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Mesoamerica

Index Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica is an important historical region and cultural area in the Americas, extending from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica, and within which pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. [1]

442 relations: Adobe, Agave, Agrarian society, Agriculture, Agriculture in Mesoamerica, Aguateca, Alpine climate, Altar de Sacrificios, Amate, Amazon rainforest, Americas, Americas (terminology), Amuzgos, Annona, Aquifer, Archaeological theory, Archaic period (North America), Arenal Volcano, Aridoamerica, Arithmetic, Art, Arthur J. O. Anderson, Ascribed status, Astronomer, Astronomy, Avocado, Aztec calendar stone, Aztec codices, Aztec Empire, Aztecs, Bean, Belize, Bell pepper, Bernardino de Sahagún, Bloodletting, Bloodletting in Mesoamerica, Bosawás Biosphere Reserve, Brosimum alicastrum, Cacaxtla, Calakmul, Calendar, Cambridge University Press, Campeche, Cancuén, Caracol, Cardinal direction, Caribbean Sea, Cascajal Block, Ceiba, Cempoala, ..., Cenote, Central America, Cerros, Ch'orti' people, Chalcatzingo, Charles E. Dibble, Charles Gibson (historian), Chert, Chichen Itza, Chichimeca, Chiefdom, Chilam Balam, Chili pepper, Chinantecan languages, Chixoy River, Chocolate, Cholula (Mesoamerican site), Chunchucmil, Cinnabar, City-state, Cival, Civilization, Classic Maya collapse, Classic Veracruz culture, Clovis point, Coba, Cochineal, Cocoa bean, Codex Zouche-Nuttall, Colima, Copán, Cora people, Costa Rica, Cotton, Coxcatlan Cave, Crocodile, Cucurbita, Cuicuilco, Cultural anthropology, Cultural area, Culture-historical archaeology, Deity, Dog, Dog meat, Dogs in Mesoamerican folklore and myth, Domestication, Dos Pilas, Dualistic cosmology, Duck, Dye, Dzibilchaltun, E-Group, Eagle, Earlobe, East, Ecological niche, Ecosystem, Edzna, El Castillo, Chichen Itza, El Mirador, El Perú (Maya site), El Salvador, El Tajín, Epi-Olmec culture, Equinox, Escuintla, Ethnology, Exoskeleton, Fish, Flint, Florentine Codex, Geography of El Salvador, Germany, Glyph, Grande de Santiago River, Great Goddess of Teotihuacan, Grijalva River, Guachimontones, Guatemala, Guava, Guerrero, Guilá Naquitz Cave, Gulf of Mexico, Guns, Germs, and Steel, Handbook of Middle American Indians, HarperCollins, Hematite, Hidalgo (state), Hieroglyph, Highland, History of Mesoamerica (Paleo-Indian), Hondo River (Belize), Honduras, Huastec people, Huichol, Human sacrifice, Hunter-gatherer, Ideology, Indian cuisine, Indigenous peoples of Mexico, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Isthmian script, Isthmus, Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Italian cuisine, Itza people, Iximche, Izalco (volcano), Izapa, Jade, Jade use in Mesoamerica, Jaguar, Jaina Island, Jalisco, Joya de Cerén, K'iche' kingdom of Q'umarkaj, K'iche' people, K'inich Janaab' Pakal, Kabah (Maya site), Kaminaljuyu, Kaqchikel people, Kohunlich, Komchen, Kowoj, La Blanca, La Mosquitia, La Venta, Labna, Lake Atitlán, Lake Chapala, Lake Izabal, Lake Managua, Lake Nicaragua, Lake Petén Itzá, Lake Texcoco, Lamanai, Language (journal), Latin America, Latin script, Latitude, Lemoa, Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis, Linguistic Society of America, List of Maya gods and supernatural beings, Lizard, Logogram, Lunar eclipse, Macaw, Maize, Mam people, Mamey, Mars, Matanchén, Mathematics, Maya civilization, Maya codices, Maya script, Mayapan, Mazatec, Mérida, Yucatán, Mesoamerican architecture, Mesoamerican ballcourt, Mesoamerican ballgame, Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System, Mesoamerican calendars, Mesoamerican chronology, Mesoamerican feasts, Mesoamerican language area, Mesoamerican literature, Mesoamerican pyramids, Mesoamerican region, Mesoamerican religion, Mesoamerican writing systems, Metallurgy, Mexica, Mexican Hairless Dog, Mexico, Mexico City, Michoacán, Middle America (Americas), Mitla, Mixco Viejo, Mixe, Mixe–Zoque languages, Mixtec, Mixtec Group, Momotombo, Monkey, Monte Albán, Monte Alto culture, Moon, Motagua River, Mural, Nahuas, Nahuatl, Naj Tunich, Nakbe, Naranjo, Natural rubber, Nayarit, New World vulture, Nicaragua, Nojpetén, Norte Chico civilization, North, North America, Number, Oasisamerica, Oaxaca, Oaxaca Valley, Obsidian, Obsidian use in Mesoamerica, Ocós, Olmecs, Orbital period, Oto-Manguean languages, Otomi, Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxkintok, Oxkutzcab Municipality, Pachuca, Pachyrhizus erosus, Pacific Ocean, Painting in the Americas before European colonization, Palenque, Paleo-Indians, Palisade, Palynology, Panama, Pantheon (religion), Papaya, Pasión River, Patuca National Park, Paul Kirchhoff, Peru, Petén Basin, Petexbatún Lake, Phaseolus, Pico de Orizaba, Pictogram, Piedras Negras (Maya site), Pinophyta, Pipil people, Pleiades, Popocatépetl, Poqomam language, Pottery, Power (social and political), Pre-Columbian era, Preclassic Maya, Prismatic blade, Projectile point, Puebla, Pulque, Purépecha, Puuc, Pyrite, Q'eqchi', Q'umarkaj, Quetzal, Quintana Roo, Quiriguá, Rabbit, Radiocarbon dating, Rainforest, Río Azul, Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, Region, Regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica, Relief, Religion, River, Robert Wauchope (archaeologist), Sacrifice, SAGE Publications, Salinas River (Guatemala), Salt, San Bartolo (Maya site), San José Mogote, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, Santa María (volcano), Sapote, Sayil, School for Advanced Research, Sculpture, Sea level, Sedentism, Seibal, Serpent (symbolism), Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest, Sex organ, Shamanism, Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Sierra Madre del Sur, Sipacate, Society, Sociocultural evolution, Solstice, South, South America, Southwestern United States, Space, Spanish colonization of the Americas, Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spondylus, Sprachbund, Stanford University Press, Stele, Subsistence economy, Subtropics, Sumer, Sun, Syllabary, Takalik Abaj, Tamaulipas, Tarascan state, Tehuacán, Temperate climate, Tenochtitlan, Teopantecuanitlan, Teotihuacan, Tepehuas, Teuchitlan tradition, Textile, Thai cuisine, The University of Utah Press, Tikal, Time, Tlapacoya (archeological site), Tlapanec, Tlatelolco (archaeological site), Tlatilco, Tollan, Toltec, Tomato, Tongue, Toniná, Topoxte, Totonac, Trans-cultural diffusion, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, Tres Zapotes, Tributary state, Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, Tropical climate, Tropical year, Tula de Allende, Tulum, Tzintzuntzan (Mesoamerican site), Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, Uaxactun, Ujuxte, Ulama (game), Ulúa River, Ungulate, United States, Usumacinta River, Uto-Aztecan languages, Uxmal, Valley of Mexico, Vanilla, Venus, Veracruz, Vigesimal, Volcano, Volcán Tajumulco, Water, West, Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition, Wheel, Wild turkey, Wiley-Blackwell, Working animal, Writing, Xochicalco, Xultun, Xunantunich, Yaxchilan, Yaxha, Yucatán, Yucatán Peninsula, Yucca, Zaachila, Zacpeten, Zaculeu, Zapotec civilization, Zapotec peoples, Zea (plant), Zoomorphism, 0. Expand index (392 more) »

Adobe

Adobe is a building material made from earth and other organic materials.

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Agave

Agave is a genus of monocots native to the hot and arid regions of Mexico and the Southwestern United States.

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Agrarian society

An agrarian society (or agricultural society) is any society whose economy is based on producing and maintaining crops and farmland.

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Agriculture

Agriculture is the cultivation of land and breeding of animals and plants to provide food, fiber, medicinal plants and other products to sustain and enhance life.

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Agriculture in Mesoamerica

Agriculture in Mesoamerica dates to the Archaic period of Mesoamerican chronology (8000–2000 BC).

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Aguateca

Aguateca is a Maya site located in northern Guatemala's Petexbatun Basin, in the department of Petén.

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Alpine climate

Alpine climate is the average weather (climate) for the regions above the tree line.

