Communication

391 relations: -stan, Abbasid Caliphate, Abd al-Karim Qasim, Abdul Rahman Arif, Abdul Salam Arif, Achaemenid Assyria, Achaemenid Empire, Adiabene, Afsharid dynasty, Agriculture, Ahmed Barzani, Ahmed Barzani revolt, Akkadian Empire, Akkadian language, Alexander the Great, Algeria, Ali Hassan al-Majid, Amadiya, Amaranthaceae, Ancient Rome, Anfal genocide, Anglo-Indian, Ankara, Ankawa, Aq Qoyunlu, Arab culture, Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region, Arabian Peninsula, Arabic, Arabization, Arabs, Ardulfurataini (national anthem), Arecaceae, Armenian language, Armenians, Armenians in Iraq, Arnold Wilson, Arrapha, Artemisia herba-alba, Asayish (Kurdistan Regional Government), Asōristān, Ashur, Association football, Assyria, Assyria (Roman province), Assyrian Church of the East, Assyrian culture, Assyrian homeland, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Assyrian people, ..., Assyrians in Iraq, Autonomous administrative division, Ba'ath Party, Ba'athism, Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq, Baban, Baghdad, Bahdinan, Balawat, Bard, Barzan, Iraq, Barzani Kurds, Basra, Batifa, BMU Lebanese French University, British Empire, Carnegie Middle East Center, Cement, Census, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Kurdish, Chaldean Catholic Church, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Cheekha Dar, Chemical warfare, Cherry plum, Chevron Corporation, Christian, Christianity in Iraq, Cihan University, Circa, City-state, Coal, Columnist, Conifer cone, Constitution of Iraq, Copper, Crataegus monogyna, Culture of Armenia, Date palm, De facto, Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, Demonstration (protest), Deserts and xeric shrublands, Disputed territories of Northern Iraq, Diyarbakır Airport, DNO ASA, Dohuk, Dohuk Governorate, Economic sanctions, Economic system, Ed Royce, Ekallatum, Election, Emirate, Emirate of Transjordan, Encyclopædia Iranica, Epic poetry, Erbil, Erbil Governorate, Erbil International Airport, Ernst Friedrich Karl Rosenmüller, Ethnoreligious group, Euphrates softshell turtle, Eurasian otter, Europe, European nightjar, Exxon, Ey Reqîb, Falah Mustafa Bakir, Faysh Khabur, Feyli Kurds, Fir, First Iraqi–Kurdish War, Foreign direct investment, Fraxinus, Free-trade zone, Freezing, French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, Frost, Gannett Company, Genel Energy, Genocide, Goitered gazelle, Gold, Golden jackal, Gorran Movement, Gray wolf, Great Zab, Greenwich Mean Time, Gulf Keystone Petroleum, Gulf War, Gutian people, Halabja, Halabja chemical attack, Halabja Governorate, Hamrin Mountains, Hawler Medical University, Hawrami dialects, Hooded crow, Houari Boumédiène, Human rights, Human Rights Watch, Hunt Oil Company, Hurrians, Inanna, Indian crested porcupine, International School of Choueifat, Iran, Iran–Iraq War, Iranian Kurdistan, Iranian peoples, Iraq, Iraq Levies, Iraq War, Iraqi Air Force, Iraqi Army, Iraqi Communist Party, Iraqi constitutional referendum, 2005, Iraqi dinar, Iraqi Governing Council, Iraqi insurgency (2011–13), Iraqi Kurdistan Football Association, Iraqi Kurdistan independence referendum, 2017, Iraqi Kurdistan Parliament, Iraqi Kurdistan parliamentary election, 1992, Iraqi no-fly zones, Iraqi Turkmens, Iraqi–Kurdish Autonomy Agreement of 1970, Iraqi–Kurdish conflict, Iron, Ishik University, Islam, Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, Istanbul, Jalal Talabani, Jarmo, Joël Voordewind, Khanaqin, Kingdom of Kurdistan, Kirkuk, Kirkuk Field, Komar University of Science and Technology, Koya University, Kurdification, Kurdish languages, Kurdish refugees, Kurdistan, Kurdistan Democratic Party, Kurdistan List, Kurdistan Regional Government, Kurdistan Socialist Democratic Party, Kurds, Kurds in Iraq, Lake Dukan, Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period, Lawyer, League of Nations, Limestone, List of Assyrian kings, Little Zab, Mahmud Barzanji, Mahmud Barzanji revolts, Mandaeans, Mandaeism, Mandatory Iraq, Mandatory Palestine, Mangar (fish), Marathon Oil, Marble, Mardin Airport, Masked shrike, Masoud Barzani, Media of Syria, Mediterranean climate, Menetries's warbler, Middle East, Minstrel, Mithridates I of Parthia, MOL (company), Mongols, Mossad, Mosul, Mount Nisir, Mudhafaria Minaret, Muslim, Muslim conquest of Persia, Mustafa Barzani, Nader Shah, Nahla, Iraq, National anthem, National Geographic, Nawshirwan Mustafa, Neanderthal, Nechirvan Barzani, Neo-Assyrian Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Neolithic, Newroz as celebrated by Kurds, Nimrud, Nineveh, Nineveh plains, Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014), Northern Kurdish, Norway, Oak, Official language, Oil-for-Food Programme, Olive, Onager, Operation Provide Comfort, Ottoman Empire, Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39), Pale rockfinch, Parthia, Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, Persian fallow deer, Persian language, Peshmerga, Petroleum industry, Pinus brutia, Pistachio, Plain, Platanus, Platanus orientalis, Poa, Populus, President, President of Iraqi Kurdistan, Prime Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan, Pyrus elaeagrifolia, Qaladiza, Qandil Mountains, Qubad Talabani, Rashidun Caliphate, Rawandiz, Red fox, Representative democracy, Republic of Mahabad, Resistance movement, Review of International Studies, Robert Halfon, Rosaceae, Rose hip, Rosneft, Rufous-tailed scrub robin, Saddam Hussein, Safavid dynasty, Saladin, Salahaddin University-Erbil, Sargon of Akkad, Sasanian Empire, Satrap, Saudi Arabia, Sclerophyll, Seasonal lag, Second Iraqi–Kurdish War, See-see partridge, Seleucid Empire, Semi-arid climate, Settler colonialism, Shabak people, Shafi‘i, Shanidar Cave, Shaqlawa, Shia Islam, Sinjar, Sinjar clashes (2017), Sinjar Mountains, Snow, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, Soran Emirate, Soran University, Soran, Iraq, Sorbus, Soviet Union, Sputnik (news agency), Steppe, Storytelling, Striped hyena, Sufism, Sulaimani Polytechnic University, Sulaimaniyah International Airport, Sulaymaniyah, Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Sunni Islam, Sykes–Picot Agreement, Syria, Syrian brown bear, Talisman Energy, Tamarix, Tehran, Telephone numbers in Iraq, Tell Halaf, Tell Hassuna, Tell Leilan, The American University of Iraq, Sulaimani, The American University of Kurdistan, The Washington Post, Third World Quarterly, Tigris, Total S.A., Tourism, Treaty of Lausanne, Treaty of Sèvres, Treaty of Zuhab, Turkey, Turkic peoples, Turkish Kurdistan, Umayyad Caliphate, United Nations, United Nations Security Council, United States, University of Duhok, University of Sulaymaniyah, University of Zakho, Ushpia, Viva World Cup, Washington, D.C., Western Asia, Western jackdaw, Wild boar, Willow, Work song, World Food Programme, World Kickboxing Association, World War I, Yarsanism, Yazdânism, Yazidis, Yemen, Zagros Mountains, Zakho, Zinc, Zoroastrianism, .krd, 14 July Revolution, 1975 Algiers Agreement, 1991 uprisings in Iraq, 2003 invasion of Iraq, 2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq. 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-stan

The suffix -stan (ـستان|translit.

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Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid Caliphate (or ٱلْخِلافَةُ ٱلْعَبَّاسِيَّة) was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

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Abd al-Karim Qasim

Abd Al-Karim Qasim Muhammed Bakr Al-Fadhli Al-Zubaidi (عبد الكريم قاسم) (21 November 1914 – 9 February 1963), was a nationalist Iraqi Army brigadier who seized power in the 14 July Revolution, wherein the Iraqi monarchy was eliminated.

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Abdul Rahman Arif

Hajj Abdul Rahman Mohammed Arif Aljumaily (Arabic عبد الرحمن محمد عارف الجميلي; April 14, 1916August 24, 2007) was President of Iraq, from April 16, 1966, to July 17, 1968.

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Abdul Salam Arif

‘Abd ul-Salam Mohammed ‘Arif Aljumaily (عبد السلام محمد عارف الجميلي) (21 March 1921 – 13 April 1966) was President of Iraq from 1963 until his death in 1966.

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Achaemenid Assyria

Athura (𐎠𐎰𐎢𐎼𐎠 Aθurā), also called Assyria Babylonia, was a geographical area within the Persian Achaemenid Empire held by the last nobility of Aššur (Akkadian), known as Athura (Neo-Aramaic) or Atouria (Greek), during the period of 539 BC to 330 BC as a military protectorate state of Persia under the rule of Cyrus the Great.

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Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire, also called the First Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great.

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Adiabene

Adiabene (from the Ancient Greek Ἀδιαβηνή, Adiabene, itself derived from ܚܕܝܐܒ, or, Middle Persian: Nodshēragān, Armenian: Նոր Շիրական, Nor Shirakan) was an ancient kingdom in Assyria, with its capital at Arbela (modern-day Erbil, Iraq).

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Afsharid dynasty

The Afsharid dynasty (افشاریان) were members of an Iranian dynasty that originated from the Turkic Afshar tribe in Iran's north-eastern province of Khorasan, ruling Persia in the mid-eighteenth century.

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Agriculture

Agriculture is the cultivation of land and breeding of animals and plants to provide food, fiber, medicinal plants and other products to sustain and enhance life.

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Ahmed Barzani

Ahmed Barzani (1896 – 11 January 1969) (ئه‌حمه‌د موحه‌ممه‌د بارزانی / Ehmed Mihemed Barzanî), also known as Khudan (خودان), was the head of the Barzani tribe in Northern Iraq.

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Ahmed Barzani revolt

Ahmed Barzani revolt refers to the first of the major Barzani revolts and the third Kurdish nationalistic insurrection in modern Iraq.

