.

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Siege of Kraków (1657)

The Siege of Kraków was one of the military conflicts of the Swedish and Transylvanian invasion of Poland, which took place in the summer of 1657.

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Siege of Warsaw (1939)

The Siege of Warsaw in 1939 was fought between the Polish Warsaw Army (Armia Warszawa) garrisoned and entrenched in the capital of Poland (Warsaw) and the invading German Army.

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Sigismund I the Old

Sigismund I of Poland (Zygmunt I Stary, Žygimantas I Senasis; 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548), of the Jagiellon dynasty, reigned as King of Poland and also as the Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1506 until 1548.

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Sigismund II Augustus

Sigismund II Augustus (Zygmunt II August, Ruthenian: Żygimont II Awgust, Žygimantas II Augustas, Sigismund II.) (1 August 1520 – 7 July 1572) was the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548.

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Silesia

Silesia (Śląsk; Slezsko;; Silesian German: Schläsing; Silesian: Ślůnsk; Šlazyńska; Šleska; Silesia) is a region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany.

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Simon Dubnow

Simon Dubnow (alternatively spelled Dubnov, sʲɪˈmʲɵn ˈmarkəvʲɪtɕ ˈdubnəf; שמעון דובנאָװ, Shimen Dubnov; 10 September 1860 – 8 December 1941) was a Jewish-born Russian historian, writer and activist.

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Six-Day War

The Six-Day War (Hebrew: מלחמת ששת הימים, Milhemet Sheshet Ha Yamim; Arabic: النكسة, an-Naksah, "The Setback" or حرب ۱۹٦۷, Ḥarb 1967, "War of 1967"), also known as the June War, 1967 Arab–Israeli War, or Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between 5 and 10 June 1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt (known at the time as the United Arab Republic), Jordan, and Syria.

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Slavery in the Ottoman Empire

Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a legal and significant part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and society.

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Slavic Review

The Slavic Review is a major peer-reviewed academic journal publishing scholarly studies, book and film reviews, and review essays in all disciplines concerned with Russia, Central Eurasia, and Eastern and Central Europe.

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Sobibór extermination camp

Sobibór (or Sobibor) was a Nazi German extermination camp built and operated by the SS near the railway station of Sobibór during World War II, within the semi-colonial territory of General Government of the occupied Second Polish Republic.

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Socialism

Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership and democratic control of the means of production as well as the political theories and movements associated with them.

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Solomon Luria

Solomon Luria (1510 – November 7, 1573) (שלמה לוריא) was one of the great Ashkenazic poskim (decisors of Jewish law) and teachers of his time.

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South America

South America is a continent in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere.

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Sovereign state

A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area.

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Soviet Army

The Soviet Army (SA; Советская Армия, Sovetskaya Armiya) is the name given to the main land-based branch of the Soviet Armed Forces between February 1946 and December 1991, when it was replaced with the Russian Ground Forces, although it was not taken fully out of service until 25 December 1993.

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Soviet invasion of Poland

The Soviet invasion of Poland was a Soviet Union military operation that started without a formal declaration of war on 17 September 1939.

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Soviet Union

The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991.

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St. Martin's Press

St.

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Standard of living

Standard of living refers to the level of wealth, comfort, material goods, and necessities available to a certain socioeconomic class in a certain geographic area, usually a country.

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Stanford University

Stanford University (officially Leland Stanford Junior University, colloquially the Farm) is a private research university in Stanford, California.

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Stanisław Aronson

Stanisław Witold Aronson (nom de guerre "Rysiek") (born May 6, 1925 in Warsaw) is a Polish Jew and an Israeli citizen, as well as a former officer of the Polish Home Army (AK) with a rank of Lieutenant.

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Stanisław August Poniatowski

Stanisław II Augustus (also Stanisław August Poniatowski; born Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski; 17 January 1732 – 12 February 1798), who reigned as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1764 to 1795, was the last monarch of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Stanisław Krajewski

Stanisław Krajewski (born 1950) is a Polish Jewish philosopher, mathematician and writer, activist of the Jewish minority in Poland.

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Stanisławów Ghetto

Stanisławów Ghetto (getto w Stanisławowie, Ghetto Stanislau) was a Jewish World War II ghetto established in 1941 by the Schutzstaffel (SS) in the prewar Polish city of Stanisławów in the south-eastern region of Kresy (now Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine) occupied by Germany after Operation Barbarossa.