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Altar de Sacrificios

Altar de Sacrificios is a ceremonial center and archaeological site of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, situated near the confluence of the Pasión and Salinas Rivers (where they combine to form the Usumacinta River), in the present-day department of Petén, Guatemala.

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Amate

Amate (amate from āmatl) is a type of bark paper that has been manufactured in Mexico since the precontact times.

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Amazon rainforest

The Amazon rainforest (Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Selva Amazónica, Amazonía or usually Amazonia; Forêt amazonienne; Amazoneregenwoud), also known in English as Amazonia or the Amazon Jungle, is a moist broadleaf forest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America.

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Americas

The Americas (also collectively called America)"America." The Oxford Companion to the English Language.

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Americas (terminology)

The Americas, also known as America,"America." The Oxford Companion to the English Language.

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Amuzgos

The Amuzgos are an indigenous people of Mexico.

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Annona

Annona (from Taíno annon) is a genus of flowering plants in the pawpaw/sugar apple family, Annonaceae.

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Aquifer

An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt).

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Archaeological theory

Archaeological theory refers to the various intellectual frameworks through which archaeologists interpret archaeological data.

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Archaic period (North America)

In the classification of the archaeological cultures of North America, the Archaic period or "Meso-Indian period" in North America, accepted to be from around 8000 to 1000 BC in the sequence of North American pre-Columbian cultural stages, is a period defined by the archaic stage of cultural development.

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Arenal Volcano

Arenal Volcano (Volcán Arenal) is an active andesitic stratovolcano in north-western Costa Rica around 90 km northwest of San José, in the province of Alajuela, canton of San Carlos, and district of La Fortuna.

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Aridoamerica

Aridoamerica denotes an ecological region spanning Mexico and the Southwest United States, defined by the presence of the culturally significant staple foodstuff Phaseolus acutifolius, a drought-resistant bean.

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Arithmetic

Arithmetic (from the Greek ἀριθμός arithmos, "number") is a branch of mathematics that consists of the study of numbers, especially the properties of the traditional operations on them—addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

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Art

Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or performing artifacts (artworks), expressing the author's imaginative, conceptual idea, or technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power.

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Arthur J. O. Anderson

Arthur James Outram Anderson (November 26, 1907 – June 3, 1996) was an American anthropologist specializing in Aztec culture and translator of the Nahuatl language.

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Ascribed status

Ascribed status is the social status a person is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life.

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Astronomer

An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth.

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Astronomy

Astronomy (from ἀστρονομία) is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena.

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Avocado

The avocado (Persea americana) is a tree, long thought to have originated in South Central Mexico, classified as a member of the flowering plant family Lauraceae.

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Aztec calendar stone

The Aztec calendar stone is a late post-classic Mexica sculpture housed in the National Anthropology Museum in Mexico City, and is perhaps the most famous work of Aztec sculpture.

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Aztec codices

Aztec codices (Mēxihcatl āmoxtli) are books written by pre-Columbian and colonial-era Nahuas in pictorial and/or alphabetic form.

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Aztec Empire

The Aztec Empire, or the Triple Alliance (Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān, ˈjéːʃkaːn̥ t͡ɬaʔtoːˈlóːjaːn̥), began as an alliance of three Nahua altepetl city-states: italic, italic, and italic.

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Aztecs

The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521.

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Bean

A bean is a seed of one of several genera of the flowering plant family Fabaceae, which are used for human or animal food.

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Belize

Belize, formerly British Honduras, is an independent Commonwealth realm on the eastern coast of Central America.

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Bell pepper

The bell pepper (also known as sweet pepper, pepper or capsicum) is a cultivar group of the species Capsicum annuum.

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Bernardino de Sahagún

Bernardino de Sahagún (c. 1499 – October 23, 1590) was a Franciscan friar, missionary priest and pioneering ethnographer who participated in the Catholic evangelization of colonial New Spain (now Mexico).

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Bloodletting

Bloodletting (or blood-letting) is the withdrawal of blood from a patient to prevent or cure illness and disease.

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Bloodletting in Mesoamerica

Bloodletting was the ritualized self-cutting or piercing of an individual's body that served a number of ideological and cultural functions within ancient Mesoamerican societies, in particular the Maya.

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Bosawás Biosphere Reserve

The Bosawás Biosphere Reserve in the northern part of state Jinotega (border with Honduras), Nicaragua is a hilly tropical forest designated in 1997 as a UNESCO biosphere reserve.

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Brosimum alicastrum

Brosimum alicastrum, commonly known as the breadnut or Maya nut, is a tree species in the family Moraceae of flowering plants, whose other genera include figs and mulberries.

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Cacaxtla

Cacaxtla is an archaeological site located near the southern border of the Mexican state of Tlaxcala.

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Calakmul

Calakmul (also Kalakmul and other less frequent variants) is a Maya archaeological site in the Mexican state of Campeche, deep in the jungles of the greater Petén Basin region.

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Calendar

A calendar is a system of organizing days for social, religious, commercial or administrative purposes.

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Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press (CUP) is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge.

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Campeche

Campeche, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Campeche (Estado Libre y Soberano de Campeche), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

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Cancuén

Cancuén is an archaeological site of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the Pasión subregion of the central Maya lowlands in the present-day Guatemalan Department of El Petén.

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Caracol

Caracol is the name given to a large ancient Maya archaeological site, located in what is now the Cayo District of Belize.

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Cardinal direction

The four cardinal directions or cardinal points are the directions north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W. East and west are at right angles to north and south, with east being in the clockwise direction of rotation from north and west being directly opposite east.

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Caribbean Sea

The Caribbean Sea (Mar Caribe; Mer des Caraïbes; Caraïbische Zee) is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere.

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Cascajal Block

The Cascajal Block is a tablet-sized writing slab in Mexico, made of serpentinite, which has been dated to the early first millennium BCE, incised with hitherto unknown characters that may represent the earliest writing system in the New World.

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Ceiba

Ceiba is a genus of trees in the Malvaceace family, native to tropical and subtropical areas of the Americas (from Mexico and the Caribbean to N Argentina) and tropical West Africa.

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Cempoala

Cempoala or Zempoala (Nahuatl Cēmpoalātl 'Place of Twenty Waters') is an important Mesoamerican archaeological site located in the Úrsulo Galván Municipality, in the state of Veracruz, Mexico.

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Cenote

A cenote is a natural pit, or sinkhole, resulting from the collapse of limestone bedrock that exposes groundwater underneath.

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Central America

Central America (América Central, Centroamérica) is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with the South American continent on the southeast.

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Cerros

Cerros is an Eastern Lowland Maya archaeological site in northern Belize that functioned from the Late Preclassic to the Postclassic period.

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Ch'orti' people

The Ch'orti' people (alternatively, Ch'orti' Maya or Chorti) are one of the indigenous Maya peoples, who primarily reside in communities and towns of southeastern Guatemala, northwestern Honduras, and northern El Salvador.

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Chalcatzingo

Chalcatzingo is a Mesoamerican archaeological site in the Valley of Morelos dating from the Formative Period of Mesoamerican chronology.

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Charles E. Dibble

Charles E. Dibble (18 August 1909 – 30 November 2002) was an American academic, anthropologist, linguist, and scholar of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures.

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Charles Gibson (historian)

Charles Gibson (12 August 1920 - 22 August 1985, Keeseville, N.Y.) was an American ethnohistorian who wrote foundational works on the Nahua peoples of colonial Mexico and was elected President of the American Historical Association in 1977.

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Chert

Chert is a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline silica, the mineral form of silicon dioxide (SiO2).

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Chichen Itza

Chichen Itza, Chichén Itzá, often with the emphasis reversed in English to; from Chi'ch'èen Ìitsha' (Barrera Vásquez et al., 1980.) "at the mouth of the well of the Itza people" was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya people of the Terminal Classic period.

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Chichimeca

Chichimeca (Spanish) was the name that the Nahua peoples of Mexico generically applied to nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples who were established in present-day Bajio region of Mexico.

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Chiefdom

A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'.

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Chilam Balam

The Books of Chilam Balam are handwritten, chiefly 17th and 18th-centuries Maya miscellanies, named after the small Yucatec towns where they were originally kept, and preserving important traditional knowledge in which indigenous Maya and early Spanish traditions have coalesced.

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Chili pepper

The chili pepper (also chile pepper, chilli pepper, or simply chilli) from Nahuatl chīlli) is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. They are widely used in many cuisines to add spiciness to dishes. The substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin and related compounds known as capsaicinoids. Chili peppers originated in Mexico. After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used for both food and traditional medicine. Worldwide in 2014, 32.3 million tonnes of green chili peppers and 3.8 million tonnes of dried chili peppers were produced. China is the world's largest producer of green chillies, providing half of the global total.

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Chinantecan languages

The Chinantec or Chinantecan languages constitute a branch of the Oto-Manguean family.

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Chixoy River

The Chixoy River or Río Negro is a river in Guatemala.