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Akkadian Empire

The Akkadian Empire was the first ancient Semitic-speaking empire of Mesopotamia, centered in the city of Akkad and its surrounding region, also called Akkad in ancient Mesopotamia in the Bible.

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Akkadian language

Akkadian (akkadû, ak-ka-du-u2; logogram: URIKI)John Huehnergard & Christopher Woods, "Akkadian and Eblaite", The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages.

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Alexander the Great

Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (Aléxandros ho Mégas), was a king (basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty.

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Algeria

Algeria (الجزائر, familary Algerian Arabic الدزاير; ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ; Dzayer; Algérie), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast.

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Ali Hassan al-Majid

Ali Hassan Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (علي حسن عبد المجيد التكريتي; 1941? – 25 January 2010) was a Ba'athist Iraqi Defense Minister, Interior Minister, military commander and chief of the Iraqi Intelligence Service.

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Amadiya

Amadiya (Amêdî, ئامێدی, العمادية, ܥܲܡܵܕܝܵܐ Al-Emadiyah) is a Kurdish town and popular summer resort and Hill station along a tributary to the Great Zab in the Dahuk Governorate of Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Amaranthaceae

Amaranthaceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus Amaranthus.

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Ancient Rome

In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, encompassing the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire until the fall of the western empire.

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Anfal genocide

The Anfal genocide was a genocide that killed between 50,000 and 182,000 Kurds.

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Anglo-Indian

The term Anglo-Indians can refer to at least two groups of people: those with mixed Indian and British ancestry, and people of British descent born or living in the Indian subcontinent.

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Ankara

Ankara (English; Turkish Ottoman Turkish Engürü), formerly known as Ancyra (Ἄγκυρα, Ankyra, "anchor") and Angora, is the capital of the Republic of Turkey.

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Ankawa

Ankawa or Ainkawa (ܥܲܢܟܵܒ̣ܵܐ, عنكاوا, ‘ankāwā) is a predominantly Assyrian suburb of Erbil in Iraqi Kurdistan, outside the city limits.

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Aq Qoyunlu

The Aq Qoyunlu or Ak Koyunlu, also called the White Sheep Turkomans (Āq Quyūnlū), was a Persianate Sunni Oghuz Turkic tribal federation that ruled present-day Armenia, Azerbaijan, Eastern Turkey, most part of Iran, and Iraq from 1378 to 1501.

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Arab culture

Arab culture is the culture of the Arabs, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea.

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Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region

The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region (حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي في العراق Hizb Al-Baath Al-'Arabi Al-Ishtiraki fi Al-'Iraq), officially the Iraqi Regional Branch, is a regional branch of the Arab Ba'athist political party founded in 1951 by Fuad al-Rikabi.

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Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula, simplified Arabia (شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, ‘Arabian island’ or جَزِيرَةُ الْعَرَب, ‘Island of the Arabs’), is a peninsula of Western Asia situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian plate.

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Arabic

Arabic (العَرَبِيَّة) or (عَرَبِيّ) or) is a Central Semitic language that first emerged in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living from Mesopotamia in the east to the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, in northwestern Arabia, and in the Sinai peninsula. Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage comprising 30 modern varieties, including its standard form, Modern Standard Arabic, which is derived from Classical Arabic. As the modern written language, Modern Standard Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic (fuṣḥā), which is the official language of 26 states and the liturgical language of Islam. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties, and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-classical era, especially in modern times. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also borrowed many words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages, mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese, Valencian and Catalan, owing to both the proximity of Christian European and Muslim Arab civilizations and 800 years of Arabic culture and language in the Iberian Peninsula, referred to in Arabic as al-Andalus. Sicilian has about 500 Arabic words as result of Sicily being progressively conquered by Arabs from North Africa, from the mid 9th to mid 10th centuries. Many of these words relate to agriculture and related activities (Hull and Ruffino). Balkan languages, including Greek and Bulgarian, have also acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. Some of the most influenced languages are Persian, Turkish, Spanish, Urdu, Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Hindi, Malay, Maldivian, Indonesian, Pashto, Punjabi, Tagalog, Sindhi, and Hausa, and some languages in parts of Africa. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed words from other languages, including Greek and Persian in medieval times, and contemporary European languages such as English and French in modern times. Classical Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.8 billion Muslims and Modern Standard Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script and is written from right to left, although the spoken varieties are sometimes written in ASCII Latin from left to right with no standardized orthography.

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Arabization

Arabization or Arabisation (تعريب) describes either the conquest and/or colonization of a non-Arab area and growing Arab influence on non-Arab populations, causing a language shift by their gradual adoption of the Arabic language and/or their incorporation of Arab culture, Arab identity.

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Arabs

Arabs (عَرَب ISO 233, Arabic pronunciation) are a population inhabiting the Arab world.

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Ardulfurataini (national anthem)

"Ardh ul-Furatayn" (أرض الفراتين, literally "Land of the Euphrates"), also known as the "Land of The Two Rivers", was the national anthem of Iraq during the Ba'athist regime of Saddam Hussein.

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Arecaceae

The Arecaceae are a botanical family of perennial trees, climbers, shrubs, and acaules commonly known as palm trees (owing to historical usage, the family is alternatively called Palmae).

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Armenian language

The Armenian language (reformed: հայերեն) is an Indo-European language spoken primarily by the Armenians.

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Armenians

Armenians (հայեր, hayer) are an ethnic group native to the Armenian Highlands.

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Armenians in Iraq

The history of Armenians in Iraq is documented since late Babylonian times.

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Arnold Wilson

Sir Arnold Talbot Wilson (18 July 1884 – 31 May 1940) was the British civil commissioner in Baghdad in 1918–20.

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Arrapha

Arrapha or Arrapkha (Akkadian: Arrapḫa, Syriac: ܐܪܦܗܐ, أررابخا,عرفة) was an ancient city in what today is northeastern Iraq, on the site of the modern city of Kirkuk.

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Artemisia herba-alba

Artemisia herba-alba, the white wormwood, is a perennial shrub in the genus Artemisia that grows commonly on the dry steppes of the Mediterranean regions in Northern Africa (Saharan Maghreb), Western Asia (Arabian Peninsula) and Southwestern Europe.

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Asayish (Kurdistan Regional Government)

Asayîş or Asayish (Kurdish for security) is the Kurdish security organization and the primary intelligence agency operating in the Kurdistan region in Iraq.

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Asōristān

Asōristān (𐭠𐭮𐭥𐭥𐭮𐭲𐭭 Asōrestān, Āsūrestān) was the name of the Sasanian provinces of Mesopotamia from 226 to 637.

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Ashur

Ashur (אַשּׁוּר) was the second son of Shem, the son of Noah.

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Association football

Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball.

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Assyria

Assyria, also called the Assyrian Empire, was a major Semitic speaking Mesopotamian kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East and the Levant.

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Assyria (Roman province)

Assyria was a Roman province that lasted only two years (116–118 AD).

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Assyrian Church of the East

The Assyrian Church of the East (ܥܕܬܐ ܕܡܕܢܚܐ ܕܐܬܘܖ̈ܝܐ ʻĒdtā d-Madenḥā d-Ātorāyē), officially the Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East (ʻEdtā Qaddīštā wa-Šlīḥāitā Qātolīqī d-Madenḥā d-Ātorāyē), is an Eastern Christian Church that follows the traditional christology and ecclesiology of the historical Church of the East.

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Assyrian culture

Assyrian culture is that of the Assyrians, an Eastern Aramaic-speaking people indigenous to Upper Mesopotamia.

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Assyrian homeland

The Assyrian homeland or Assyria refers to a geographic and cultural region situated in Northern Mesopotamia that has been traditionally inhabited by Assyrian people.

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Assyrian Neo-Aramaic

Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (ܣܘܪܝܬ, sūrët), or just simply Assyrian, is a Neo-Aramaic language within the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family.

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Assyrian people

Assyrian people (ܐܫܘܪܝܐ), or Syriacs (see terms for Syriac Christians), are an ethnic group indigenous to the Middle East.

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Assyrians in Iraq

Assyrians in Iraq are an ethnoreligious and linguistic minority in present-day Iraq, and are the indigenous population of the region.

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Autonomous administrative division

An autonomous administrative division (also referred to as an autonomous area, entity, unit, region, subdivision, or territory) is a subdivision or dependent territory of a country that has a degree of self-governance, or autonomy, from an external authority.

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Ba'ath Party

The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي) was a political party founded in Syria by Michel Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, and associates of Zaki al-Arsuzi.

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Ba'athism

Ba'athism (البعثية, al-Ba'athiyah, from بعث ba'ath, meaning "renaissance" or "resurrection") is an Arab nationalist ideology that promotes the development and creation of a unified Arab state through the leadership of a vanguard party over a progressive revolutionary government.

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Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq

The Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq involved the forced displacement and cultural Arabization of minorities (Kurds, Yezidis, Assyrians, Shabaks, Armenians, Turkmen, Mandeans), in line with settler colonialist policies, led by the Ba'athist government of Iraq from the 1960s to the early 2000s, in order to shift the demographics of North Iraq towards Arab domination.

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Baban

The house of Baban (1649–1850) ruled a Kurdish principality which encompassed areas of present-day Iraqi Kurdistan and western Iran from the early 17th century until 1850.

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Baghdad

Baghdad (بغداد) is the capital of Iraq.

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Bahdinan

Bahdinan or Badinan (1376–1843) was one of the most powerful and enduring Muslim Kurdish principalities.

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Balawat

Balawat (ܒܝܬ ܠܒܬ) is an archaeological site of the ancient Assyrian city of Imgur-Enlil, and modern village in Nineveh Province (Iraq).

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Bard

In medieval Gaelic and British culture, a bard was a professional story teller, verse-maker and music composer, employed by a patron (such as a monarch or noble), to commemorate one or more of the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities.

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Barzan, Iraq

Barzan (بارزان) is a town located along the Great Zab in Erbil Governorate, Iraq.

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Barzani Kurds

The Barzani tribe (Hozî Barzanî) is one of the Kurdish tribes in Iraq.

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Basra

Basra (البصرة al-Baṣrah), is an Iraqi city located on the Shatt al-Arab between Kuwait and Iran.

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Batifa

Batifa, or Batufa in Kurdish, is one of the aspects of the Zakho District in Dohuk Governorate in the Kurdistan region of Iraq.