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Stanislaw Ulam

Stanisław Marcin Ulam (13 April 1909 – 13 May 1984) was a Polish-American scientist in the fields of mathematics and nuclear physics.

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Star of David

The Star of David (✡), known in Hebrew as the Shield of David or Magen David (Hebrew rtl; Biblical Hebrew Māḡēn Dāwīḏ, Tiberian, Modern Hebrew, Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish Mogein Dovid or Mogen Dovid), is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism.

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Starvation

Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy intake, below the level needed to maintain an organism's life.

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Status quo

Status quo is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social or political issues.

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Statute of Kalisz

The General Charter of Jewish Liberties known as the Statute of Kalisz, and as the Kalisz Privilege, was issued by the Duke of Greater Poland Boleslaus the Pious on September 8, 1264 in Kalisz.

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Statutes of Casimir the Great

Statutes of Casimir the Great or Piotrków-Wiślica Statutes (Statuty wiślicko-piotrkowskie) - a collection of laws issued by Casimir III the Great, the king of Poland, in the years 1346-1362 during congresses in Piotrków and Wiślica.

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Statutes of Nieszawa

The Nieszawa Statutes were a set of laws enacted in the Kingdom of Poland in 1454, in the town of Nieszawa located in north-central Poland.

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Stefan Czarniecki

Stefan Czarniecki of the Łodzia coat of arms (1599 – 16 February 1665) was a Polish nobleman, general and military commander.

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Stroop Report

The Stroop Report is an official report prepared by General Jürgen Stroop for the SS chief Heinrich Himmler, recounting the German suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and the liquidation of the ghetto in the spring of 1943.

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Stunning

Stunning is the process of rendering animals immobile or unconscious, with or without killing the animal, when or immediately prior to slaughtering them for food.

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Supreme National Committee

Naczelny Komitet Narodowy (Supreme National Committee, NKN) was a quasi-government for the Poles in Galicia, Austro-Hungarian Empire, from 1914-1917.

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Swedish Empire

The Swedish Empire (Stormaktstiden, "Great Power Era") was a European great power that exercised territorial control over much of the Baltic region during the 17th and early 18th centuries.

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Synagogue

A synagogue, also spelled synagog (pronounced; from Greek συναγωγή,, 'assembly', בית כנסת, 'house of assembly' or, "house of prayer", Yiddish: שול shul, Ladino: אסנוגה or קהל), is a Jewish house of prayer.

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Szlachta

The szlachta (exonym: Nobility) was a legally privileged noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Samogitia (both after Union of Lublin became a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and the Zaporozhian Host.

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Szmalcownik

Szmalcownik, in English also spelt shmaltsovnik, is pejorative Polish slang used during World War II for a person who blackmailed Jews who were hiding, or who blackmailed Poles who protected Jews during the German occupation.

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Szmul Zygielbojm

Szmul Zygielbojm (שמואל זיגלבוים; February 21, 1895 – May 11, 1943) was a Jewish-Polish socialist politician, leader of the Bund, and a member of the National Council of the Polish government in exile.

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Szymon Kataszek

Szymon Kataszek (1898–1943) (born Boruch Szymon Kataszek), was a Polish-Jewish composer, bandleader, pianist, a pioneer of Polish jazz.

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Tabloid (newspaper format)

A tabloid is a newspaper with a compact page size smaller than broadsheet.

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Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)

Tadeusz Piotrowski or Thaddeus Piotrowski (born 1940) is a Polish-American sociologist.

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Talmud

The Talmud (Hebrew: תַּלְמוּד talmūd "instruction, learning", from a root LMD "teach, study") is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law and theology.

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Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture

The Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture is an American non-profit organization founded in 2003 by Thaddeus N. "Tad" Taube in Belmont, California.

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Temporary Commission of Confederated Independence Parties

The Temporary Coordinating Commission of Confederated Independence Parties (Komisja Tymczasowa Skonfederowanych Stronnictw Niepodległościowych, KTSSN) formed on 10 November 1912 in the Austrian Partition on the eve of World War One.