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Chocolate

Chocolate is a typically sweet, usually brown food preparation of Theobroma cacao seeds, roasted and ground.

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Cholula (Mesoamerican site)

Cholula (Cholōllān) (Spanish) was an important city of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, dating back to at least the 2nd century BCE, with settlement as a village going back at least some thousand years earlier.

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Chunchucmil

Chunchucmil was once a large, sprawling pre-Columbian Maya city located in the western part of what is now the state of Yucatán, Mexico.

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Cinnabar

Cinnabar and cinnabarite, likely deriving from the κιννάβαρι (kinnabari), refer to the common bright scarlet to brick-red form of mercury(II) sulfide (HgS) that is the most common source ore for refining elemental mercury, and is the historic source for the brilliant red or scarlet pigment termed vermilion and associated red mercury pigments.

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City-state

A city-state is a sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories.

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Cival

Cival is an archaeological site in the Petén Basin region of the southern Maya lowlands, which was formerly a major city of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization.

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Civilization

A civilization or civilisation (see English spelling differences) is any complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification imposed by a cultural elite, symbolic systems of communication (for example, writing systems), and a perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment.

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Classic Maya collapse

In archaeology, the classic Maya collapse is the decline of Classic Maya civilization and the abandonment of Maya cities in the southern Maya lowlands of Mesoamerica between the 8th and 9th centuries, at the end of the Classic Maya Period.

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Classic Veracruz culture

Classic Veracruz culture (or Gulf Coast Classic culture) refers to a cultural area in the north and central areas of the present-day Mexican state of Veracruz, a culture that existed from roughly 100 to 1000 CE, or during the Classic era.

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Clovis point

Clovis points are the characteristically-fluted projectile points associated with the New World Clovis culture.

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Coba

Coba (Cobá) is an ancient Mayan city on the Yucatán Peninsula, located in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo.

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Cochineal

The cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) is a scale insect in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, from which the natural dye carmine is derived.

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Cocoa bean

The cocoa bean, also called cacao bean, cocoa, and cacao, is the dried and fully fermented seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and, because of the seed's fat, cocoa butter can be extracted.

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Codex Zouche-Nuttall

The Codex Zouche-Nuttall or Codex Tonindeye is an accordion-folded pre-Columbian document of Mixtec pictography, now in the collections of the British Museum.

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Colima

Colima, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Colima (Estado Libre y Soberano de Colima), is one of the 32 states that make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

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Copán

Copán is an archaeological site of the Maya civilization located in the Copán Department of western Honduras, not far from the border with Guatemala.

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Cora people

The Cora are an indigenous ethnic group of Western Central Mexico which live in the municipality El Nayar in the Mexican state of Nayarit and in a few settlements in the neighboring state of Jalisco.

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Costa Rica

Costa Rica ("Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica (República de Costa Rica), is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Ecuador to the south of Cocos Island.

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Cotton

Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the mallow family Malvaceae.

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Coxcatlan Cave

Coxcatlan Cave is a Mesoamerican archaeological site in the Tehuacán Valley of Puebla, Mexico.

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Crocodile

Crocodiles (subfamily Crocodylinae) or true crocodiles are large aquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia.

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Cucurbita

Cucurbita (Latin for gourd) is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, also known as cucurbits, native to the Andes and Mesoamerica.

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Cuicuilco

Cuicuilco is an important archaeological site located on the southern shore of Lake Texcoco in the southeastern Valley of Mexico, in what is today the borough of Tlalpan in Mexico City.

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Cultural anthropology

Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans.

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Cultural area

In anthropology and geography, a cultural region, cultural sphere, cultural area or culture area refers to a geographical area with one relatively homogeneous human activity or complex of activities (culture).

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Culture-historical archaeology

Culture-historical archaeology is an archaeological theory that emphasises defining historical societies into distinct ethnic and cultural groupings according to their material culture.

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Deity

A deity is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred.

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Dog

The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris when considered a subspecies of the gray wolf or Canis familiaris when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus Canis (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore.

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Dog meat

Dog meat is the flesh and other edible parts derived from dogs.

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Dogs in Mesoamerican folklore and myth

Dogs have occupied a powerful place in Mesoamerican folklore and myth since at least the Classic Period right through to modern times.

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Domestication

Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another group to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that second group.

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Dos Pilas

Dos Pilas is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization located in what is now the department of Petén, Guatemala.

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Dualistic cosmology

Dualism in cosmology is the moral or spiritual belief that two fundamental concepts exist, which often oppose each other.

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Duck

Duck is the common name for a large number of species in the waterfowl family Anatidae, which also includes swans and geese.

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Dye

A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied.

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Dzibilchaltun

Dzibilchaltún (Yucatec: Ts'íibil Cháaltun, IPA: /d̥z̥ʼiː˧˥biɭ tɕʰɒːl˦˥tuŋ/) is a Maya archaeological site in the Mexican state of Yucatán, approximately north of state capital Mérida.

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E-Group

E-Groups are unique architectural complexes found among a number of ancient Maya settlements.

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Eagle

Eagle is the common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae.

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Earlobe

The human earlobe (lobulus auriculae) is composed of tough areolar and adipose connective tissues, lacking the firmness and elasticity of the rest of the auricle (the external structure of the ear).

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East

East is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass.

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Ecological niche

In ecology, a niche (CanE, or) is the fit of a species living under specific environmental conditions.

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Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a community made up of living organisms and nonliving components such as air, water, and mineral soil.

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Edzna

Edzná is a Maya archaeological site in the north of the Mexican state of Campeche.

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El Castillo, Chichen Itza

El Castillo (Spanish for "the castle"), also known as the Temple of Kukulcan (or sometimes Kukulkan), is a Mesoamerican step-pyramid that dominates the center of the Chichen Itza archaeological site in the Mexican state of Yucatán.

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El Mirador

El Mirador (which translates as “the lookout,” “the viewpoint,” or “the belvedere”) is a large pre-Columbian Maya settlement, located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala.

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El Perú (Maya site)

El Perú (also known as Waka'), is a pre-Columbian Maya archeological site occupied during the Preclassic and Classic cultural chronology periods (roughly 500 BC to 800 AD).

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El Salvador

El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador (República de El Salvador, literally "Republic of The Savior"), is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America.

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El Tajín

El Tajín is a pre-Columbian archeological site in southern Mexico and is one of the largest and most important cities of the Classic era of Mesoamerica.

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Epi-Olmec culture

The Epi-Olmec culture was a cultural area in the central region of the present-day Mexican state of Veracruz.

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Equinox

An equinox is commonly regarded as the moment the plane (extended indefinitely in all directions) of Earth's equator passes through the center of the Sun, which occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 22-23 September.

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Escuintla

Escuintla is a city in south central Guatemala.

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Ethnology

Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "nation") is the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationship between them (cf. cultural, social, or sociocultural anthropology).

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Exoskeleton

An exoskeleton (from Greek έξω, éxō "outer" and σκελετός, skeletós "skeleton") is the external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body, in contrast to the internal skeleton (endoskeleton) of, for example, a human.

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Fish

Fish are gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits.

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Flint

Flint is a hard, sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, categorized as a variety of chert.

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Florentine Codex

The Florentine Codex is a 16th-century ethnographic research study in Mesoamerica by the Spanish Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún.

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Geography of El Salvador

El Salvador borders the North Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest, with Guatemala to the north-northwest and Honduras to the north-northeast.

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Germany

Germany (Deutschland), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland), is a sovereign state in central-western Europe.

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Glyph

In typography, a glyph is an elemental symbol within an agreed set of symbols, intended to represent a readable character for the purposes of writing.

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Grande de Santiago River

The Río Grande de Santiago is one of the longest rivers in Mexico, measuring up long.

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Great Goddess of Teotihuacan

The Great Goddess of Teotihuacan (or Teotihuacan Spider Woman) is a proposed goddess of the pre-Columbian Teotihuacan civilization (ca. 100 BCE - 700 CE), in what is now Mexico.

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Grijalva River

Grijalva River, formerly known as Tabasco River.

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Guachimontones

Los Guachimontones (alternatively Huachimontones) is a prehispanic archaeological site near the Mexican town of Teuchitlán in the state of Jalisco about an hour west of Guadalajara.

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Guatemala

Guatemala, officially the Republic of Guatemala (República de Guatemala), is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, Honduras to the east and El Salvador to the southeast.

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Guava

Guavas (singular guava) are common tropical fruits cultivated and enjoyed in many tropical and subtropical regions.

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Guerrero

Guerrero (Spanish for "warrior"), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Guerrero (Estado Libre y Soberano de Guerrero), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

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Guilá Naquitz Cave

Guilá Naquitz Cave in Oaxaca, Mexico is the site of early domestication of several food crops, including teosinte (an ancestor of maize), squash from the genus Cucurbita, bottle gourds (Lagenaria siceraria), and beans.