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BMU Lebanese French University

The Lebanese French University LFU Lebanese French University (LFU) is a leading private university.

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British Empire

The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states.

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Carnegie Middle East Center

The Carnegie Middle East Center (CMEC) is a think tank and research center dealing with public policy in the Middle East.

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Cement

A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens and adheres to other materials, binding them together.

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Census

A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population.

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Central Intelligence Agency

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the United States federal government, tasked with gathering, processing, and analyzing national security information from around the world, primarily through the use of human intelligence (HUMINT).

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Central Kurdish

Central Kurdish (کوردیی ناوەندی, Kurdîy nawendî), also called Sorani (سۆرانی, Soranî) is a Kurdish language spoken in Iraq, mainly in Iraqi Kurdistan, as well as the Kurdistan Province and West Azerbaijan Province of western Iran.

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Chaldean Catholic Church

The Chaldean Catholic Church (ܥܕܬܐ ܟܠܕܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝܬܐ, ʿīdtha kaldetha qāthuliqetha; Arabic: الكنيسة الكلدانية al-Kanīsa al-kaldāniyya; translation) is an Eastern Catholic particular church (sui juris) in full communion with the Holy See and the rest of the Catholic Church, with the Chaldean Patriarchate having been originally formed out of the Church of the East in 1552.

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Chaldean Neo-Aramaic

No description.

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Cheekha Dar

Cheekha Dar, (Çîxî Derê / چیخی دەرێ) which means the Outer Row, is the local Kurdish name for the mountain currently thought to be the highest in Iraq.

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Chemical warfare

Chemical warfare (CW) involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons.

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Cherry plum

Prunus cerasifera is a species of plum known by the common names cherry plum and myrobalan plum.

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Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation is an American multinational energy corporation.

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Christian

A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ.

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Christianity in Iraq

The Christians of Iraq are considered to be one of the oldest continuous Christian communities in the world.

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Cihan University

A University (Zankoy A in Kurdish, Jamaat Jehan In Arabic) is an educational institution in Erbil, capital of the autonomous Kurdistan Region of Iraq.

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Circa

Circa, usually abbreviated c., ca. or ca (also circ. or cca.), means "approximately" in several European languages (and as a loanword in English), usually in reference to a date.

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City-state

A city-state is a sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories.

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Coal

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams.

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Columnist

A columnist is a person who writes for publication in a series, creating an article that usually offers commentary and opinions.

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Conifer cone

A cone (in formal botanical usage: strobilus, plural strobili) is an organ on plants in the division Pinophyta (conifers) that contains the reproductive structures.

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Constitution of Iraq

The Constitution of Iraq is the fundamental law of Iraq.

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Copper

Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu (from cuprum) and atomic number 29.

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Crataegus monogyna

Crataegus monogyna, known as common hawthorn or single-seeded hawthorn, is a species of hawthorn native to Europe, northwest Africa and western Asia.

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Culture of Armenia

The culture of Armenia encompasses many elements that are based on the geography, literature, architecture, dance, and music of the people.

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Date palm

Phoenix dactylifera, commonly known as date or date palm, is a flowering plant species in the palm family, Arecaceae, cultivated for its edible sweet fruit.

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De facto

In law and government, de facto (or;, "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, even if not legally recognised by official laws.

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Democratic Federation of Northern Syria

The Democratic Federation of Northern Syria (DFNS), commonly known as Rojava, is a de facto autonomous region in northern Syria.

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Demonstration (protest)

A demonstration or street protest is action by a mass group or collection of groups of people in favor of a political or other cause; it normally consists of walking in a mass march formation and either beginning with or meeting at a designated endpoint, or rally, to hear speakers.

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Deserts and xeric shrublands

Deserts and xeric shrublands are a biome characterized by receiving only a small amount of moisture, usually defined as less than 250 mm of annual precipitation.

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Disputed territories of Northern Iraq

The disputed territories of Northern Iraq are regions defined by article 140 of the Constitution of Iraq as being Arabised during the Baath Party rule in Iraq.

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Diyarbakır Airport

Diyarbakır Airport is a military airbase and public airport located in Diyarbakır, Turkey.

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DNO ASA

DNO ASA ‘DNO’ is a Norwegian oil and gas operator focused on the Middle East and the North Sea.

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Dohuk

Dohuk (دهۆک,; ܢܘܗܕܪܐ.; دهوك) is the capital of Dohuk Governorate in Iraq, it is a city with a population of approximately 300 000 inhabitants, consisting mostly of Kurds and then Assyrians.

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Dohuk Governorate

Dohuk Governorate (پارێزگای دھۆک, ܗܘܦܲܪܟܝܵܐ ܕܕܸܗܘܟ, محافظة دهوك Muḥāfaẓat Dahūk) is a governorate in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Economic sanctions

Economic sanctions are commercial and financial penalties applied by one or more countries against a targeted country, group, or individual.

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Economic system

An economic system is a system of production, resource allocation and distribution of goods and services within a society or a given geographic area.

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Ed Royce

Edward Randall Royce (born October 12, 1951) is an American politician serving as a member of the United States House of Representatives from California since 1993.

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Ekallatum

Ekallatum was an ancient Assyrian city of upper Mesopotamia.

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Election

An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office.

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Emirate

An emirate is a political territory that is ruled by a dynastic Arabic or Islamic monarch styled emir.

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Emirate of Transjordan

The Emirate of Transjordan (إمارة شرق الأردن lit. "Emirate of east Jordan"), also hyphenated as Trans-Jordan and previously known as Transjordania or Trans-Jordania, was a British protectorate established in April 1921.

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Encyclopædia Iranica

Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language encyclopedia about the history, culture, and civilization of Iranian peoples from prehistory to modern times.

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Epic poetry

An epic poem, epic, epos, or epopee is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily involving a time beyond living memory in which occurred the extraordinary doings of the extraordinary men and women who, in dealings with the gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the moral universe that their descendants, the poet and his audience, must understand to understand themselves as a people or nation.

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Erbil

Erbil, also spelt Arbil or Irbil, locally called Hawler by the Kurdish people (ھەولێر Hewlêr; أربيل, Arbīl; ܐܲܪܒܝܠ, Arbela), is the capital of Iraqi Kurdistan and the largest city in northern Iraq.

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Erbil Governorate

Erbil Governorate (Parêzgeha Hewlêr - پارێزگای ھەولێر, ܗܘܦܲܪܟܝܵܐ ܕܐܲܪܒܝܠ, محافظة أربيل Muḥāfaẓat Arbīl), sometimes referred to by the alternative spelling Arbil Governorate, is a governorate in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Erbil International Airport

Erbil International Airport, is the main airport of the city of Erbil in Iraq.

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Ernst Friedrich Karl Rosenmüller

Ernst Friedrich Karl Rosenmüller (10 December 1768 in Heßberg (Hildburghausen) – 17 September 1835 in Leipzig) was a German Orientalist and Protestant theologian.

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Ethnoreligious group

An ethnoreligious group (or ethno-religious group) is an ethnic group whose members are also unified by a common religious background.

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Euphrates softshell turtle

The Euphrates softshell turtle (Rafetus euphraticus), also known as the Mesopotamian softshell turtle, is a species of softshell turtle in the family Trionychidae.

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Eurasian otter

The Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), also known as the European otter, Eurasian river otter, common otter, and Old World otter, is a semiaquatic mammal native to Eurasia.

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Europe

Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere.

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European nightjar

The European nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus), Eurasian nightjar or just nightjar, is a crepuscular and nocturnal bird in the nightjar family that breeds across most of Europe and temperate Asia.

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Exxon

Exxon was the brand name of oil and natural resources company Exxon Corporation, prior to 1972 known as Standard Oil Company of New Jersey.

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Ey Reqîb

Ey Reqîb (Central ئەی ڕەقیب) is the Kurdish national anthem.

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Falah Mustafa Bakir

Falah Mustafa Bakir (فەلاح مستەفا; born 1964) is a politician from Iraqi Kurdistan and has served as Head of Department of Foreign Relations for Kurdistan Regional Government since 2006.

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Faysh Khabur

Faysh Khabur (ܦܝܫܚܵܒܘ̣ܪ, فيشخابور) ("pre Khabur" in Kurdish) is an Assyrian town on the northwestern edge of Iraqi Kurdistan in the Zakho District of Dohuk Governorate.

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Feyli Kurds

Feylis (also Faylis, Failis, Faylees or Pahlis) are mostly a group of Shia Muslim Kurds whose heartland is divided between Ilam, Kermanshah and Lorestan provinces in Iran and the eastern parts of Diyala Governorate and Wasit Governoratein Iraq.

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Fir

Firs (Abies) are a genus of 48–56 species of evergreen coniferous trees in the family Pinaceae.

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First Iraqi–Kurdish War

The First Iraqi–Kurdish WarMichael G. Lortz.

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Foreign direct investment

A foreign direct investment (FDI) is an investment in the form of a controlling ownership in a business in one country by an entity based in another country.

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Fraxinus

Fraxinus, English name ash, is a genus of flowering plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae.

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Free-trade zone

A free-trade zone (FTZ) is a specific class of special economic zone.

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Freezing

Freezing, or solidification, is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point.

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French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon

The Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (Mandat français pour la Syrie et le Liban; الانتداب الفرنسي على سوريا ولبنان) (1923−1946) was a League of Nations mandate founded after the First World War and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire concerning Syria and Lebanon.

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Frost

Frost is the coating or deposit of ice that may form in humid air in cold conditions, usually overnight.

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Gannett Company

Gannett Company, Inc. is a publicly traded American media holding company headquartered in Tysons Corner, Virginia, near McLean in Greater Washington DC.

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Genel Energy

Genel Energy plc is an oil company with a registered office in Jersey and field office in Turkey.

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Genocide

Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people (usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group) in whole or in part.

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Goitered gazelle

The goitered or black-tailed gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) is a gazelle found in Georgia, Azerbaijan, Iran, parts of Iraq and Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, India, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and in northwest China and Mongolia.

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Gold

Gold is a chemical element with symbol Au (from aurum) and atomic number 79, making it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally.

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Golden jackal

The golden jackal (Canis aureus) is a wolf-like canid that is native to Southeast Europe, Southwest Asia, South Asia, and regions of Southeast Asia.

