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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

Index Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a drug class that reduce pain, decrease fever, prevent blood clots and, in higher doses, decrease inflammation. [1]

251 relations: ACE inhibitor, Aceclofenac, Achlorhydria, Active metabolite, Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis, Acute kidney injury, Acute tubular necrosis, Adverse drug reaction, Adverse effect, Afferent arterioles, Allergy, Alzheimer's disease, Analgesic, Analgesic nephropathy, Anaphylaxis, Anastomosis, Angioedema, Ankylosing spondylitis, Anthranilic acid, Anti-inflammatory, Antihypertensive drug, Antiphospholipid syndrome, Antiplatelet drug, Antipyretic, Antithrombotic, Arachidonic acid, Aromatic hydrocarbon, Aseptic meningitis, Aspirin, Aspirin-induced asthma, Asthma, Bayer, Benoxaprofen, Benzydamine, Bile, Biological half-life, Bleeding, Bleeding diathesis, British National Formulary, Bronchospasm, Cancer, Cannabinoid, Carboxylic acid, Celecoxib, Celsus, Central nervous system, Chemical Reviews, Chirality (chemistry), Chromophore, Chronic kidney disease, ..., Clonixin, Coagulation, Contact dermatitis, Coronary artery bypass surgery, Coronary artery disease, COX-2 inhibitor, COX-3, Crohn's disease, Cutaneous condition, Cyclooxygenase, Decarboxylation, Dexibuprofen, Dexketoprofen, Diarrhea, Diclofenac, Diflunisal, Discovery and development of cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors, Diuretic, Dizziness, Droxicam, Drug class, Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms, Ductus arteriosus, Duodenum, Dysmenorrhea, Edward Stone (natural philosopher), Eicosanoid, Elsevier, Empirical evidence, Enantiomer, Endocannabinoid system, Enteric coating, Enzyme, Enzyme inhibitor, Erectile dysfunction, Esomeprazole, Etodolac, Etoricoxib, Everyday Health, Fatty acid amide hydrolase, Felix Hoffmann, Fenamic acid, Fenoprofen, Fever, Firocoxib, Fixed drug reaction, Flufenamic acid, Flunixin, Flurbiprofen, Food and Drug Administration, France-Soir, Functional group, Gastric bypass surgery, Gastric mucosa, Gastrointestinal tract, Glomerulus, Glucose, Glycoside, Gout, Harpagophytum, Hazard ratio, Headache, Heart failure, Heinrich Dreser, Heparin, Hepatotoxicity, Hermann Kolbe, Hives, Human serum albumin, Hydrolysis, Hyperkalemia, Hypertension, Hypothalamus, Ibuprofen, Ileus, Immunoglobulin E, In vivo, Indigestion, Indometacin, Inflammation, Inflammatory bowel disease, Interstitial nephritis, Irritable bowel syndrome, Isomerase, Isostere, Isoxicam, Isozyme, Johann Andreas Buchner, John Vane, Journal für praktische Chemie, Ketoprofen, Ketorolac, Kidney disease, Kolbe–Schmitt reaction, Licofelone, Lidocaine, Liebigs Annalen, Lithium (medication), Liver, Lornoxicam, Low back pain, Loxoprofen, Lumiracoxib, Macular edema, Maculopapular rash, Mechanism of action, Mechanism of action of aspirin, Meclofenamic acid, Medscape, Mefenamic acid, Meloxicam, Menstruation, Methotrexate, Migraine, Miscarriage, Misoprostol, Mucous membrane, Myocardial infarction, Myrtus, Nabumetone, Naproxen, Nephrotic syndrome, Nimesulide, Nobel Prize, NSAID hypersensitivity reactions, Omeprazole, Osteoarthritis, Over-the-counter drug, Oxaprozin, Pain, Paracetamol, Parecoxib, Parkinson's disease, Patent ductus arteriosus, Peptic ulcer disease, Phagocytosis, Phenacetin, Phenol, Phenylbutazone, Phospholipase A2, Phospholipid, Photodermatitis, Piroxicam, Placebo, Polyhydramnios, Pregnancy, Preterm birth, Prostaglandin, Prostaglandin E2, Prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2, Prostanoid, Proton-pump inhibitor, Psoriatic arthritis, PTGS1, Quinolone antibiotic, Racemic mixture, Reactive arthritis, Renal colic, Renal function, Renal papillary necrosis, Rheumatoid arthritis, Rhinitis, Rofecoxib, Royal Society, Ruminant, Salicin, Salicylic acid, Salsalate, Scrophularia, Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, Sodium in biology, Steroid, Stevens–Johnson syndrome, Stomach, Stroke, Sulindac, T cell, Tennis elbow, Tenoxicam, Teratology, The Journal of Urology, The New England Journal of Medicine, Therapeutic effect, Therapeutic Innovation & Regulatory Science, Thrombosis, Thromboxane, Thromboxane A2, Tolfenamic acid, Tolmetin, Toxic epidermal necrolysis, Transient ischemic attack, Ulcerative colitis, United States, Uric acid, Urine, Valdecoxib, Vascular disease, Volume of distribution, Warfarin, Willow, Yonkers, New York. Expand index (201 more) »