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Gulf of Mexico

The Gulf of Mexico (Golfo de México) is an ocean basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, largely surrounded by the North American continent.

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Guns, Germs, and Steel

Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (also titled Guns, Germs and Steel: A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years) is a 1997 transdisciplinary non-fiction book by Jared Diamond, professor of geography and physiology at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).

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Handbook of Middle American Indians

Handbook of Middle American Indians (HMAI) is a sixteen-volume compendium on Mesoamerica, from the prehispanic to the late twentieth century.

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HarperCollins

HarperCollins Publishers L.L.C. is one of the world's largest publishing companies and is one of the Big Five English-language publishing companies, alongside Hachette, Macmillan, Penguin Random House, and Simon & Schuster.

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Hematite

Hematite, also spelled as haematite, is the mineral form of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3), one of several iron oxides.

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Hidalgo (state)

Hidalgo, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Hidalgo (Estado Libre y Soberano de Hidalgo), is one of the 31 states which, with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

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Hieroglyph

A hieroglyph (Greek for "sacred writing") was a character of the ancient Egyptian writing system.

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Highland

Highlands or uplands are any mountainous region or elevated mountainous plateau.

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History of Mesoamerica (Paleo-Indian)

In the History of Mesoamerica, the stage known as the Paleo-Indian period (or alternatively, the Lithic stage) is the era in the scheme of Mesoamerican chronology which begins with the very first indications of human habitation within the Mesoamerican region, and continues until the general onset of the development of agriculture and other proto-civilization traits.

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Hondo River (Belize)

The Hondo River or Río Hondo is a river of Central America, approximately long, which flows in a northeasterly direction to discharge into Chetumal Bay on the Caribbean Sea.

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Honduras

Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras (República de Honduras), is a republic in Central America.

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Huastec people

The Huastec or Téenek (contraction of Te' Inik, "people from here"; also known as Huaxtec, Wastek or Huastecos), are an indigenous people of Mexico, living in the La Huasteca region including the states of Hidalgo, Veracruz, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas concentrated along the route of the Pánuco River and along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.

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Huichol

The Huichol or Wixáritari (Huichol pronunciation: /wiˈraɾitaɾi/) are an indigenous people of Mexico living in the Sierra Madre Occidental range in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Durango. They are best known to the larger world as the Huichol, however, they refer to themselves as Wixáritari ("the people") in their native Huichol language. The adjectival form of Wixáritari and name for their own language is Wixárika.

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Human sacrifice

Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans, usually as an offering to a deity, as part of a ritual.

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Hunter-gatherer

A hunter-gatherer is a human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging (collecting wild plants and pursuing wild animals), in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species.

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Ideology

An Ideology is a collection of normative beliefs and values that an individual or group holds for other than purely epistemic reasons.

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Indian cuisine

Indian cuisine consists of a wide variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian subcontinent.

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Indigenous peoples of Mexico

Indigenous peoples of Mexico (pueblos indígenas de México), Native Mexicans (nativos mexicanos), or Mexican Native Americans (Mexicanos nativo americanos), are those who are part of communities that trace their roots back to populations and communities that existed in what is now Mexico prior to the arrival of Europeans.

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Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous peoples; some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Canada, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Guyana, Mexico, Panama and Peru. At least a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages and Nahuatl, count their speakers in millions. Many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects but also cater to modern needs. Some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture, and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples.

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International Union for Conservation of Nature

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.

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Isthmian script

The Isthmian script is a very early Mesoamerican writing system in use in the area of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec from perhaps 500 BCE to 500 CE, although there is disagreement on these dates.

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Isthmus

An isthmus (or; plural: isthmuses; from neck) is a narrow piece of land connecting two larger areas across an expanse of water by which they are otherwise separated.

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Isthmus of Tehuantepec

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is an isthmus in Mexico.

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Italian cuisine

Italian cuisine is food typical from Italy.

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Itza people

The Itza are a Guatemalan people of Maya affiliation.

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Iximche

Iximche (or Iximché using Spanish orthography) is a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site in the western highlands of Guatemala.

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Izalco (volcano)

Izalco is a stratovolcano on the side of the Santa Ana Volcano, which is located in western El Salvador.

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Izapa

Izapa is a very large pre-Columbian archaeological site located in the Mexican state of Chiapas; it is best known for its occupation during the Late Formative period.

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Jade

Jade is an ornamental mineral, mostly known for its green varieties, which is featured prominently in ancient Asian art.

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Jade use in Mesoamerica

The use of jade in Mesoamerica for symbolic and ideological ritual was highly influenced by its rarity and value among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Olmec, the Maya, and the various groups in the Valley of Mexico.

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Jaguar

The jaguar (Panthera onca) is a wild cat species and the only extant member of the genus Panthera native to the Americas.

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Jaina Island

Jaina Island is a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site in the present-day Mexican state of Campeche.

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Jalisco

Jalisco, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Jalisco (Estado Libre y Soberano de Jalisco), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

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Joya de Cerén

Joya de Cerén (Jewel of Cerén in the Spanish language) is an archaeological site in La Libertad Department, El Salvador, featuring a pre-Columbian Maya farming village.

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K'iche' kingdom of Q'umarkaj

The K'iche' kingdom of Q'umarkaj was a state in the highlands of modern-day Guatemala which was founded by the K'iche' (Quiché) Maya in the thirteenth century, and which expanded through the fifteenth century until it was conquered by Spanish and Nahua forces led by Pedro de Alvarado in 1524.

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K'iche' people

K'iche' (pronounced; previous Spanish spelling: Quiché) are indigenous peoples of the Americas and are one of the Maya peoples.

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K'inich Janaab' Pakal

K'inich Janaab Pakal IThe ruler's name, when transcribed is K'INICH-JANA:B-PAKAL-la, translated "Radiant ? Shield", Martin & Grube 2008, p. 162.

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Kabah (Maya site)

Kabah is south of Uxmal, connected to that site by a long raised causeway wide with monumental arches at each end.

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Kaminaljuyu

Kaminaljuyu (pronounced) is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization that was primarily occupied from 1500 BC to AD 1200.

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Kaqchikel people

The Kaqchikel (also called Kachiquel) are one of the indigenous Maya peoples of the midwestern highlands in Guatemala.

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Kohunlich

Kohunlich (X-làabch'e'en in Modern Mayan) is a large archaeological site of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located on the Yucatán Peninsula in the state of Quintana Roo about 25 km east of the Rio Bec region, and about 65 km west of Chetumal on Highway 186, and 9 km south of the road.

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Komchen

Komchén is a community in the Mérida Municipality in the state of Yucatán, located in southeastern Mexico.

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Kowoj

The Kowoj (also recorded as Ko'woh, Couoh, Coguo, Cohuo, Kob'ow and Kob'ox, and Kowo) was a Maya group and polity, from the Late Postclassic period (ca. 1250–1697) of Mesoamerican chronology.

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La Blanca

La Blanca is a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site in present-day Retalhuleu Department, western Guatemala.

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La Mosquitia

La Mosquitia is the easternmost part of Honduras along the Mosquito Coast, which extends into northeastern Nicaragua.

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La Venta

La Venta is a pre-Columbian archaeological site of the Olmec civilization located in the present-day Mexican state of Tabasco.

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Labna

Labna (or Labná in Spanish orthography) is a Mesoamerican archaeological site and ceremonial center of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the Puuc Hills region of the Yucatán Peninsula.

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Lake Atitlán

Lake Atitlán (Lago de Atitlán) is a lake in the Guatemalan Highlands of the Sierra Madre mountain range.

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Lake Chapala

Lake Chapala (Lago de Chapala) is Mexico's largest freshwater lake.

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Lake Izabal

Lake Izabal, also known as the Golfo Dulce, is the largest lake in Guatemala with a surface area of 589.6 km² (145,693 acres or 227.6 sq mi) and a maximum depth is 18 m (59 ft).

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Lake Managua

Lake Managua (also known as Lake Xolotlán) (located at) is a lake in Nicaragua.

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Lake Nicaragua

Lake Nicaragua or Cocibolca or Granada (Lago de Nicaragua, Lago Cocibolca, Mar Dulce, Gran Lago, Gran Lago Dulce, or Lago de Granada) is a freshwater lake in Nicaragua.

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Lake Petén Itzá

Lake Petén Itzá (Lago Petén Itzá) is a lake in the northern Petén Department in Guatemala.

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Lake Texcoco

Lake Texcoco (Lago de Texcoco) was a natural lake within the "Anahuac" or Valley of Mexico.

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Lamanai

Lamanai (from Lama'anayin, "submerged crocodile" in Yucatec Maya) is a Mesoamerican archaeological site, and was once a major city of the Maya civilization, located in the north of Belize, in Orange Walk District.

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Language (journal)

Language is a peer-reviewed quarterly academic journal published by the Linguistic Society of America since 1925.