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Gorran Movement

The Gorran Movement (literally: Movement for Change) (Bizûtinewey‌ Gorran / بزووتنەوەی گۆڕان) or just Gorran (Change) is an Iraqi Kurdish political party under the leadership of Omar Said Ali, founded in 2009 by Nawshirwan Mustafa, it is the official opposition to the ruling two-party coalition of the Kurdistan Democratic Party and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (Kurdistan List) which governs the Kurdistan Regional Government.

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Gray wolf

The gray wolf (Canis lupus), also known as the timber wolf,Paquet, P. & Carbyn, L. W. (2003).

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Great Zab

The Great Zab or Upper Zab ((al-Zāb al-Kabīr),,, (zāba ʻalya)) is an approximately long river flowing through Turkey and Iraq.

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Greenwich Mean Time

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the mean solar time at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London.

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Gulf Keystone Petroleum

Gulf Keystone Petroleum Limited is an oil and gas exploration and production company operating in the Kurdistan region of Iraq.

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Gulf War

The Gulf War (2 August 199028 February 1991), codenamed Operation Desert Shield (2 August 199017 January 1991) for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defense of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm (17 January 199128 February 1991) in its combat phase, was a war waged by coalition forces from 35 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.

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Gutian people

The Guti or Quti, also known by the derived exonyms Gutians or Guteans, were a nomadic people of the Zagros Mountains (on the border of modern Iran and Iraq) during ancient times.

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Halabja

Halabja (Kurdish: Hełebce) is a city in Iraqi Kurdistan and the capital of Halabja Governorate, located about northeast of Baghdad and from the Iranian border.

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Halabja chemical attack

The Halabja chemical attack (Kurdish: Kîmyabarana Helebce کیمیابارانی ھەڵەبجە), also known as the Halabja Massacre or Bloody Friday, was a massacre against the Kurdish people that took place on March 16, 1988, during the closing days of the Iran–Iraq War in the Kurdish city of Halabja in Iraq.

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Halabja Governorate

Halabja Governorate or Halabja Province (پارێزگای ھەڵەبجە, محافظة حلبجة Muḥāfaẓat Ḥalabǧa) is a governorate in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Hamrin Mountains

The Hamrin Mountains (Arabic: جبل حمرين, Kurdish:چیای حەمرین Çiyayê Hemrîn or Çiyayên Hemrîn) are a small mountain ridge in northeast Iraq.

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Hawler Medical University

Hawler Medical University is located in Erbil (Kurdish: Hewler), capital of the Arbil Governorate in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Hawrami dialects

Horami (ھۆرامی; Horamî) also known as Avromani, Awromani or Owrami, is one of the main groups of dialects of the Gorani language, a subgroup of Northwestern Iranian languages.

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Hooded crow

The hooded crow (Corvus cornix) (also called hoodie) is a Eurasian bird species in the ''Corvus'' genus.

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Houari Boumédiène

Houari Boumédiène, also transcribed Boumediene, Boumedienne etc., (هواري بومدين; ALA-LC: Hawārī Bū-Madyan; 23 August 1932 – 27 December 1978) served as Chairman of the Revolutionary Council of Algeria from 19 June 1965 until 12 December 1976 and thereafter as the second President of Algeria until his death on 27 December 1978.

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Human rights

Human rights are moral principles or normsJames Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, December 13, 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,, Retrieved August 14, 2014 that describe certain standards of human behaviour and are regularly protected as natural and legal rights in municipal and international law.

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Human Rights Watch

Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights.

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Hunt Oil Company

Hunt Oil Co. is an independent oil and gas company headquartered in Dallas, Texas.

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Hurrians

The Hurrians (cuneiform:; transliteration: Ḫu-ur-ri; also called Hari, Khurrites, Hourri, Churri, Hurri or Hurriter) were a people of the Bronze Age Near East.

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Inanna

Inanna was the ancient Sumerian goddess of love, beauty, sex, desire, fertility, war, combat, justice, and political power.

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Indian crested porcupine

The Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica), or Indian porcupine, is a large species of hystricomorph rodent (order Rodentia) belonging to the Old World porcupine family, Hystricidae.

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International School of Choueifat

The International School of Choueifat (ISC) is a collection of international private schools run by the SABIS school system in various countries of the Middle East.

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Iran

Iran (ایران), also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ایران), is a sovereign state in Western Asia. With over 81 million inhabitants, Iran is the world's 18th-most-populous country. Comprising a land area of, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East and the 17th-largest in the world. Iran is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. The country's central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, give it geostrategic importance. Tehran is the country's capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BCE. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BCE, reaching its greatest territorial size in the sixth century BCE, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley, becoming one of the largest empires in history. The Iranian realm fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion culminated in the establishment of the Parthian Empire, which was succeeded in the third century CE by the Sasanian Empire, a leading world power for the next four centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century CE, displacing the indigenous faiths of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism with Islam. Iran made major contributions to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential figures in art and science. After two centuries, a period of various native Muslim dynasties began, which were later conquered by the Turks and the Mongols. The rise of the Safavids in the 15th century led to the reestablishment of a unified Iranian state and national identity, with the country's conversion to Shia Islam marking a turning point in Iranian and Muslim history. Under Nader Shah, Iran was one of the most powerful states in the 18th century, though by the 19th century, a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to significant territorial losses. Popular unrest led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the country's first legislature. A 1953 coup instigated by the United Kingdom and the United States resulted in greater autocracy and growing anti-Western resentment. Subsequent unrest against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution and the establishment of an Islamic republic, a political system that includes elements of a parliamentary democracy vetted and supervised by a theocracy governed by an autocratic "Supreme Leader". During the 1980s, the country was engaged in a war with Iraq, which lasted for almost nine years and resulted in a high number of casualties and economic losses for both sides. According to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic, and has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader. Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate, and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world. Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, an agreement reached between Iran and the P5+1, was created on 14 July 2015, aimed to loosen the nuclear sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium. Iran is a founding member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC, and OPEC. It is a major regional and middle power, and its large reserves of fossil fuels – which include the world's largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves – exert considerable influence in international energy security and the world economy. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and eleventh-largest in the world. Iran is a multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, the largest being Persians (61%), Azeris (16%), Kurds (10%), and Lurs (6%).

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Iran–Iraq War

The Iran–Iraq War was an armed conflict between Iran and Iraq, beginning on 22 September 1980, when Iraq invaded Iran, and ending on 20 August 1988, when Iran accepted the UN-brokered ceasefire.

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Iranian Kurdistan

Iranian Kurdistan, or Eastern Kurdistan (Kurdish: Rojhilatê Kurdistanê), is an unofficial name for the parts of northwestern Iran inhabited by Kurds which borders Iraq and Turkey.

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Iranian peoples

The Iranian peoples, or Iranic peoples, are a diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise the speakers of the Iranian languages.

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Iraq

Iraq (or; العراق; عێراق), officially known as the Republic of Iraq (جُمُهورية العِراق; کۆماری عێراق), is a country in Western Asia, bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest and Syria to the west.

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Iraq Levies

The Iraq Levies (also known as the Assyrian Levies as they would eventually become dominated by ethnic Assyrians) was the first Iraqi military force established by the British in British controlled Iraq.

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Iraq War

The Iraq WarThe conflict is also known as the War in Iraq, the Occupation of Iraq, the Second Gulf War, and Gulf War II.

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Iraqi Air Force

The Iraqi Air Force (IQAF or IrAF; Arabic: القوات الجوية العراقية, Al Quwwat al Jawwiya al Iraqiya) is the aerial warfare service branch of the Iraqi Armed Forces, responsible for the policing of international borders and surveillance of national assets.

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Iraqi Army

The Iraqi Army, officially the Iraqi Ground Forces, is the ground force component of the Iraqi Armed Forces, having been active in various incarnations throughout the 20th and 21st centuries.

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Iraqi Communist Party

The Iraqi Communist Party (الحزب الشيوعي العراقي; حزبی شیوعی عێراق) is a communist party and the oldest active party in Iraq.

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Iraqi constitutional referendum, 2005

The electorate of Iraq went to the polls on 15 October 2005 to vote in a referendum on whether or not to ratify the proposed constitution of Iraq.

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Iraqi dinar

The Dinar (Arabic: دينار,.

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Iraqi Governing Council

The Iraqi Governing Council (IGC) was the provisional government of Iraq from July 13, 2003 to June 1, 2004.

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Iraqi insurgency (2011–13)

The Iraqi insurgency, later referred to as the Iraq Crisis, escalated after the withdrawal of U.S. troops in 2011, resulting in violent conflict with the central government, as well as sectarian violence among Iraq's religious groups.

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Iraqi Kurdistan Football Association

The Kurdistan Football Association (یەکێتی ناوەندی تۆپی پێی کوردستان), is the football governing body in Iraqi Kurdistan controlling the Iraqi Kurdistan national football team.

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Iraqi Kurdistan independence referendum, 2017

An independence referendum for Iraqi Kurdistan was held on 25 September 2017, with preliminary results showing approximately 93.25 percent of votes cast in favour of independence.

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Iraqi Kurdistan Parliament

The Kurdistan Parliament (پەرلەمانی كوردستان or simply Perleman (Parliament), المجلس الوطني لكوردستان), also called the Iraqi Kurdistan Parliament (IKP), is the parliament of Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Iraqi Kurdistan parliamentary election, 1992

On 19 May 1992 elections were held to the Kurdistan National Assembly, the parliament of the Kurdish Autonomous Region in Iraq.

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Iraqi no-fly zones

The Iraqi no-fly zones were a set of two separate no-fly zones (NFZs), and were proclaimed by the United States, United Kingdom, and France after the Gulf War of 1991 to protect the Kurds in northern Iraq and Shiite Muslims in the south.

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Iraqi Turkmens

The Iraqi Turkmens (also spelled Turcomans, Turkomens, and Turkmans; Irak Türkmenleri), also referred to as Iraqi Turks, or Turks of Iraq (تركمان العراق, Irak Türkleri), are Iraqi citizens of Turkic origin who mostly adhere to a Turkish heritage and identity.

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Iraqi–Kurdish Autonomy Agreement of 1970

Iraqi–Kurdish Autonomy Agreement of 1970 (or the Iraqi–Kurdish peace talks or the 1970 Peace Accord) was an agreement, which the Iraqi government and the Kurds reached in March 1970, in the aftermath of the First Iraqi–Kurdish War, for the creation of an Autonomous Region, consisting of the three Kurdish governorates and other adjacent districts that have been determined by census to have a Kurdish majority.