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Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union

17 days after the German invasion of Poland in 1939, which marked the beginning of World War II, the Soviet Union invaded the eastern regions of the Second Polish Republic, which Poland re-established during the Polish–Soviet War and referred to as the "Kresy", and annexed territories totaling with a population of 13,299,000 inhabitants including Lithuanians,Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles, Jews, Czechs and others.

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The Dybbuk

The Dybbuk, or Between Two Worlds (Меж двух миров, trans. Mezh dvukh mirov; צווישן צוויי וועלטן - דער דִבּוּק, Tsvishn Tsvey Veltn – der Dibuk) is a play by S. Ansky, authored between 1913 and 1916.

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The Economist

The Economist is an English-language weekly magazine-format newspaper owned by the Economist Group and edited at offices in London.

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The Forward

The Forward (Forverts), formerly known as The Jewish Daily Forward, is an American magazine published monthly in New York City for a Jewish-American audience.

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The Holocaust

The Holocaust, also referred to as the Shoah, was a genocide during World War II in which Nazi Germany, aided by its collaborators, systematically murdered approximately 6 million European Jews, around two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe, between 1941 and 1945.

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The Holocaust in Poland

The Holocaust in German-occupied Poland was the last and most lethal phase of Nazi Germany's "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" (Endlösung der Judenfrage), marked by the construction of death camps on German-occupied Polish soil.

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The Journal of Modern History

The Journal of Modern History is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering European intellectual, political, and cultural history, published by the University of Chicago Press in cooperation with the Modern European History Section of the American Historical Association.

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The New York Times

The New York Times (sometimes abbreviated as The NYT or The Times) is an American newspaper based in New York City with worldwide influence and readership.

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Theresienstadt concentration camp

Theresienstadt concentration camp, also referred to as Theresienstadt ghetto, was a concentration camp established by the SS during World War II in the garrison city of Terezín (Theresienstadt), located in German-occupied Czechoslovakia.

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Three hares

The three hares (or three rabbits) is a circular motif or meme appearing in sacred sites from the Middle and Far East to the churches of Devon, England (as the "Tinners' Rabbits"), and historical synagogues in Europe.

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Timothy D. Snyder

Timothy David Snyder (born 1969) is an American author and historian specializing in the history of Central and Eastern Europe, and the Holocaust.

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Toledo, Spain

Toledo is a city and municipality located in central Spain; it is the capital of the province of Toledo and the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha.

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Toleration

Toleration is the acceptance of an action, object, or person which one dislikes or disagrees with, where one is in a position to disallow it but chooses not to.

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Torah

Torah (תּוֹרָה, "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") has a range of meanings.

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Tortosa

Tortosa is the capital of the comarca of Baix Ebre, in Catalonia, Spain.

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Trade union

A trade union or trades union, also called a labour union (Canada) or labor union (US), is an organization of workers who have come together to achieve many common goals; such as protecting the integrity of its trade, improving safety standards, and attaining better wages, benefits (such as vacation, health care, and retirement), and working conditions through the increased bargaining power wielded by the creation of a monopoly of the workers.

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Transliteration

Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves swapping letters (thus trans- + liter-) in predictable ways (such as α → a, д → d, χ → ch, ն → n or æ → e).

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Treblinka extermination camp

Treblinka was an extermination camp, built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II.

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Turkey

Turkey (Türkiye), officially the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti), is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe.

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Tykocin

Tykocin טיקטין, Tiktin) is a small town in north-eastern Poland, with 2,010 inhabitants (2012), located on the Narew river. Tykocin has been situated in the Podlaskie Voivodeship since 1999. Previously, it belonged to Białystok Voivodeship (1975-1998). It is one of the oldest settlements in the region.

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Typhoid fever

Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a bacterial infection due to ''Salmonella'' typhi that causes symptoms.

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U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad

The U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad is an independent agency of the Government of the United States of America.

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Ukraine

Ukraine (Ukrayina), sometimes called the Ukraine, is a sovereign state in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the east and northeast; Belarus to the northwest; Poland, Hungary, and Slovakia to the west; Romania and Moldova to the southwest; and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively.

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Umschlagplatz

The Umschlagplatz (collection point or reloading point) was a holding area set up by Nazi Germany adjacent to a railway station in occupied Poland, where the ghettoised Jews were assembled for deportation to death camps during the ghetto liquidation.