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Latin America

Latin America is a group of countries and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere where Spanish, French and Portuguese are spoken; it is broader than the terms Ibero-America or Hispanic America.

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Latin script

Latin or Roman script is a set of graphic signs (script) based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, which is derived from a form of the Cumaean Greek version of the Greek alphabet, used by the Etruscans.

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Latitude

In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earth's surface.

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Lemoa

Lemoa (Lemona) is a town and municipality located in the province of Biscay, in the autonomous community of Basque Country, northern Spain.

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Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis

The Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (Latin for "Little Book of the Medicinal Herbs of the Indians") is an Aztec herbal manuscript, describing the medicinal properties of various plants used by the Aztecs.

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Linguistic Society of America

The Linguistic Society of America (LSA) is a learned society for the field of linguistics.

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List of Maya gods and supernatural beings

Name list of Maya gods and supernatural beings playing a role in the Classic (200–1000 CE), Post-Classic (1000–1539 CE) and Contact Period (1511-1697) Maya religion.

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Lizard

Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 6,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains.

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Logogram

In written language, a logogram or logograph is a written character that represents a word or phrase.

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Lunar eclipse

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes directly behind Earth and into its shadow.

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Macaw

Macaws are long-tailed, often colorful New World parrots.

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Maize

Maize (Zea mays subsp. mays, from maíz after Taíno mahiz), also known as corn, is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago.

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Mam people

The Mam are an indigenous people in the western highlands of Guatemala and in south-western Mexico who speak the Mam language.

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Mamey

Mamey may refer to.

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Mars

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System after Mercury.

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Matanchén

Matanchén is the name of both the bay and one of the small towns located just south of San Blas, Nayarit, on the Pacific coast of Mexico.

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Mathematics

Mathematics (from Greek μάθημα máthēma, "knowledge, study, learning") is the study of such topics as quantity, structure, space, and change.

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Maya civilization

The Maya civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization developed by the Maya peoples, and noted for its hieroglyphic script—the only known fully developed writing system of the pre-Columbian Americas—as well as for its art, architecture, mathematics, calendar, and astronomical system.

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Maya codices

Maya codices (singular codex) are folding books written by the pre-Columbian Maya civilization in Maya hieroglyphic script on Mesoamerican bark cloth.

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Maya script

Maya script, also known as Maya glyphs, was the writing system of the Maya civilization of Mesoamerica and is the only Mesoamerican writing system that has been substantially deciphered.

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Mayapan

Mayapan (Màayapáan in Modern Maya), (in Spanish Mayapán) is a Pre-Columbian Maya site a couple of kilometers south of the town of Telchaquillo in Municipality of Tecoh, approximately 40 km south-east of Mérida and 100 km west of Chichen Itza; in the state of Yucatán, Mexico.

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Mazatec

The Mazatec are an indigenous people of Mexico who inhabit the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca and some communities in the adjacent states of Puebla and Veracruz.

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Mérida, Yucatán

Mérida is the capital of Yucatan, a state in Mexico.

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Mesoamerican architecture

Mesoamerican architecture is the set of architectural traditions produced by pre-Columbian cultures and civilizations of Mesoamerica, traditions which are best known in the form of public, ceremonial and urban monumental buildings and structures.

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Mesoamerican ballcourt

A Mesoamerican ballcourt is a large masonry structure of a type used in Mesoamerica for over 2,700 years to play the Mesoamerican ballgame, particularly the hip-ball version of the ballgame.

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Mesoamerican ballgame

The Mesoamerican ballgame was a sport with ritual associations played since 1400 BCSee Hill, Blake and Clark (1998); Schuster (1998).

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Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System

The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System (MBRS), also popularly known as the Great Mayan Reef or Great Maya Reef, is a marine region that stretches over from Isla Contoy at the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula down to Belize, Guatemala and the Bay Islands of Honduras.

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Mesoamerican calendars

Mesoamerican calendars are the calendrical systems devised and used by the pre-Columbian cultures of Mesoamerica.

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Mesoamerican chronology

Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of prehispanic Mesoamerica into several periods: the Paleo-Indian (first human habitation–3500 BCE), the Archaic (before 2600 BCE), the Preclassic or Formative (2000 BCE–250 CE), the Classic (250–900CE), and the Postclassic (900–1521 CE), Colonial (1521–1821), and Postcolonial (1821–present).

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Mesoamerican feasts

Feasts in Mesoamerica served as settings for social and political negotiations.

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Mesoamerican language area

The Mesoamerican language area is a sprachbund containing many of the languages natively spoken in the cultural area of Mesoamerica.

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Mesoamerican literature

The traditions of indigenous Mesoamerican literature extend back to the oldest-attested forms of early writing in the Mesoamerican region, which date from around the mid-1st millennium BCE.

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Mesoamerican pyramids

Mesoamerican pyramids or pyramid-shaped structures form a prominent part of ancient Mesoamerican architecture.

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Mesoamerican region

The Mesoamerican region (often abbreviated MAR) is a trans-national economic region in the Americas that is recognized by the OECD and other economic and developmental organizations, comprising the united economies of the seven countries in Central America — Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama — plus nine southeastern states of Mexico — Campeche, Chiapas, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Puebla, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Veracruz, and Yucatán.

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Mesoamerican religion

Mesoamerican religion is grouping of the indigenous religions of Mesoamerica that were prevelant in pre-Columbian era like Aztec religion, Maya religion among others.

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Mesoamerican writing systems

Mesoamerica, along with Mesopotamia and China, is among the three known places in the world where writing has developed independently.

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Metallurgy

Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys.

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Mexica

The Mexica (Nahuatl: Mēxihcah,; the singular is Mēxihcatl Nahuatl Dictionary. (1990). Wired Humanities Project. University of Oregon. Retrieved August 29, 2012, from) or Mexicas were a Nahuatl-speaking indigenous people of the Valley of Mexico, known today as the rulers of the Aztec Empire.

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Mexican Hairless Dog

The Xoloitzcuintli, or Xolo for short, is a hairless breed of dog, found in toy, miniature, and standard sizes.

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Mexico

Mexico (México; Mēxihco), officially called the United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos) is a federal republic in the southern portion of North America.

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Mexico City

Mexico City, or the City of Mexico (Ciudad de México,; abbreviated as CDMX), is the capital of Mexico and the most populous city in North America.

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Michoacán

Michoacán, formally Michoacán de Ocampo, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Michoacán de Ocampo (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Michoacán de Ocampo), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

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Middle America (Americas)

Middle America is a region in the mid-latitudes of the Americas.

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Mitla

Mitla is the second most important archeological site in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico, and the most important of the Zapotec culture.

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Mixco Viejo

Mixco Viejo ("Old Mixco"), occasionally spelt Mixcu Viejo, is an archaeological site in the north east of the Chimaltenango department of Guatemala, some to the north of Guatemala City and from the junction of the rivers Pixcaya and Motagua.

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Mixe

The Mixe (Spanish mixe or rarely mije) are an indigenous people of Mexico inhabiting the eastern highlands of the state of Oaxaca.

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Mixe–Zoque languages

The Mixe–Zoque languages are a language family whose living members are spoken in and around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico.

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Mixtec

The Mixtecs, or Mixtecos, are indigenous Mesoamerican peoples of Mexico inhabiting the region known as La Mixteca of Oaxaca and Puebla as well as the state of Guerrero's Región Montañas, and Región Costa Chica, which covers parts of the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla. The Mixtec region and the Mixtec peoples are traditionally divided into three groups, two based on their original economic caste and one based on the region they settled. High Mixtecs or mixteco alto were of the upper class and generally richer; the Low Mixtecs or "mixteco bajo" were generally poorer. In recent times, an economic reversal or equalizing has been seen. The third group is Coastal Mixtecs "mixteco de la costa" whose language is closely related to that of the Low Mixtecs; they currently inhabit the Pacific slope of Oaxaca and Guerrero. The Mixtec languages form a major branch of the Otomanguean language family. In pre-Columbian times, a number of Mixtecan city states competed with each other and with the Zapotec kingdoms. The major Mixtec polity was Tututepec which rose to prominence in the 11th century under the leadership of Eight Deer Jaguar Claw, the only Mixtec king who ever united the Highland and Lowland polities into a single state. Like the rest of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, the Mixtec were conquered by the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies in the 16th century. Pre-Columbia Mixtecs numbered around 1.5 million. Today there are approximately 800,000 Mixtec people in Mexico, and there are also large populations in the United States.

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Mixtec Group

The Mixtec Group is the designation given by scholars to a number of mostly pre-Columbian documents from the Mixtec people of the state of Oaxaca in the southern part of the Republic of Mexico.

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Momotombo

Momotombo is a stratovolcano in Nicaragua, not far from the city of León.

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Monkey

Monkeys are non-hominoid simians, generally possessing tails and consisting of about 260 known living species.