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Iraqi–Kurdish conflict

The Iraqi–Kurdish conflict consists of a series of wars and rebellions by the Kurds against the central authority of Iraq during the 20th century, which began shortly after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I and lasting until the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003.

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Iron

Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from ferrum) and atomic number 26.

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Ishik University

Ishik University(Kurdish زانکۆی ئیشک- هەولێر or Zankoy Ishik) (IU) ISHIK UNIVERSITY is a private university established in 2008 in Erbil-Kurdistan, Iraq and owned by local and Turkish investors and educators.

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Islam

IslamThere are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or, and whether the a is pronounced, or (when the stress is on the first syllable) (Merriam Webster).

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Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant

The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria or Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS), Islamic State (IS) and by its Arabic language acronym Daesh (داعش dāʿish), is a Salafi jihadist terrorist organisation and former unrecognised proto-state that follows a fundamentalist, Salafi/Wahhabi doctrine of Sunni Islam.

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Istanbul

Istanbul (or or; İstanbul), historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the country's economic, cultural, and historic center.

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Jalal Talabani

Jalal Talabani (Kurdish: جەلال تاڵەبانی Celal Tallebanî, جلال طالباني; 1933 – 3 October 2017) was an Iraqi Kurdish politician who served as President of Iraq from 2006 to 2014, as well as the President of the Governing Council of Iraq.

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Jarmo

Ancient Assyria Jarmo Ancient Assyria (Qal'at Jarmo) is a prehistoric archeological site located in Iraq on the foothills of the Zagros Mountains.

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Joël Voordewind

Joël Stephanus Voordewind (born 9 July 1965 in Sleen, Drenthe) is a Dutch politician and former development aid worker.

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Khanaqin

Khanaqin (Arabic: خانقين; Kurdish: Xaneqîn خانه‌قین) is a city in Iraq in Iraq's Diyala Governorate, near the Iranian border on the Alwand tributary of the Diyala River.

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Kingdom of Kurdistan

The Kingdom of Kurdistan was a short-lived unrecognized state proclaimed in the city of Sulaymaniyah following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

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Kirkuk

Kirkuk (كركوك; کەرکووک; Kerkük) is a city in Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate, located north of Baghdad.

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Kirkuk Field

Kirkuk Field is an oilfield near Kirkuk de facto Kurdistan, de jure Iraq.

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Komar University of Science and Technology

Komar University of Science and Technology (KUST) is a private university located in the city of Sulaimany in Kurdistan region.

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Koya University

Koya University is located in Koy Sanjaq, near Arbil (Hewlêr), capital of the Erbil Governorate in the Iraqi Kurdistan region of Iraq.

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Kurdification

Kurdification is a cultural change in which non-ethnic Kurds or/and non-ethnic Kurdish area becomes Kurdish.

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Kurdish languages

Kurdish (Kurdî) is a continuum of Northwestern Iranian languages spoken by the Kurds in Western Asia.

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Kurdish refugees

The problem of Kurdish refugees and displaced people began since the fall of the Zand Dynasty and losing of the Autonomy in the Ottoman Empire in 1794 and increased since the end of World War 1 and the treaties which occupied Kurdish Land in the Middle East, and continues to loom today.

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Kurdistan

Kurdistan (کوردستان; lit. "homeland of the Kurds") or Greater Kurdistan is a roughly defined geo-cultural historical region wherein the Kurdish people form a prominent majority population and Kurdish culture, languages and national identity have historically been based.

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Kurdistan Democratic Party

The Kurdistan Democratic Party (Partiya Demokrat a Kurdistanê), usually abbreviated as KDP or PDK, is one of the main Kurdish parties in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Kurdistan List

The Kurdistan List (ليست كوردستان Lîstî Kurdistani), also known as the Kurdistan Alliance or the Brotherhood List, is the name of the electoral coalition that ran in the Kurdistan Regional Government parliamentary elections in Iraqi Kurdistan in July 2009.

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Kurdistan Regional Government

The Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) (حکوومەتی هەرێمی کوردستان, Hikûmetî Herêmî Kurdistan; حكومة اقليم كردستان, Ḥukūmat ʾIqlīm Kurdistān) is the official ruling body of the predominantly Kurdish region of Northern Iraq referred to as Iraqi Kurdistan or Southern Kurdistan.

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Kurdistan Socialist Democratic Party

Kurdistan Socialist Democratic Party (Parti Sosyalisti Demokrati Kurdistan; Hizb al-Ishtiraki al-Dimuqrati al-Kurdistani) is a political party in Kurdistan Iraq.

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Kurds

The Kurds (rtl, Kurd) or the Kurdish people (rtl, Gelî kurd), are an ethnic group in the Middle East, mostly inhabiting a contiguous area spanning adjacent parts of southeastern Turkey (Northern Kurdistan), northwestern Iran (Eastern Kurdistan), northern Iraq (Southern Kurdistan), and northern Syria (Western Kurdistan).

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Kurds in Iraq

Kurds in Iraq (کوردانی باشووری کوردستان / کوردانی عێڕاق.) are people born in or residing in Iraq who are of Kurdish origin.

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Lake Dukan

Lake Dukan (or Lake Dokan) (دەریاچەی دووکان) is the largest lake in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period

The Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period (قانون إدارة الدولة للفترة الانتقالية), also called the Transitional Administrative Law or TAL, was Iraq's provisional constitution following the 2003 Iraq War.

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Lawyer

A lawyer or attorney is a person who practices law, as an advocate, attorney, attorney at law, barrister, barrister-at-law, bar-at-law, counsel, counselor, counsellor, counselor at law, or solicitor, but not as a paralegal or charter executive secretary.

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League of Nations

The League of Nations (abbreviated as LN in English, La Société des Nations abbreviated as SDN or SdN in French) was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War.

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Limestone

Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs.

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List of Assyrian kings

The list of Assyrian kings are compiled from the Assyrian King List, which begins approximately 2500 BC and continues to the 8th century BC.

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Little Zab

The Little Zab or Lower Zab (al-Zāb al-Asfal; or Zêyê Biçûk;, Zâb-e Kuchak;, Zāba Taḥtāya) originates in Iran and joins the Tigris just south of Al Zab in the Kurdistan region of Iraq.

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Mahmud Barzanji

Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji (شێخ مه‌حموود بەرزنجی) or Mahmud Hafid Zadeh (1878 – October 9, 1956) was the leader of a series of Kurdish uprisings against the British Mandate of Iraq.

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Mahmud Barzanji revolts

Mahmud Barzanji revolts were a series of armed uprisings by Kurdish Sheykh Mahmud Barzanji against the Iraqi authority in newly conquered British Mesopotamia and later the British Mandate in Iraq.

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Mandaeans

Mandaeans (aṣ-Ṣābi'a al-Mandā'iyūn) are an ethnoreligious group indigenous to the alluvial plain of southern Mesopotamia and are followers of Mandaeism, a Gnostic religion.

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Mandaeism

Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (مندائية) is a gnostic religion with a strongly dualistic worldview.

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Mandatory Iraq

The Kingdom of Iraq under British Administration, or Mandatory Iraq (الانتداب البريطاني على العراق), was created in 1921, following the 1920 Iraqi Revolt against the proposed British Mandate of Mesopotamia, and enacted via the 1922 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty.

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Mandatory Palestine

Mandatory Palestine (فلسطين; פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה (א"י), where "EY" indicates "Eretz Yisrael", Land of Israel) was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948.

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Mangar (fish)

The mangar (Luciobarbus esocinus) is a large vulnerable species of ray-finned fish in the genus Luciobarbus, native to the drainage basins of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey.

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Marathon Oil

Marathon Oil Corporation is an American petroleum and natural gas exploration and production company headquartered in the Marathon Oil Tower in Houston, Texas.

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Marble

Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite.

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Mardin Airport

Mardin Airport is an airport in Mardin, Turkey, located in Kızıltepe, southeast from Mardin.

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Masked shrike

The masked shrike (Lanius nubicus) is a bird in the shrike family, Laniidae.

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Masoud Barzani

Masoud Barzani (Mesûd Barzanî; born 16 August 1946) is a Kurdish politician who had been President of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region from 2005 to 2017.

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Media of Syria

The media of Syria consists primarily of television, radio, Internet, film and print.

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Mediterranean climate

A Mediterranean climate or dry summer climate is characterized by rainy winters and dry summers.

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Menetries's warbler

Menetries's warbler or Ménétries's warbler (Sylvia mystacea) is a small passerine bird of Southwest Asia belonging to the genus Sylvia.

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Middle East

The Middle Easttranslit-std; translit; Orta Şərq; Central Kurdish: ڕۆژھەڵاتی ناوین, Rojhelatî Nawîn; Moyen-Orient; translit; translit; translit; Rojhilata Navîn; translit; Bariga Dhexe; Orta Doğu; translit is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia, Turkey (both Asian and European), and Egypt (which is mostly in North Africa).

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Minstrel

A minstrel was a medieval European entertainer.

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Mithridates I of Parthia

Mithridates or Mithradates I (Parthian: Mihrdat, مهرداد, Mehrdād), (ca. 195 BC – 132 BC) was king of the Parthian Empire from 165 BC to 132 BC, succeeding his brother Phraates I. His father was King Phriapatius of Parthia, who died ca.

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MOL (company)

MOL Group (Magyar OLaj- és Gázipari Részvénytársaság, Hungarian Oil and Gas Public Limited Company), commonly known as MOL, is a Hungarian multinational oil and gas company headquartered in Budapest, Hungary.

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Mongols

The Mongols (ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯᠴᠤᠳ, Mongolchuud) are an East-Central Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia and China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.

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Mossad

Mossad (הַמוֹסָד,; الموساد,,; literally meaning "the Institute"), short for (המוסד למודיעין ולתפקידים מיוחדים, meaning "Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations"), is the national intelligence agency of Israel.