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Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland

The Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland (Związek Gmin Wyznaniowych Żydowskich w RP, and abbreviated ZGWŻ), is a religious association formed by Jews living in Poland who adhere to Judaism.

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Union of Lublin

The Union of Lublin (unia lubelska; Liublino unija) was signed on 1 July 1569, in Lublin, Poland, and created a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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United States

The United States of America (USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a federal republic composed of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, and various possessions.

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United States Department of State

The United States Department of State (DOS), often referred to as the State Department, is the United States federal executive department that advises the President and represents the country in international affairs and foreign policy issues.

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University of California Press

University of California Press, otherwise known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing.

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University of Warsaw

The University of Warsaw (Uniwersytet Warszawski, Universitas Varsoviensis), established in 1816, is the largest university in Poland.

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University of Wrocław

The University of Wrocław (UWr; Uniwersytet Wrocławski; Universität Breslau; Universitas Wratislaviensis) is a public research university located in Wrocław, Poland.

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Vilna Troupe

The Vilna Troupe (Vilner trupe ווילנער טרופע; Vilniaus trupė; Trupa Wileńska; Trupa din Vilna), also known as Fareyn Fun Yiddishe Dramatishe Artistn (Federation of Yiddish Dramatic Actors) and later Dramă şi Comedie, was an international and mostly Yiddish-speaking theatrical company, one of the most famous in the history of Yiddish theater.

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Vilnius

Vilnius (see also other names) is the capital of Lithuania and its largest city, with a population of 574,221.

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Virtual Shtetl

The Virtual Shtetl (Wirtualny Sztetl) is a bilingual Polish-English portal of the Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw, devoted to the Jewish history of Poland.

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Wacław Micuta

Wacław Micuta (pseudonym Wacek; Petrograd, Russia, December 6, 1915 – September 21, 2008, Geneva, Switzerland) was a Polish economist, World War II veteran, and United Nations functionary.

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Walter Laqueur

Walter Ze'ev Laqueur (born 26 May 1921) is an American historian, journalist and political commentator.

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Warsaw

Warsaw (Warszawa; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland.

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Warsaw Ghetto

The Warsaw Ghetto (Warschauer Ghetto, officially Jüdischer Wohnbezirk in Warschau Jewish Residential District in Warsaw; getto warszawskie) was the largest of all the Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Europe during World War II.

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Warsaw Ghetto Uprising

The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (אױפֿשטאַנד אין װאַרשעװער געטאָ; powstanie w getcie warszawskim; Aufstand im Warschauer Ghetto) was the 1943 act of Jewish resistance that arose within the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland during World War II, and which opposed Nazi Germany's final effort to transport the remaining Ghetto population to Treblinka.

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Warsaw Uprising

The Warsaw Uprising (powstanie warszawskie; Warschauer Aufstand) was a major World War II operation, in the summer of 1944, by the Polish underground resistance, led by the Home Army (Armia Krajowa), to liberate Warsaw from German occupation.

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Władysław Anders

Władysław Albert Anders (11 August 1892 – 12 May 1970) was a general in the Polish Army and later in life a politician and prominent member of the Polish government-in-exile in London.

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Władysław Gomułka

Władysław Gomułka (6 February 1905 – 1 September 1982) was a Polish communist politician.

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Władysław I Herman

Władysław I Herman (1044 – 4 June 1102) was a Duke of Poland from 1079 until his death.

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Władysław II Jagiełło

Jogaila (later Władysław II JagiełłoHe is known under a number of names: Jogaila Algirdaitis; Władysław II Jagiełło; Jahajła (Ягайла). See also: Names and titles of Władysław II Jagiełło. (c. 1352/1362 – 1 June 1434) was the Grand Duke of Lithuania (1377–1434) and then the King of Poland (1386–1434), first alongside his wife Jadwiga until 1399, and then sole King of Poland. He ruled in Lithuania from 1377. Born a pagan, in 1386 he converted to Catholicism and was baptized as Władysław in Kraków, married the young Queen Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło. In 1387 he converted Lithuania to Christianity. His own reign in Poland started in 1399, upon the death of Queen Jadwiga, and lasted a further thirty-five years and laid the foundation for the centuries-long Polish–Lithuanian union. He was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Poland that bears his name and was previously also known as the Gediminid dynasty in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The dynasty ruled both states until 1572,Anna Jagiellon, the last member of royal Jagiellon family, died in 1596. and became one of the most influential dynasties in late medieval and early modern Central and Eastern Europe. During his reign, the Polish-Lithuanian state was the largest state in the Christian world. Jogaila was the last pagan ruler of medieval Lithuania. After he became King of Poland, as a result of the Union of Krewo, the newly formed Polish-Lithuanian union confronted the growing power of the Teutonic Knights. The allied victory at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, followed by the Peace of Thorn, secured the Polish and Lithuanian borders and marked the emergence of the Polish–Lithuanian alliance as a significant force in Europe. The reign of Władysław II Jagiełło extended Polish frontiers and is often considered the beginning of Poland's Golden Age.