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Monte Albán

Monte Albán is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site in the Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán Municipality in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca (17.043° N, 96.767°W).

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Monte Alto culture

Monte Alto is an archaeological site on the Pacific Coast in what is now Guatemala.

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Moon

The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth and is Earth's only permanent natural satellite.

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Motagua River

The Motagua River is a long river in Guatemala.

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Mural

A mural is any piece of artwork painted or applied directly on a wall, ceiling or other permanent surface.

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Nahuas

The Nahuas are a group of indigenous people of Mexico and El Salvador.

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Nahuatl

Nahuatl (The Classical Nahuatl word nāhuatl (noun stem nāhua, + absolutive -tl) is thought to mean "a good, clear sound" This language name has several spellings, among them náhuatl (the standard spelling in the Spanish language),() Naoatl, Nauatl, Nahuatl, Nawatl. In a back formation from the name of the language, the ethnic group of Nahuatl speakers are called Nahua.), known historically as Aztec, is a language or group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family.

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Naj Tunich

Naj Tunich (Mopan Maya: //) is a natural cave which was used by the Maya as a ritual pilgrimage site during the Classic period.

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Nakbe

Nakbe is one of the largest early Maya archaeological sites.

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Naranjo

Naranjo is a Pre-Columbian Maya city in the Petén Basin region of Guatemala.

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Natural rubber

Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds, plus water.

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Nayarit

Nayarit, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Nayarit (Estado Libre y Soberano de Nayarit), is one of the 31 states which, together with the Federal District, make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico.

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New World vulture

The New World vulture or condor family Cathartidae contains seven species in five genera, all but one of which are monotypic.

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Nicaragua

Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the largest country in the Central American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

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Nojpetén

Nojpetén (also known as Tayasal) was the capital city of the Itza Maya kingdom of Petén Itzá, located on an island in Lake Petén Itzá in the modern department of Petén in northern Guatemala.

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Norte Chico civilization

The Norte Chico civilization (also Caral or Caral-Supe civilization)The name is disputed.

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North

North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions.

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North America

North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere; it is also considered by some to be a northern subcontinent of the Americas.

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Number

A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure and also label.

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Oasisamerica

Oasisamerica is a term used by some scholars, primarily Mexican anthropologists, for the broad cultural area defining pre-Columbian southwestern North America.

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Oaxaca

Oaxaca (from Huāxyacac), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca (Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, make up the 32 federative entities of Mexico.

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Oaxaca Valley

The Central Valleys (Valles Centrales) of Oaxaca, also simply known as the Oaxaca Valley, is a geographic region located within the modern-day state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico.

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Obsidian

Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock.

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Obsidian use in Mesoamerica

Obsidian is a naturally formed volcanic glass that was an important part of the material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.

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Ocós

Ocós is a municipality in the San Marcos department of Guatemala.

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Olmecs

The Olmecs were the earliest known major civilization in Mexico following a progressive development in Soconusco.

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Orbital period

The orbital period is the time a given astronomical object takes to complete one orbit around another object, and applies in astronomy usually to planets or asteroids orbiting the Sun, moons orbiting planets, exoplanets orbiting other stars, or binary stars.

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Oto-Manguean languages

Oto-Manguean languages (also Otomanguean) are a large family comprising several subfamilies of indigenous languages of the Americas.

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Otomi

The Otomi (Otomí) are an indigenous people of Mexico inhabiting the central Mexican Plateau (Altiplano) region.

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Oxford English Dictionary

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is the main historical dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press.

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Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press (OUP) is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press.

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Oxkintok

Oxkintok is a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site in the Puuc region of Yucatán state, in southeastern Mexico.

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Oxkutzcab Municipality

Oxkutzcab Municipality (sometimes spelled as Oxcutzcab) is a municipality, with a municipal seat of the same name in the Mexican state of Yucatán, southeast of Maní, Yucatán, located at.

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Pachuca

Pachuca, formally known as Pachuca de Soto, is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of Hidalgo.

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Pachyrhizus erosus

Pachyrhizus erosus, commonly known as jicama (or; Spanish jícama; from Nahuatl xīcamatl), Mexican yam bean, or Mexican turnip, is the name of a native Mexican vine, although the name most commonly refers to the plant's edible tuberous root.

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Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's oceanic divisions.

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Painting in the Americas before European colonization

Painting in the Americas before European colonization is the Precolumbian painting traditions of the Americas.

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Palenque

Palenque (Yucatec Maya: Bàakʼ /ɓàːkʼ/), also anciently known as Lakamha (literally: "Big Water"), was a Maya city state in southern Mexico that flourished in the 7th century.

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Paleo-Indians

Paleo-Indians, Paleoindians or Paleoamericans is a classification term given to the first peoples who entered, and subsequently inhabited, the Americas during the final glacial episodes of the late Pleistocene period.

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Palisade

A palisade—sometimes called a stakewall or a paling—is typically a fence or wall made from wooden stakes or tree trunks and used as a defensive structure or enclosure.

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Palynology

Palynology is the "study of dust" (from palunō, "strew, sprinkle" and -logy) or "particles that are strewn".

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Panama

Panama (Panamá), officially the Republic of Panama (República de Panamá), is a country in Central America, bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south.

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Pantheon (religion)

A pantheon (from Greek πάνθεον pantheon, literally "(a temple) of all gods", "of or common to all gods" from πᾶν pan- "all" and θεός theos "god") is the particular set of all gods of any polytheistic religion, mythology, or tradition.

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Papaya

The papaya (from Carib via Spanish), papaw, or pawpaw is the plant Carica papaya, one of the 22 accepted species in the genus Carica of the family Caricaceae.

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Pasión River

The Pasión River (Río de la Pasión) is a river located in the northern lowlands region of Guatemala.

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Patuca National Park

Patuca National Park is a national park in Honduras.

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Paul Kirchhoff

Paul Kirchhoff (17 August 1900, Halle, Province of Westphalia – 9 December 1972) was a German-Mexican anthropologist, most noted for his seminal work in defining and elaborating the culture area of Mesoamerica, a term he coined.

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Peru

Peru (Perú; Piruw Republika; Piruw Suyu), officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America.

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Petén Basin

The Petén Basin is a geographical subregion of Mesoamerica, primarily located in northern Guatemala within the Department of El Petén, and into Campeche state in southeastern Mexico.

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Petexbatún Lake

Petexbatún is a small lake formed by a river of the same name, which is a tributary of the La Pasion river.

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Phaseolus

Phaseolus (bean, wild bean) is a genus in the family Fabaceae containing about 70 plant species, all native to the Americas, primarily Mesoamerica.

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Pico de Orizaba

Pico de Orizaba, also known as Citlaltépetl (from Nahuatl citlal(in).

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Pictogram

A pictogram, also called a pictogramme, pictograph, or simply picto, and in computer usage an icon, is an ideogram that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object.

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Piedras Negras (Maya site)

Piedras Negras is the modern name for a ruined city of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization located on the north bank of the Usumacinta River in the Petén department of northeastern Guatemala.

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Pinophyta

The Pinophyta, also known as Coniferophyta or Coniferae, or commonly as conifers, are a division of vascular land plants containing a single extant class, Pinopsida.

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Pipil people

The Pipils or Cuzcatlecs are an indigenous people who live in western El Salvador, which they call Cuzcatlan.

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Pleiades

The Pleiades (also known as the Seven Sisters and Messier 45), are an open star cluster containing middle-aged, hot B-type stars located in the constellation of Taurus.

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Popocatépetl

Popocatépetl (Nahuatl: Popōcatepētl) is an active stratovolcano, located in the states of Puebla, Mexico, and Morelos, in Central Mexico, and lies in the eastern half of the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt.

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Poqomam language

Poqomam is a Mayan language, closely related to Poqomchi’.

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Pottery

Pottery is the ceramic material which makes up pottery wares, of which major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain.

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Power (social and political)

In social science and politics, power is the ability to influence or outright control the behaviour of people.

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Pre-Columbian era

The Pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period.

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Preclassic Maya

The Preclassic period in Maya history stretches from the beginning of permanent village life c. 1000 BC.

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Prismatic blade

In archaeology, a prismatic blade is a long, narrow, specialized stone flake tool with a sharp edge, like a small razor blade.

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Projectile point

In archaeological terms, a projectile point is an object that was hafted to weapon that was capable of being thrown or projected, such as a spear, dart, or arrow, or perhaps used as a knife.

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Puebla

Puebla, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Puebla (Estado Libre y Soberano de Puebla) is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

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Pulque

Pulque (occasionally referred to as agave wine) is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented sap of the maguey (agave) plant.

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Purépecha

The Purépecha or Tarascans (endonym P'urhépecha) are a group of indigenous people centered in the northwestern region of Michoacán, Mexico, mainly in the area of the cities of Cherán and Pátzcuaro.