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Mosul

Mosul (الموصل, مووسڵ, Māwṣil) is a major city in northern Iraq. Located some north of Baghdad, Mosul stands on the west bank of the Tigris, opposite the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh on the east bank. The metropolitan area has grown to encompass substantial areas on both the "Left Bank" (east side) and the "Right Bank" (west side), as the two banks are described by the locals compared to the flow direction of Tigris. At the start of the 21st century, Mosul and its surrounds had an ethnically and religiously diverse population; the majority of Mosul's population were Arabs, with Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens, Kurds, Yazidis, Shabakis, Mandaeans, Kawliya, Circassians in addition to other, smaller ethnic minorities. In religious terms, mainstream Sunni Islam was the largest religion, but with a significant number of followers of the Salafi movement and Christianity (the latter followed by the Assyrians and Armenians), as well as Shia Islam, Sufism, Yazidism, Shabakism, Yarsanism and Mandaeism. Mosul's population grew rapidly around the turn of the millennium and by 2004 was estimated to be 1,846,500. In 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant seized control of the city. The Iraqi government recaptured it in the 2016–2017 Battle of Mosul. Historically, important products of the area include Mosul marble and oil. The city of Mosul is home to the University of Mosul and its renowned Medical College, which together was one of the largest educational and research centers in Iraq and the Middle East. Mosul, together with the nearby Nineveh plains, is one of the historic centers for the Assyrians and their churches; the Assyrian Church of the East; its offshoot, the Chaldean Catholic Church; and the Syriac Orthodox Church, containing the tombs of several Old Testament prophets such as Jonah, some of which were destroyed by ISIL in July 2014.

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Mount Nisir

Mount Nisir (also spelled Mount Niṣir, and also called Mount Nimush), mentioned in the ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, is supposedly the mountain known as today as Pir Omar Gudrun (elevation 9000 ft. (approx. 2743 m)), near the city Sulaymaniyah in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Mudhafaria Minaret

The Mudhafaria Minaret is a minaret located in new the Minare Park on the west region of Arbil, Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Muslim

A Muslim (مُسلِم) is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion.

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Muslim conquest of Persia

The Muslim conquest of Persia, also known as the Arab conquest of Iran, led to the end of the Sasanian Empire of Persia in 651 and the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Iran (Persia).

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Mustafa Barzani

Mustafa Barzani (Mistefa Barzanî) (March 14, 1903 – March 1, 1979) also known as Mullah Mustafa, was a Kurdish nationalist leader, and one of the most prominent political figures in modern Kurdish politics.

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Nader Shah

Nader Shah Afshar (نادر شاه افشار; also known as Nader Qoli Beyg نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khan تهماسپ قلی خان) (August 1688 – 19 June 1747) was one of the most powerful Iranian rulers in the history of the nation, ruling as Shah of Persia (Iran) from 1736 to 1747 when he was assassinated during a rebellion.

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Nahla, Iraq

Nahla Valley (سهل نهلا, ܢܗܠܐ), is a geographic region located in the provinces of Nineveh and Dohuk, Iraq.

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National anthem

A national anthem (also state anthem, national hymn, national song, etc.) is generally a patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history, traditions, and struggles of its people, recognized either by a nation's government as the official national song, or by convention through use by the people.

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National Geographic

National Geographic (formerly the National Geographic Magazine and branded also as NAT GEO or) is the official magazine of the National Geographic Society.

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Nawshirwan Mustafa

Nawshirwan Mustafa (22 December 1944 – 19 May 2017) (نەوشیروان مستەفا) was an Iraqi Kurdish politician who served as the General Coordinator of the Movement for Change and the leader of the official opposition in the Kurdistan Region from 1 April 2009 to his death on 19 May 2017.

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Neanderthal

Neanderthals (also; also Neanderthal Man, taxonomically Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) are an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus Homo, who lived in Eurasia during at least 430,000 to 38,000 years ago.

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Nechirvan Barzani

Nechirvan Idris Barzani (نێچیرڤان بارزانی or Nêçîrvan Îdrîs Barzanî; born 21 September 1966) is a Kurdish politician who has been Prime Minister of the Kurdistan Regional Government of Iraqi Kurdistan since March 2012.

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Neo-Assyrian Empire

The Neo-Assyrian Empire was an Iron Age Mesopotamian empire, in existence between 911 and 609 BC, and became the largest empire of the world up till that time.

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Neo-Babylonian Empire

The Neo-Babylonian Empire (also Second Babylonian Empire) was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 626 BC and ended in 539 BC.

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Neolithic

The Neolithic was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 10,200 BC, according to the ASPRO chronology, in some parts of Western Asia, and later in other parts of the world and ending between 4500 and 2000 BC.

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Newroz as celebrated by Kurds

Newroz or Nawroz (نه‌ورۆز/Newroz/Nawroz, also: Gulus گوڵوس) refers to the celebration of the traditional Iranian peoples' New Year holiday of Nowruz in Kurdish culture.

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Nimrud

Nimrud (النمرود) is the name that Carsten NiebuhrNiebuhr wrote on:: "Bei Nimrud, einem verfallenen Castell etwa 8 Stunden von Mosul, findet man ein merkwürdigeres Werk.

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Nineveh

Nineveh (𒌷𒉌𒉡𒀀 URUNI.NU.A Ninua); ܢܝܼܢܘܹܐ was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located on the outskirts of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq.

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Nineveh plains

Nineveh Plains (Pqatā d'Ninwe, and Modern Daštā d'Ninwe; Sahl Naynawā; Deşta Neynewa) is a region in Iraq's Nineveh Governorate to the north and east of the city Mosul, from which it is also known as the Plain of Mosul.

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Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014)

The Northern Iraq offensive began on 4 June 2014, when the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL; sometimes referred to as the Islamic State (IS)) and aligned forces began a major offensive in northern Iraq against the Iraqi government, following earlier clashes that had begun in December 2013.

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Northern Kurdish

Northern Kurdish (Kurdiya jorîn, rtl), also called Kurmanji (Kurmancî, rtl), is a Kurdish language spoken in southeast Turkey, northwest and northeast Iran, northern Iraq and northern Syria.

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Norway

Norway (Norwegian: (Bokmål) or (Nynorsk); Norga), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a unitary sovereign state whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula plus the remote island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard.

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Oak

An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus (Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae.

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Official language

An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction.

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Oil-for-Food Programme

The Oil-for-Food Programme (OIP), established by the United Nations in 1995 (under UN Security Council Resolution 986) was established to allow Iraq to sell oil on the world market in exchange for food, medicine, and other humanitarian needs for ordinary Iraqi citizens without allowing Iraq to boost its military capabilities.

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Olive

The olive, known by the botanical name Olea europaea, meaning "European olive", is a species of small tree in the family Oleaceae, found in the Mediterranean Basin from Portugal to the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and southern Asia as far east as China, as well as the Canary Islands and Réunion.

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Onager

The onager (Equus hemionus), also known as hemione or Asiatic wild ass, is a species of the family Equidae (horse family) native to Asia.

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Operation Provide Comfort

Operation Provide Comfort and Provide Comfort II were military operations initiated by the United States and other Coalition nations of the Gulf War, starting in April 1991, to defend Kurds fleeing their homes in northern Iraq in the aftermath of the Gulf War and deliver humanitarian aid to them.

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Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire (دولت عليه عثمانیه,, literally The Exalted Ottoman State; Modern Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti), also historically known in Western Europe as the Turkish Empire"The Ottoman Empire-also known in Europe as the Turkish Empire" or simply Turkey, was a state that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries.

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Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39)

The Ottoman–Safavid War of 1623–1639 was the last of a series of conflicts fought between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia, then the two major powers of Western Asia, over control of Mesopotamia.

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Pale rockfinch

The pale rockfinch or pale rock sparrow (Carpospiza brachydactyla) is a small sparrow found in the Middle East and Central Asia.

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Parthia

Parthia (𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 Parθava; 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 Parθaw; 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 Pahlaw) is a historical region located in north-eastern Iran.

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Patriotic Union of Kurdistan

The Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK; Yekêtiy Niştîmaniy Kurdistan; Yekîtiya Nîştimanî ya Kurdistanê) is a Kurdish political party in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Persian fallow deer

The Persian fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica) (gavazn-i zard in Persian) is a rare ruminant mammal belonging to the family Cervidae.

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Persian language

Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi (فارسی), is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family.

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Peshmerga

Peshmerga (lit, or Those who face death') are the military forces of the federal region of Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Petroleum industry

The petroleum industry, also known as the oil industry or the oil patch, includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often by oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing of petroleum products.

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Pinus brutia

Pinus brutia, the Turkish pine, is a pine native to the eastern Mediterranean region.

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Pistachio

The pistachio (Pistacia vera), a member of the cashew family, is a small tree originating from Central Asia and the Middle East.

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Plain

In geography, a plain is a flat, sweeping landmass that generally does not change much in elevation.

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Platanus

Platanus is a genus consisting of a small number of tree species native to the Northern Hemisphere.

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Platanus orientalis

Platanus orientalis, the Old World sycamore, or Oriental plane, is a large, deciduous tree of the Platanaceae family, growing to or more, and known for its longevity and spreading crown.

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Poa

Poa is a genus of about 500 species of grasses, native to the temperate regions of both hemispheres.

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Populus

Populus is a genus of 25–35 species of deciduous flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere.

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President

The president is a common title for the head of state in most republics.

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President of Iraqi Kurdistan

The President of Iraqi Kurdistan is the head of an autonomous region in northern Iraq.

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Prime Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan

The Prime Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan is the head of the Kurdistan Regional Government, governing an autonomous region in northern Iraq.

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Pyrus elaeagrifolia

Pyrus elaeagrifolia, the oleaster-leafed pear, is a species of wild pear plant in the genus Pyrus (Rosaceae), the specific name referring to the similarity of its foliage to that of Elaeagnus angustifolia - the so-called 'wild olive' or oleaster.

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Qaladiza

Qalladze or Qeladizê is a City of 140,000 inhabitants in the Kurdistan Regional Government region in Iraqi Kurdistan, north of Sulaymaniyah, near the Iranian border.

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Qandil Mountains

The Qandil Mountains (چیای قەندیل Çiyayên Qendîl), are a mountainous area of Iraqi Kurdistan near the Iraq-Iran border.

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Qubad Talabani

Qubad Talabani (born 21 July 1977) is an Iraqi Kurdish politician who has been the deputy prime minister of the Kurdistan Regional Government since 2005.

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Rashidun Caliphate

The Rashidun Caliphate (اَلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ) (632–661) was the first of the four major caliphates established after the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad.