ACE inhibitor

An angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor (ACE inhibitor) is a pharmaceutical drug used primarily for the treatment of hypertension (elevated blood pressure) and congestive heart failure.

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Aceclofenac

Aceclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) analog of diclofenac.

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Achlorhydria

Achlorhydria or hypochlorhydria refers to states where the production of hydrochloric acid in gastric secretions of the stomach and other digestive organs is absent or low, respectively.

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Active metabolite

An active metabolite is an active form of a drug after it has been processed by the body.

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Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis

Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP) (also known as pustular drug eruption and toxic pustuloderma) is a rare skin reaction that in 90% of cases is related to medication administration.

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Acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is an abrupt loss of kidney function that develops within 7 days.

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Acute tubular necrosis

Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) is a medical condition involving the death of tubular epithelial cells that form the renal tubules of the kidneys.

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Adverse drug reaction

An adverse drug reaction (ADR) is an injury caused by taking a medication.

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Adverse effect

In medicine, an adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as surgery.

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Afferent arterioles

The afferent arterioles are a group of blood vessels that supply the nephrons in many excretory systems.

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Allergy

Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment.

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Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), also referred to simply as Alzheimer's, is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time.

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Analgesic

An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain.

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Analgesic nephropathy

Analgesic nephropathy is injury to the kidneys caused by analgesic medications such as aspirin, phenacetin, and paracetamol.

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Anaphylaxis

Anaphylaxis is a serious allergic reaction that is rapid in onset and may cause death.

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Anastomosis

An anastomosis (plural anastomoses) is a connection or opening between two things (especially cavities or passages) that are normally diverging or branching, such as between blood vessels, leaf veins, or streams.

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Angioedema

Angioedema is an area of swelling of the lower layer of skin and tissue just under the skin or mucous membranes.

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Ankylosing spondylitis

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a type of arthritis in which there is long term inflammation of the joints of the spine.

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Anthranilic acid

Anthranilic acid (o-amino-benzoic acid, 2-aminobenzoic acid, 2-AA, 2AA, AA) is an aromatic acid with the formula C6H4(NH2)(CO2H).

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Anti-inflammatory

Anti-inflammatory, or antiinflammatory, refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation or swelling.

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Antihypertensive drug

Antihypertensives are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure).

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Antiphospholipid syndrome

Antiphospholipid syndrome or antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS or APLS), is an autoimmune, hypercoagulable state caused by antiphospholipid antibodies.

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Antiplatelet drug

An antiplatelet drug (antiaggregant) is a member of a class of pharmaceuticals that decrease platelet aggregation and inhibit thrombus formation.

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Antipyretic

Antipyretics (from anti- 'against' and 'feverish') are substances that reduce fever.

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Antithrombotic

An antithrombotic agent is a drug that reduces the formation of blood clots (thrombi).

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Arachidonic acid

Arachidonic acid (AA, sometimes ARA) is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6).

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Aromatic hydrocarbon

An aromatic hydrocarbon or arene (or sometimes aryl hydrocarbon) is a hydrocarbon with sigma bonds and delocalized pi electrons between carbon atoms forming a circle.

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Aseptic meningitis

Aseptic meningitis is the inflammation of the meninges, a membrane covering the brain and spinal cord in patients whose cerebral spinal fluid test negative with routine bacterial cultures.

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Aspirin

Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a medication used to treat pain, fever, or inflammation.

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Aspirin-induced asthma

Aspirin-induced asthma, also termed Samter's triad, Samter's syndrome, aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), and recently, by an appointed task force of the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology/World Allergy Organization (EAACI/WAO), Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs-exacerbated respiratory disease (N-ERD).

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Asthma

Asthma is a common long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs.

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Bayer

Bayer AG is a German multinational, pharmaceutical and life sciences company.

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Benoxaprofen

Benoxaprofen, also known as Benoxaphen, is a chemical compound with the formula C16H12ClNO3.