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Puuc

Puuc is the name of either a region in the Mexican state of Yucatán or a Maya architectural style prevalent in that region.

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Pyrite

The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, also known as fool's gold, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula FeS2 (iron(II) disulfide).

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Q'eqchi'

Q'eqchi' (K'ekchi' in the former orthography, or simply Kekchi in many English-language contexts, such as in Belize) are a Maya people of Guatemala and Belize.

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Q'umarkaj

Q'umarkaj, (K'iche') (sometimes rendered as Gumarkaaj, Gumarcaj, Cumarcaj or Kumarcaaj) is an archaeological site in the southwest of the El Quiché department of Guatemala.

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Quetzal

Quetzal are strikingly colored birds in the trogon family.

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Quintana Roo

Quintana Roo, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Quintana Roo (Estado Libre y Soberano de Quintana Roo), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico.

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Quiriguá

Quiriguá is an ancient Maya archaeological site in the department of Izabal in south-eastern Guatemala.

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Rabbit

Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha (along with the hare and the pika).

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Radiocarbon dating

Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon.

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Rainforest

Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with annual rainfall in the case of tropical rainforests between, and definitions varying by region for temperate rainforests.

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Río Azul

Río Azul is an archaeological site of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization.

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Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve

The Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve is 5,250 km² of preserved land in the La Mosquitia region on the Caribbean coast of Honduras.

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Region

In geography, regions are areas that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity and the environment (environmental geography).

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Regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica

Regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica are believed to have been extensive.

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Relief

Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material.

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Religion

Religion may be defined as a cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, world views, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that relates humanity to supernatural, transcendental, or spiritual elements.

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River

A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river.

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Robert Wauchope (archaeologist)

Robert Wauchope (December 10, 1909 – January 20, 1979) was an American archaeologist and anthropologist, whose academic research specialized in the prehistory and archaeology of Latin America, Mesoamerica, and the Southwestern United States.

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Sacrifice

Sacrifice is the offering of food, objects or the lives of animals to a higher purpose, in particular divine beings, as an act of propitiation or worship.

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SAGE Publications

SAGE Publishing is an independent publishing company founded in 1965 in New York by Sara Miller McCune and now based in California.

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Salinas River (Guatemala)

The Salinas is a river in Guatemala.

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Salt

Salt, table salt or common salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite.

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San Bartolo (Maya site)

San Bartolo is a small pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site located in the Department of Petén in northern Guatemala, northeast of Tikal and roughly fifty miles from the nearest settlement.

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San José Mogote

San José Mogote is a pre-Columbian archaeological site of the Zapotec, a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in the region of what is now the Mexican state of Oaxaca.

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San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán

San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán (or San Lorenzo) is the collective name for three related archaeological sites—San Lorenzo, Tenochtitlán and Potrero Nuevo—located in the southeast portion of the Mexican state of Veracruz.

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Santa María (volcano)

Santa María Volcano is a large active volcano in the western highlands of Guatemala, in the Quetzaltenango Department near the city of Quetzaltenango.

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Sapote

Sapote (from Nahuatl tzapotl) is a term for a soft, edible fruit.

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Sayil

Sayil is a Maya archaeological site in the Mexican state of Yucatán, in the southwest of the state, south of Uxmal.

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School for Advanced Research

The School for Advanced Research (SAR), until 2007 known as the School of American Research and founded in 1907 as the School for American Archaeology (SAA), is an advanced research center located in Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA.

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Sculpture

Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions.

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Sea level

Mean sea level (MSL) (often shortened to sea level) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured.

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Sedentism

In cultural anthropology, sedentism (sometimes called sedentariness; compare sedentarism) is the practice of living in one place for a long time.

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Seibal

Seibal, known as El Ceibal in Spanish, is a Classic Period archaeological site of the Maya civilization located in the northern Petén Department of Guatemala, about 100 km SW of Tikal.

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Serpent (symbolism)

The serpent, or snake, is one of the oldest and most widespread mythological symbols.

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Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest

Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest is a 2003 work by ethnohistorian Matthew Restall in which he posits that there are seven myths about the Spanish colonization of the Americas that have come to be widely believed to be true.

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Sex organ

A sex organ (or reproductive organ) is any part of an animal's body that is involved in sexual reproduction.

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Shamanism

Shamanism is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching altered states of consciousness in order to perceive and interact with what they believe to be a spirit world and channel these transcendental energies into this world.

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Sierra Madre de Chiapas

The Sierra Madre de Chiapas (as known in Mexico, with regional names in other countries) is a major mountain range in Central America.

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Sierra Madre del Sur

The Sierra Madre del Sur is a mountain range in southern Mexico, extending from southern Michoacán east through Guerrero, to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in eastern Oaxaca.

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Sipacate

Sipacate is a resort town on the Pacific coast of Guatemala, in Escuintla Department about 22 miles (36 km) west of Puerto San José.

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Society

A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.

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Sociocultural evolution

Sociocultural evolution, sociocultural evolutionism or cultural evolution are theories of cultural and social evolution that describe how cultures and societies change over time.

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Solstice

A solstice is an event occurring when the Sun appears to reach its most northerly or southerly excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere.

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South

South is one of the four cardinal directions or compass points.

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South America

South America is a continent in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere.

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Southwestern United States

The Southwestern United States (Suroeste de Estados Unidos; also known as the American Southwest) is the informal name for a region of the western United States.

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Space

Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction.

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Spanish colonization of the Americas

The overseas expansion under the Crown of Castile was initiated under the royal authority and first accomplished by the Spanish conquistadors.

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Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, or the Spanish–Aztec War (1519–21), was the conquest of the Aztec Empire by the Spanish Empire within the context of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

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Spondylus

Spondylus is a genus of bivalve molluscs, the only genus in the family Spondylidae.

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Sprachbund

A sprachbund ("federation of languages") – also known as a linguistic area, area of linguistic convergence, diffusion area or language crossroads – is a group of languages that have common features resulting from geographical proximity and language contact.

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Stanford University Press

The Stanford University Press (SUP) is the publishing house of Stanford University.

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Stele

A steleAnglicized plural steles; Greek plural stelai, from Greek στήλη, stēlē.

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Subsistence economy

A subsistence economy is a non-monetary economy which relies on natural resources to provide for basic needs, through hunting, gathering, and subsistence agriculture.

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Subtropics

The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropics at latitude 23.5° (the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn) and temperate zones (normally referring to latitudes 35–66.5°) north and south of the Equator.

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Sumer

SumerThe name is from Akkadian Šumeru; Sumerian en-ĝir15, approximately "land of the civilized kings" or "native land".

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Sun

The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System.

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Syllabary

A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent the syllables or (more frequently) moras which make up words.

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Takalik Abaj

Tak'alik Ab'aj is a pre-Columbian archaeological site in Guatemala.

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Tamaulipas

Tamaulipas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas (Estado Libre y Soberano de Tamaulipas), is one of the 31 states which, with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

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Tarascan state

The Tarascan state was a state in pre-Columbian Mexico, roughly covering the geographic area of the present-day Mexican state of Michoacán, parts of Jalisco, and Guanajuato.

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Tehuacán

Tehuacán is the second largest city in the Mexican state of Puebla, nestled in the Southeast Valley of Tehuacán, bordering the states of Oaxaca and Veracruz.

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Temperate climate

In geography, the temperate or tepid climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes, which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth.

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Tenochtitlan

Tenochtitlan (Tenochtitlan), originally known as México-Tenochtitlán (meːˈʃíʔ.ko te.noːt͡ʃ.ˈtí.t͡ɬan), was a large Mexica city-state in what is now the center of Mexico City.

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Teopantecuanitlan

Teopantecuanitlan is an archaeological site in the Mexican state of Guerrero that represents an unexpectedly early development of complex society for the region.

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Teotihuacan

Teotihuacan, (in Spanish: Teotihuacán), is an ancient Mesoamerican city located in a sub-valley of the Valley of Mexico, located in the State of Mexico northeast of modern-day Mexico City, known today as the site of many of the most architecturally significant Mesoamerican pyramids built in the pre-Columbian Americas.

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Tepehuas

The Tepehuas are an indigenous people of Mexico whose name means in Nahuatl, "people of the mountain", although they refer to themselves simply as we do, without a term or name that encompasses a supposed ethnic group.

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Teuchitlan tradition

The Teuchitlan tradition was a pre-Columbian complex society that occupied areas of the modern-day Mexican states of Nayarit and Jalisco.

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Textile

A textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres (yarn or thread).

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Thai cuisine

Thai cuisine (อาหารไทย) is the national cuisine of Thailand.

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The University of Utah Press

The University of Utah Press is the independent publishing branch of the University of Utah and is a division of the J. Willard Marriott Library.

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Tikal

Tikal (Tik’al in modern Mayan orthography) is the ruin of an ancient city, which was likely to have been called Yax Mutal, found in a rainforest in Guatemala.