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Rawandiz

Rawandiz (رواندوز), also spelled Rawanduz, Rowanduz, or Rwandz, is a city in Iraq, located in Erbil, Iraq, close to the borders with Iran and Turkey, it is located 10 km to the east from Bekhal Waterfall.

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Red fox

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the largest of the true foxes and one of the most widely distributed members of the order Carnivora, being present across the entire Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, North America and Eurasia.

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Representative democracy

Representative democracy (also indirect democracy, representative republic or psephocracy) is a type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy.

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Republic of Mahabad

The Republic of Mahabad (کۆماری مەھاباد; جمهوری مهاباد) was a short-lived Kurdish self-governing state in present-day Iran, from 22 January to 15 December 1946.

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Resistance movement

A resistance movement is an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to withstand the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability.

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Review of International Studies

The Review of International Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal on international relations published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the British International Studies Association.

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Robert Halfon

Robert Henry Halfon (born 22 March 1969) is a British Conservative Party politician who served as Minister of State for Education between 2016 and 2017, and as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Harlow since 2010.

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Rosaceae

Rosaceae, the rose family, is a medium-sized family of flowering plants, including 4,828 known species in 91 genera.

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Rose hip

The rose hip, also called rose haw and rose hep, is the accessory fruit of the rose plant.

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Rosneft

PJSC Rosneft Oil Company (stylized as ROSNEFT) is a Russian integrated energy company headquartered in the Russian capital of Moscow.

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Rufous-tailed scrub robin

The rufous-tailed scrub robin (Cercotrichas galactotes) is a medium-sized member of the family Muscicapidae.

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Saddam Hussein

Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (Arabic: صدام حسين عبد المجيد التكريتي; 28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was President of Iraq from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003.

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Safavid dynasty

The Safavid dynasty (دودمان صفوی Dudmān e Safavi) was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran, often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history.

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Saladin

An-Nasir Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub (صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب / ALA-LC: Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb; سەلاحەدینی ئەییووبی / ALA-LC: Selahedînê Eyûbî), known as Salah ad-Din or Saladin (11374 March 1193), was the first sultan of Egypt and Syria and the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty.

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Salahaddin University-Erbil

Salahaddin University-Erbil (Zankoy Selaheddîn-hewler, زانکۆی سەلاحەدین-هەولێر in Kurdish) is the oldest and biggest public higher education institution in North Iraq and especially in Kurdistan region.

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Sargon of Akkad

Sargon of Akkad (Akkadian Šarru-ukīn or Šarru-kēn, also known as Sargon the Great) was the first ruler of the Semitic-speaking Akkadian Empire, known for his conquests of the Sumerian city-states in the 24th to 23rd centuries BC.

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Sasanian Empire

The Sasanian Empire, also known as the Sassanian, Sasanid, Sassanid or Neo-Persian Empire (known to its inhabitants as Ērānshahr in Middle Persian), was the last period of the Persian Empire (Iran) before the rise of Islam, named after the House of Sasan, which ruled from 224 to 651 AD. The Sasanian Empire, which succeeded the Parthian Empire, was recognised as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighbouring arch-rival the Roman-Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years.Norman A. Stillman The Jews of Arab Lands pp 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 International Congress of Byzantine Studies Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1-3 pp 29. Ashgate Pub Co, 30 sep. 2006 The Sasanian Empire was founded by Ardashir I, after the fall of the Parthian Empire and the defeat of the last Arsacid king, Artabanus V. At its greatest extent, the Sasanian Empire encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Eastern Arabia (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatif, Qatar, UAE), the Levant (Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan), the Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Dagestan), Egypt, large parts of Turkey, much of Central Asia (Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan), Yemen and Pakistan. According to a legend, the vexilloid of the Sasanian Empire was the Derafsh Kaviani.Khaleghi-Motlagh, The Sasanian Empire during Late Antiquity is considered to have been one of Iran's most important and influential historical periods and constituted the last great Iranian empire before the Muslim conquest and the adoption of Islam. In many ways, the Sasanian period witnessed the peak of ancient Iranian civilisation. The Sasanians' cultural influence extended far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe, Africa, China and India. It played a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asian medieval art. Much of what later became known as Islamic culture in art, architecture, music and other subject matter was transferred from the Sasanians throughout the Muslim world.

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Satrap

Satraps were the governors of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires.

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Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a sovereign Arab state in Western Asia constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula.

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Sclerophyll

Sclerophyll is a type of vegetation that has hard leaves, short internodes (the distance between leaves along the stem) and leaf orientation parallel or oblique to direct sunlight.

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Seasonal lag

Seasonal lag is the phenomenon whereby the date of maximum average air temperature at a geographical location on a planet is delayed until some time after the date of maximum insolation.

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Second Iraqi–Kurdish War

The Second Iraqi–Kurdish War was the second chapter of the Barzani rebellion, initiated by the collapse of the Kurdish autonomy talks and the consequent Iraqi offensive against rebel KDP troops of Mustafa Barzani during 1974–1975. The war came in the aftermath of the First Iraqi–Kurdish War (1961–1970), as the 1970 peace plan for Kurdish autonomy had failed to be implemented by 1974. Unlike the previous guerrilla campaign in 1961–1970, waged by Barzani, the 1974 war was a Kurdish attempt at symmetric warfare against the Iraqi Army, which eventually led to the quick collapse of the Kurds, who were lacking advanced and heavy weaponry. The war ended with the exile of the Iraqi KDP party and between 7,000–20,000 deaths from both sides combined.

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See-see partridge

The see-see partridge (Ammoperdix griseogularis) is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds.

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Seleucid Empire

The Seleucid Empire (Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν, Basileía tōn Seleukidōn) was a Hellenistic state ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, which existed from 312 BC to 63 BC; Seleucus I Nicator founded it following the division of the Macedonian empire vastly expanded by Alexander the Great.

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Semi-arid climate

A semi-arid climate or steppe climate is the climate of a region that receives precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not as low as a desert climate.

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Settler colonialism

Settler colonialism is a form of colonialism which seeks to replace the original population of the colonized territory with a new society of settlers.

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Shabak people

The Shabak people (الشبك, شەبەک) are a group in Iraq, who speak Shabaki, a Northwestern Iranian language of the Kurdish Zaza–Gorani group.

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Shafi‘i

The Shafi‘i (شافعي, alternative spelling Shafei) madhhab is one of the four schools of Islamic law in Sunni Islam.

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Shanidar Cave

Shanidar Cave (Kurdish: Şaneder or Zewî Çemî Şaneder) is an archaeological site located on Bradost Mountain in the Erbil Governorate of Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Shaqlawa

Shaqlawa (Şeqlawe, شەقڵاوە, شقلاوة) is a historic city and a Hill station in the Erbil Governorate in the Kurdistan region of Iraq.

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Shia Islam

Shia (شيعة Shīʿah, from Shīʻatu ʻAlī, "followers of Ali") is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor (Imam), most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm.

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Sinjar

Sinjar, also known as Shingal (Şengal/Şingal/Şingar/شنگار/ شنگال., Ancient: Singara) is a town in Shingal District, Nineveh Province, Iraq near Mount Shingal.

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Sinjar clashes (2017)

The Sinjar clashes of 3 March 2017 occurred between pro-PKK forces, namely the Sinjar Resistance Units (YBŞ) and the Êzîdxan Women's Units (YJÊ), and the Rojava Peshmerga that serve as the Kurdish National Council's paramilitary wing.

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Sinjar Mountains

The Sinjar Mountains (Çiyayên Şengalê چیای شەنگال/شەنگار; جبل سنجار; also Shingal\Shengar Mountains) are a mountain range that runs east to west, rising above the surrounding alluvial steppe plains in northwestern Iraq to an elevation of.

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Snow

Snow refers to forms of ice crystals that precipitate from the atmosphere (usually from clouds) and undergo changes on the Earth's surface.

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Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies

The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies (The Roman Society) was founded in 1910 as the sister society to the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies.

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Soran Emirate

Soran was a Kurdish Sunni Muslim emirate based in the geographic region of Kurdistan, specifically in what is today known as Iraqi (i.e. southern) Kurdistan.

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Soran University

Soran University (SU) (زانکۆی سۆران) is a KRG sponsored public university, founded in 2009.

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Soran, Iraq

Soran or Diana is a city in Erbil Governorate, and the capital of Soran District.

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Sorbus

Sorbus is a genus of about 100–200 species of trees and shrubs in the rose family, Rosaceae.

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Soviet Union

The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991.

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Sputnik (news agency)

Sputnik (formerly The Voice of Russia and RIA Novosti) is a news agency, news website platform and radio broadcast service established by the Russian government-controlled news agency Rossiya Segodnya.

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Steppe

In physical geography, a steppe (p) is an ecoregion, in the montane grasslands and shrublands and temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands biomes, characterized by grassland plains without trees apart from those near rivers and lakes.

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Storytelling

Storytelling describes the social and cultural activity of sharing stories, sometimes with improvisation, theatrics, or embellishment.

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Striped hyena

The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) is a species of hyena native to North and East Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

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Sufism

Sufism, or Taṣawwuf (personal noun: ṣūfiyy / ṣūfī, mutaṣawwuf), variously defined as "Islamic mysticism",Martin Lings, What is Sufism? (Lahore: Suhail Academy, 2005; first imp. 1983, second imp. 1999), p.15 "the inward dimension of Islam" or "the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam",Massington, L., Radtke, B., Chittick, W. C., Jong, F. de, Lewisohn, L., Zarcone, Th., Ernst, C, Aubin, Françoise and J.O. Hunwick, “Taṣawwuf”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, edited by: P. Bearman, Th.

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Sulaimani Polytechnic University

Sulaimani Polytechnic University (SPU) (in Kurdish زانکۆی پۆلیتەکنیکی سلێمانی) is a public university and a member of International Association of Universities (IAU).

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Sulaimaniyah International Airport

Sulaimaniyah International Airport is an airport 15 kilometers outside the city of Sulaimaniyah, in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Sulaymaniyah

Sulaymaniyah (Iraqi:السليمانية, as-Sulaymāniyyah), also called Slemani, is a city in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Sulaymaniyah Governorate

Sulaymaniyah Governorate (پارێزگای سلێمانی., محافظة السليمانية.) or Sulaymaniyah Province is a mountainous governorate in Iraqi Kurdistan.

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Sunni Islam

Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam.