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Władysław III Spindleshanks

Władysław III Spindleshanks (Władysław Laskonogi; b. 1161/67 – 3 November 1231), of the Piast Dynasty, was Duke of Greater Poland (during 1194–1202 over all the land and during 1202–1229 only over the southern part), High Duke of Poland and Duke of Kraków during 1202–1206 and 1228–1231, Duke of Kalisz during 1202–1206, ruler of Lubusz during 1206–1210 and 1218–1225, and ruler over Gniezno during 1216–1217.

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Władysław Raczkiewicz

Władysław Raczkiewicz (28 January 1885 – 6 June 1947) was a Polish politician, lawyer, diplomat and the first president of the Polish government in exile from 1939 until his death in 1947.

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Władysław Sikorski

Władysław Eugeniusz Sikorski (20 May 1881 – 4 July 1943) was a Polish military and political leader.

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Władysław Szpilman

Władysław Szpilman (5 December 19116 July 2000) was a Polish pianist and classical composer of Jewish descent.

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Western Europe

Western Europe is the region comprising the western part of Europe.

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Wikimedia Commons

Wikimedia Commons (or simply Commons) is an online repository of free-use images, sounds, and other media files.

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William W. Hagen

William W. Hagen (born 1942) is a prominent historian and professor of history at the University of California-Davis.

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Witold Pilecki

Witold Pilecki (13 May 190125 May 1948;; codenames Roman Jezierski, Tomasz Serafiński, Druh, Witold) was a Polish cavalryman and intelligence officer.

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Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939)

Wołyń Voivodeship or Volhynian Voivodeship (Województwo Wołyńskie, Palatinatus Volhynensis) was an administrative region of interwar Poland (1918–1939) with an area of 35,754 km², 22 cities, and provincial capital in Łuck.

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Woodrow Wilson

Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was an American statesman and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921.

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Workers' Defence Committee

The Workers' Defense Committee (Komitet Obrony Robotników, KOR) was a Polish civil society group that was founded by Antoni Macierewicz to give aid to prisoners and their families after the June 1976 protests and ensuing government crackdown.

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World War I

World War I (often abbreviated as WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918.

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World War II

World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although conflicts reflecting the ideological clash between what would become the Allied and Axis blocs began earlier.

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Wrocław

Wrocław (Breslau; Vratislav; Vratislavia) is the largest city in western Poland.

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Yad Vashem

Yad Vashem (יָד וַשֵׁם; literally, "a monument and a name") is Israel's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust.

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Yalta

Yalta (Yalta; Я́лта; Я́лта) is a resort city on the south coast of the Crimean Peninsula surrounded by the Black Sea.

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Yehuda Bauer

Yehuda Bauer (Hebrew: יהודה באואר; born April 6, 1926) is an Israeli historian and scholar of the Holocaust.

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Yehuda HaKohen ben Meir

Yehuda ben Meir, also known as Yehudah Leontin, was a German rabbi and Talmudic scholar of the late tenth and early eleventh century CE from Mainz.

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Yeshiva

Yeshiva (ישיבה, lit. "sitting"; pl., yeshivot or yeshivos) is a Jewish institution that focuses on the study of traditional religious texts, primarily the Talmud and the Torah.

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Yiddish

Yiddish (ייִדיש, יידיש or אידיש, yidish/idish, "Jewish",; in older sources ייִדיש-טײַטש Yidish-Taitsh, Judaeo-German) is the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews.

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Yiddish theatre

Yiddish theatre consists of plays written and performed primarily by Jews in Yiddish, the language of the Central European Ashkenazi Jewish community.