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Time

Time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events that occur in apparently irreversible succession from the past through the present to the future.

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Tlapacoya (archeological site)

Tlapacoya is an important archaeological site in Mexico, located at the foot of the Tlapacoya volcano, southeast of Mexico City, on the former shore of Lake Chalco.

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Tlapanec

The Tlapanec, or Me'phaa, are an indigenous people of Mexico native to the state of Guerrero.

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Tlatelolco (archaeological site)

Tlatelolco is an archaeological excavation site in Mexico City, Mexico where remains of the pre-Columbian city-state of the same name have been found.

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Tlatilco

Tlatilco was a large pre-Columbian village in the Valley of Mexico situated near the modern-day town of the same name in the Mexican Federal District.

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Tollan

Tollan, Tolan, or Tolán is a name used for the capital cities of two empires of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica; first for Teotihuacan, and later for the Toltec capital, Tula, both in Mexico.

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Toltec

The Toltec culture is an archaeological Mesoamerican culture that dominated a state centered in Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico in the early post-classic period of Mesoamerican chronology (ca. 900–1168 CE).

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Tomato

The tomato (see pronunciation) is the edible, often red, fruit/berry of the plant Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as a tomato plant.

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Tongue

The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth of most vertebrates that manipulates food for mastication, and is used in the act of swallowing.

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Toniná

Tonina (or Toniná in Spanish orthography) is a pre-Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas, some 13 km (8.1 mi) east of the town of Ocosingo.

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Topoxte

Topoxte (or Topoxté in Spanish orthography) is a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site in the Petén Basin in northern Guatemala with a long occupational history dating as far back as the Middle Preclassic.

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Totonac

The Totonac are an indigenous people of Mexico who reside in the states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo.

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Trans-cultural diffusion

In cultural anthropology and cultural geography, cultural diffusion, as conceptualized by Leo Frobenius in his 1897/98 publication Der westafrikanische Kulturkreis, is the spread of cultural items—such as ideas, styles, religions, technologies, languages—between individuals, whether within a single culture or from one culture to another.

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Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt

The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Eje Volcánico Transversal), also known as the Transvolcanic Belt and locally as the Sierra Nevada (Snowy Mountain Range), is a volcanic belt that covers central-southern Mexico.

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Tres Zapotes

Tres Zapotes is a Mesoamerican archaeological site located in the south-central Gulf Lowlands of Mexico in the Papaloapan River plain.

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Tributary state

A tributary state is a term for a pre-modern state in a particular type of subordinate relationship to a more powerful state which involved the sending of a regular token of submission, or tribute, to the superior power.

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Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests

Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests are a tropical forest biome.

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Tropical climate

A tropical climate in the Köppen climate classification is a non-arid climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures of at least.

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Tropical year

A tropical year (also known as a solar year) is the time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons, as seen from Earth; for example, the time from vernal equinox to vernal equinox, or from summer solstice to summer solstice.

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Tula de Allende

Tula de Allende (Otomi: Mämeni) is a town and one of the 84 municipalities of Hidalgo in central-eastern Mexico.

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Tulum

Tulum (Yucatec: Tulu'um) is the site of a pre-Columbian Mayan walled city serving as a major port for Coba, in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo.

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Tzintzuntzan (Mesoamerican site)

Tzintzuntzan was the ceremonial center of the pre-Columbian Tarascan state capital of the same name.

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Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil

Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil (also known by the appellation "18-Rabbit" or "Eighteen Rabbit"), was the 13th ajaw or ruler of the powerful Maya polity associated with the site of Copán in modern Honduras (its Classic Maya name was probably Oxwitik).

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Uaxactun

Uaxactun (pronounced) is an ancient sacred place of the Maya civilization, located in the Petén Basin region of the Maya lowlands, in the present-day department of Petén, Guatemala.

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Ujuxte

The site of Ujuxte (after the Ramón or Breadnut tree (Brosimum alicastrum)) is the largest Preclassic Maya site to be discovered on the Guatemalan Pacific coast.

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Ulama (game)

Ulama is a ball game played in a few communities in the Mexican state of Sinaloa.

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Ulúa River

The Ulúa River (Río Ulúa) is a river in western Honduras.

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Ungulate

Ungulates (pronounced) are any members of a diverse group of primarily large mammals that includes odd-toed ungulates such as horses and rhinoceroses, and even-toed ungulates such as cattle, pigs, giraffes, camels, deer, and hippopotami.

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United States

The United States of America (USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a federal republic composed of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, and various possessions.

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Usumacinta River

The Usumacinta River (named after the Howler monkey) is a river in southeastern Mexico and northwestern Guatemala.

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Uto-Aztecan languages

Uto-Aztecan or Uto-Aztekan is a family of Indigenous languages of the Americas, consisting of over 30 languages.

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Uxmal

Uxmal (Yucatec Maya: Óoxmáal) is an ancient Maya city of the classical period in present-day Mexico.

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Valley of Mexico

The Valley of Mexico (Valle de México; Tepētzallāntli Mēxihco) is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly coterminous with present-day Mexico City and the eastern half of the State of Mexico.

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Vanilla

Vanilla is a flavoring derived from orchids of the genus Vanilla, primarily from the Mexican species, flat-leaved vanilla (V. planifolia).

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Venus

Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days.

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Veracruz

Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave,In isolation, Veracruz, de and Llave are pronounced, respectively,, and.

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Vigesimal

The vigesimal or base 20 numeral system is based on twenty (in the same way in which the decimal numeral system is based on ten).

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Volcano

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.

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Volcán Tajumulco

Volcán Tajumulco is a large stratovolcano in the department of San Marcos in western Guatemala.

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Water

Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth's streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms.

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West

West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass.

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Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition

The Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition or shaft tomb culture refers to a set of interlocked cultural traits found in the western Mexican states of Jalisco, Nayarit, and, to a lesser extent, Colima to its south, roughly dating to the period between 300 BCE and 400 CE, although there is not wide agreement on this end-date.

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Wheel

A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle bearing.

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Wild turkey

The wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is an upland ground bird native to North America and is the heaviest member of the diverse Galliformes.

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Wiley-Blackwell

Wiley-Blackwell is the international scientific, technical, medical, and scholarly publishing business of John Wiley & Sons.

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Working animal

A working animal is an animal, usually domesticated, that is kept by humans and trained to perform tasks.

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Writing

Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion with signs and symbols.

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Xochicalco

Xochicalco is a pre-Columbian archaeological site in Miacatlán Municipality in the western part of the Mexican state of Morelos.

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Xultun

Xultún is a large Maya archaeological site located 40 km northeast of Tikal and 8 km south of the smaller Preclassic site of San Bartolo in northern Guatemala.

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Xunantunich

Xunantunich is an Ancient Maya archaeological site in western Belize, about 70 miles (110 km) west of Belize City, in the Cayo District.

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Yaxchilan

Yaxchilan is an ancient Maya city located on the bank of the Usumacinta River in the state of Chiapas, Mexico.

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Yaxha

Yaxha (or Yaxhá in Spanish orthography) is a Mesoamerican archaeological site in the northeast of the Petén Basin region, and a former ceremonial centre and city of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization.

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Yucatán

Yucatán, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Yucatán (Estado Libre y Soberano de Yucatán), is one of the 31 states which, with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

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Yucatán Peninsula

The Yucatán Peninsula (Península de Yucatán), in southeastern Mexico, separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico, with the northern coastline on the Yucatán Channel.

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Yucca

Yucca is a genus of perennial shrubs and trees in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Agavoideae.

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Zaachila

Zaachila (the Zapotec name; Nahuatl: Teotzapotlan; Mixtec: Ñuhu Tocuisi) was a powerful Mesoamerican city in what is now Oaxaca, Mexico, from the city of Oaxaca.

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Zacpeten

Zacpeten is a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site in the northern Petén Department of Guatemala.

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Zaculeu

Zaculeu or Saqulew is a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site in the highlands of western Guatemala, about outside of the modern city of Huehuetenango.

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Zapotec civilization

The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca in Mesoamerica.

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Zapotec peoples

The Zapotecs (Zoogocho Zapotec: Didxažoŋ) are an indigenous people of Mexico.

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Zea (plant)

Zea is a genus of flowering plants in the grass family.

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Zoomorphism

The word zoomorphism derives from the Greek ζωον (zōon), meaning "animal", and μορφη (morphē), meaning "shape" or "form".

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0

0 (zero) is both a number and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.

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Central American mythos, Meso America, Meso-America, Meso-American, Meso-American Indian, MesoAmerica, MesoAmerican, Mesoamerica/Translation, Mesoamerican, Mesoamerican Civilization, Mesoamerican astronomy, Mesoamerican civilisations, Mesoamerican mythology, Mesoamerican mythos, Mesoamericans, Mesoamérica.

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerica

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