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Sykes–Picot Agreement

The Sykes–Picot Agreement, officially known as the Asia Minor Agreement, was a secret 1916 agreement between the United Kingdom and France, to which the Russian Empire assented.

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Syria

Syria (سوريا), officially known as the Syrian Arab Republic (الجمهورية العربية السورية), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.

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Syrian brown bear

The Syrian brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus) is a relatively small subspecies of brown bear native to the Middle East.

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Talisman Energy

Talisman Energy Inc. was a Canadian multinational oil and gas exploration and production company headquartered in Calgary, Alberta.

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Tamarix

The genus Tamarix (tamarisk, salt cedar) is composed of about 50–60 species of flowering plants in the family Tamaricaceae, native to drier areas of Eurasia and Africa.

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Tehran

Tehran (تهران) is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province.

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Telephone numbers in Iraq

Iraq area codes can be 1 or 2 digits (not counting the trunk prefix 0) and the subscriber numbers are usually 6 digits.

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Tell Halaf

Tell Halaf (تل حلف) is an archaeological site in the Al Hasakah governorate of northeastern Syria, near the Turkish border, just opposite Ceylanpınar.

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Tell Hassuna

Tell Hassuna is a tell, or settlement mound, in the Nineveh Province (Iraq), about 35km south-west of Nineveh.

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Tell Leilan

Tell Leilan is an archaeological site situated near the Wadi Jarrah in the Khabur River basin in Al-Hasakah Governorate, northeastern Syria, a region formerly a part of ancient Assyria.

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The American University of Iraq, Sulaimani

The American University of Iraq, Sulaimani (AUIS) is a not-for-profit, private institution for public benefit, located in the cultural capital of Iraqi Kurdistan, Sulaimani.

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The American University of Kurdistan

The American University of Kurdistan (AUK) (زانینگەها ئەمریکی یا کوردستانێ) is a private, not-for-profit university in Duhok, Kurdistan Region of Iraq.

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The Washington Post

The Washington Post is a major American daily newspaper founded on December 6, 1877.

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Third World Quarterly

Third World Quarterly is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Routledge, established in 1979.

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Tigris

Batman River The Tigris (Sumerian: Idigna or Idigina; Akkadian: 𒁇𒄘𒃼; دجلة Dijlah; ܕܹܩܠܵܬ.; Տիգրիս Tigris; Դգլաթ Dglatʿ;, biblical Hiddekel) is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates.

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Total S.A.

Total S.A. is a French multinational integrated oil and gas company and one of the seven "Supermajor" oil companies in the world.

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Tourism

Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours.

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Treaty of Lausanne

The Treaty of Lausanne (Traité de Lausanne) was a peace treaty signed in the Palais de Rumine, Lausanne, Switzerland, on 24 July 1923.

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Treaty of Sèvres

The Treaty of Sèvres (Traité de Sèvres) was one of a series of treaties that the Central Powers signed after their defeat in World War I. Hostilities had already ended with the Armistice of Mudros.

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Treaty of Zuhab

The Treaty of Zuhab (عهدنامه زهاب), also called Treaty of Qasr-e Shirin (Kasr-ı Şirin Antlaşması), was an accord signed between the Safavid Empire and the Ottoman Empire on May 17, 1639.

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Turkey

Turkey (Türkiye), officially the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti), is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe.

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Turkic peoples

The Turkic peoples are a collection of ethno-linguistic groups of Central, Eastern, Northern and Western Asia as well as parts of Europe and North Africa.

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Turkish Kurdistan

Turkish Kurdistan, or Northern Kurdistan (Bakurê Kurdistanê), refers to portions of Turkey's Eastern Anatolia Region and Southeastern Anatolia Region where Kurds form the predominant ethnic group.

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Umayyad Caliphate

The Umayyad Caliphate (ٱلْخِلافَةُ ٱلأُمَوِيَّة, trans. Al-Khilāfatu al-ʾUmawiyyah), also spelt, was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad.

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United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international cooperation and to create and maintain international order.

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United Nations Security Council

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, charged with the maintenance of international peace and security as well as accepting new members to the United Nations and approving any changes to its United Nations Charter.

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United States

The United States of America (USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a federal republic composed of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, and various possessions.

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University of Duhok

The University of Duhok (UoD) is a fast-growing institution in the city of Duhok.

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University of Sulaymaniyah

The University of Sulaimani is a public university located in the city of Sulaymaniyah in Kurdistan Region - Iraq.

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University of Zakho

The University of Zakho (UoZ) is located in Zakho, the Duhok Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan, northern Iraq.

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Ushpia

Ushpia (Uš-pi-a) was an early Assyrian king who ruled Assyria (fl. c. 2030 BC), as the second last within the section "kings who lived in tents” of the Assyrian King List (AKL), however; Ushpia has yet to be confirmed by contemporary artifacts.

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Viva World Cup

The VIVA World Cup was an international association football tournament organized by the New Federation Board, an umbrella association for teams unaffiliated with FIFA, held five times between 2006 and 2012.

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Washington, D.C.

Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington or D.C., is the capital of the United States of America.

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Western Asia

Western Asia, West Asia, Southwestern Asia or Southwest Asia is the westernmost subregion of Asia.

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Western jackdaw

The western jackdaw (Coloeus monedula), also known as the Eurasian jackdaw, European jackdaw, or simply jackdaw, is a passerine bird in the crow family.

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Wild boar

The wild boar (Sus scrofa), also known as the wild swine,Heptner, V. G.; Nasimovich, A. A.; Bannikov, A. G.; Hoffman, R. S. (1988), Volume I, Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation, pp.

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Willow

Willows, also called sallows, and osiers, form the genus Salix, around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997.

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Work song

A work song is a piece of music closely connected to a form of work, either sung while conducting a task (usually to coordinate timing) or a song linked to a task which might be a connected narrative, description, or protest song.

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World Food Programme

The World Food Programme (WFP) is the food-assistance branch of the United Nations and the world's largest humanitarian organization addressing hunger and promoting food security.

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World Kickboxing Association

The World Kickboxing Association (WKA) is one of the oldest and the largest amateur and professional sanctioning organizations of kickboxing in the world for the sport.

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World War I

World War I (often abbreviated as WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918.

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Yarsanism

The Yarsan or Ahl-e Haqq (Kurdish:, Yarsan, اهل حق Ahl-e Haqq "People of Truth"), is a syncretic religion founded by Sultan Sahak in the late 14th century in western Iran.

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Yazdânism

Yazdânism, or the Cult of Angels, is a pre-Islamic, native religion of the Kurds.

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Yazidis

The Yazidis, or Yezidis (Êzidî), are a Kurdish-speaking people, indigenous to a region of northern Mesopotamia (known natively as Ezidkhan) who are strictly endogamous.

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Yemen

Yemen (al-Yaman), officially known as the Republic of Yemen (al-Jumhūriyyah al-Yamaniyyah), is an Arab sovereign state in Western Asia at the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula.

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Zagros Mountains

The Zagros Mountains (کوه‌های زاگرس; چیاکانی زاگرۆس) form the largest mountain range in Iran, Iraq and southeastern Turkey.

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Zakho

Zakho (Zaxo,; زاخۆ, زاخو; זאכו;; ܙܵܟ̣ܘ̇; Zākhō) is a city in Iraq, at the centre of the eponymous Zakho District of the Dohuk Governorate of Iraqi Kurdistan, located a few kilometers from the Iraqi-Turkish border.

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Zinc

Zinc is a chemical element with symbol Zn and atomic number 30.

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Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism, or more natively Mazdayasna, is one of the world's oldest extant religions, which is monotheistic in having a single creator god, has dualistic cosmology in its concept of good and evil, and has an eschatology which predicts the ultimate destruction of evil.

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.krd

.krd is the Internet geographic top-level domain (gTLD) for Kurdistan Region of Iraq.

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14 July Revolution

The 14 July Revolution, also known as the 1958 Iraqi coup d'état, took place on 14 July 1958 in Iraq, and resulted in the overthrow of the Hashemite monarchy which had been established by King Faisal I in 1921 under the auspices of the British.

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1975 Algiers Agreement

The 1975 Algiers Agreement (commonly known as the Algiers Accord, sometimes as the Algiers Declaration) was an agreement between Iran and Iraq to settle their border disputes and conflicts (such as the Shatt al-Arab, known as Arvand Rud in Iran), and it served as basis for the bilateral treaties signed on 13 June and 26 December 1975.

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1991 uprisings in Iraq

The 1991 uprisings in Iraq were a series of popular rebellions in northern and southern Iraq in March and April 1991 in a cease fire of the Persian Gulf War.

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2003 invasion of Iraq

The 2003 invasion of Iraq was the first stage of the Iraq War (also called Operation Iraqi Freedom).

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2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq

The 2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq, code-named Operation Sun (Güneş Harekatı) by the Turkish Armed Forces, began on February 21, 2008, when the Turkish Army sent troops into northern Iraq to target the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK).

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Administrative divisions of Iraqi Kurdistan, Bashur, Başûrê Kurdistanê, Culture of Iraqi Kurdistan, Demographics of Iraqi Kurdistan, Education in Iraqi Kurdistan, Education in Kurdistan, Elections in Iraqi Kurdistan, Foreign relations of Kurdistan, Geography of Iraqi Kurdistan, Herêmî Kurdistan, History of Iraqi Kurdistan, Iraqi Kudistan, Iraqi Kurdish, Iraqi Kurdistan Region, Iraqi Kurdistan region, Iraqi kurdistan, Kurd (Iraq), Kurdish Autonomous Regeon, Kurdish Autonomous Region, Kurdish Autonomous Republic, Kurdish Autonomous Zone, Kurdish Iraq, Kurdish autonomous zone, Kurdistan (Iraq), Kurdistan Autonomous Region, Kurdistan Autonomous Republic, Kurdistan Federal Region, Kurdistan Region, Kurdistan Region of Iraq, Kurdistan Region-Iraq, Kurdistan region, Kurdistan region of Iraq, Kurdistani passport, North Iraq, North of Iraq, Northern Iraq, Politics of Iraqi Kurdistan, Politics of the Kurdistan Regional Government, Politics of the Kurdistan autonomous region, Region of Kurdistan, Religion in Iraqi Kurdistan, Republic of Kurdistan, South Kurdistan, Southern Kurdistan, The Kurdish experience in Iraq, The Kurdish experience in iraq.

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan

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