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Benzydamine

Benzydamine (also known as Tantum Verde and branded in some countries as Difflam and Septabene), available as the hydrochloride salt, is a locally-acting nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with local anaesthetic and analgesic properties for pain relief and anti-inflammatory treatment of inflammatory conditions of the mouth and throat.

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Bile

Bile or gall is a dark green to yellowish brown fluid, produced by the liver of most vertebrates, that aids the digestion of lipids in the small intestine.

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Biological half-life

The biological half-life of a biological substance is the time it takes for half to be removed by biological processes when the rate of removal is roughly exponential.

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Bleeding

Bleeding, also known as hemorrhaging or haemorrhaging, is blood escaping from the circulatory system.

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Bleeding diathesis

In medicine (hematology), bleeding diathesis (h(a)emorrhagic diathesis) is an unusual susceptibility to bleed (hemorrhage) mostly due to hypocoagulability, in turn caused by a coagulopathy (a defect in the system of coagulation).

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British National Formulary

The British National Formulary (BNF) is a United Kingdom (UK) pharmaceutical reference book that contains a wide spectrum of information and advice on prescribing and pharmacology, along with specific facts and details about many medicines available on the UK National Health Service (NHS).

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Bronchospasm

Bronchospasm or a bronchial spasm is a sudden constriction of the muscles in the walls of the bronchioles.

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Cancer

Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.

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Cannabinoid

A cannabinoid is one of a class of diverse chemical compounds that acts on cannabinoid receptors in cells that alter neurotransmitter release in the brain.

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Carboxylic acid

A carboxylic acid is an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group (C(.

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Celecoxib

Celecoxib, sold under the brand name Celebrex among others, is a COX-2 selective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).

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Celsus

Celsus (Κέλσος. Kélsos) was a 2nd-century Greek philosopher and opponent of early Christianity.

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Central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

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Chemical Reviews

Chemical Reviews is peer-reviewed scientific journal published twice per month by the American Chemical Society.

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Chirality (chemistry)

Chirality is a geometric property of some molecules and ions.

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Chromophore

A chromophore is the part of a molecule responsible for its color.

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Chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a type of kidney disease in which there is gradual loss of kidney function over a period of months or years.

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Clonixin

Clonixin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).

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Coagulation

Coagulation (also known as clotting) is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot.

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Contact dermatitis

Contact dermatitis is a type of inflammation of the skin.

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Coronary artery bypass surgery

Coronary artery bypass surgery, also known as coronary artery bypass graft (CABG, pronounced "cabbage") surgery, and colloquially heart bypass or bypass surgery, is a surgical procedure to restore normal blood flow to an obstructed coronary artery.

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Coronary artery disease

Coronary artery disease (CAD), also known as ischemic heart disease (IHD), refers to a group of diseases which includes stable angina, unstable angina, myocardial infarction, and sudden cardiac death.

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COX-2 inhibitor

Selective COX-2 inhibitors are a type of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that directly targets cyclooxygenase-2, COX-2, an enzyme responsible for inflammation and pain.

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COX-3

COX-3 is an enzyme that is encoded by the PTGS1 (COX1) gene, but is not functional in humans.

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Crohn's disease

Crohn's disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus.

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Cutaneous condition

A cutaneous condition is any medical condition that affects the integumentary system—the organ system that encloses the body and includes skin, hair, nails, and related muscle and glands.

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Cyclooxygenase

Cyclooxygenase (COX), officially known as prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase (PTGS), is an enzyme (specifically, a family of isozymes) that is responsible for formation of prostanoids, including thromboxane and prostaglandins such as prostacyclin, from arachidonic acid.

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Decarboxylation

Decarboxylation is a chemical reaction that removes a carboxyl group and releases carbon dioxide (CO2).

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Dexibuprofen

Dexibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).

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Dexketoprofen

Dexketoprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).

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Diarrhea

Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose or liquid bowel movements each day.

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Diclofenac

Diclofenac (sold under a number of trade names) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) taken or applied to reduce inflammation and as an analgesic reducing pain in certain conditions.

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Diflunisal

Diflunisal is a salicylic acid derivative with analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity.

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Discovery and development of cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors

Cyclooxygenases are enzymes that take part in a complex biosynthetic cascade that results in the conversion of polyunsaturated fatty acids to prostaglandins and thromboxane(s).

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Diuretic

A diuretic is any substance that promotes diuresis, the increased production of urine.

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Dizziness

Dizziness is an impairment in spatial perception and stability.

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Droxicam

Droxicam is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug of the oxicam class.

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Drug class

A drug class is a set of medications that have similar chemical structures, the same mechanism of action (i.e., bind to the same biological target), a related mode of action, and/or are used to treat the same disease.

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Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms