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Yitzhak Gruenbaum

Yitzhak Gruenbaum (Izaak Grünbaum, Hebrew and Yiddish: יצחק גרינבוים, born 1879 died 1970) was a noted leader of the Zionist movement among Polish Jewry in the interwar period and of the Yishuv in Mandatory Palestine, and the first Interior Minister of Israel.

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Yitzhak Shamir

Yitzhak Shamir (יצחק שמיר,; born Yitzhak Yezernitsky; October 22, 1915 – June 30, 2012) was an Israeli politician and the seventh Prime Minister of Israel, serving two terms, 1983–84 and 1986–1992.

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Yitzhak Zuckerman

Yitzhak Zuckerman (December 13, 1915 – June 17, 1981), also known by his nom de guerre "Antek", or by the Polish spelling Icchak Cukierman, was one of the leaders of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 1943 and fighter of Warsaw Uprising 1944—both heroic struggles against Nazi German terror during World War II.

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YIVO

YIVO (Yiddish: ייִוואָ), established in 1925 in Wilno in the Second Polish Republic (now Vilnius, Lithuania) as the Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut (Yiddish: ייִדישער װיסנשאַפֿטלעכער אינסטיטוט,, Yiddish Scientific Institute), is an organization that preserves, studies, and teaches the cultural history of Jewish life throughout Eastern Europe, Germany and Russia, as well as orthography, lexicography, and other studies related to Yiddish.

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Yom HaShoah

Yom Hazikaron laShoah ve-laG'vurah (יום הזיכרון לשואה ולגבורה; "Holocaust and Heroism Remembrance Day"), known colloquially in Israel and abroad as Yom HaShoah (יום השואה) and in English as Holocaust Remembrance Day, or Holocaust Day, is observed as Israel's day of commemoration for the approximately six million Jews who perished in the Holocaust as a result of the actions carried out by Nazi Germany and its collaborators, and for the Jewish resistance in that period.

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Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia (Jugoslavija/Југославија; Jugoslavija; Југославија; Pannonian Rusyn: Югославия, transcr. Juhoslavija)Jugosllavia; Jugoszlávia; Juhoslávia; Iugoslavia; Jugoslávie; Iugoslavia; Yugoslavya; Югославия, transcr. Jugoslavija.

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Zamość

Zamość (Yiddish: זאמאשטש Zamoshtsh) is a city in southeastern Poland, situated in the southern part of Lublin Voivodeship (since 1999), about from Lublin, from Warsaw and from the border with Ukraine.

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Zgoda labour camp

The Zgoda labour camp was a concentration camp for Silesians, Germans, and Poles,Gerhard Gruschka, Zgoda - miejsce grozy: obóz koncentracyjny w Świętochłowicach, Wokół Nas publishing, Gliwice 1998,.

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Zionism

Zionism (צִיּוֹנוּת Tsiyyonut after Zion) is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel (roughly corresponding to Canaan, the Holy Land, or the region of Palestine).

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Zygmunt Białostocki

Zygmunt Białostocki (15 August 1897 – c. 1942)http://www.altango.art.pl/postacie/zygmunt-bialostocki/ Wojciech Dabrowski biography at altango was a Polish Jewish musician.

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1905 Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution of 1905 was a wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire, some of which was directed at the government.

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1968 Polish political crisis

The Polish 1968 political crisis, also known in Poland as March 1968 or March events (Marzec 1968; wydarzenia marcowe), pertains to a series of major student, intellectual and other protests against the government of the Polish People's Republic.

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Redirects here:

Anti-Semitism in Poland, Antisemitism in Poland, History of Jews in Poland, History of Polish Jews, History of jews in poland, History of the Jews of Poland, History of the Polish Jews, Jewish Polish, Jewish Polish history, Jewish in Poland, Jewish people in Poland, Jewish people of Poland, Jewish polish history, Jewish-Polish history, Jews in Poland, Jews of Poland, Judaism in Poland, Pole of Jewish origin, Poles of Jewish origin, Polish Anti-Semitism, Polish Antisemitism, Polish Jew, Polish Jewish, Polish Jewish history, Polish Jewry, Polish Jews, Polish citizens of Jewish origin, Polish jews, Polish-Jew, Polish-Jewish, Polish-Jewish history.

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland

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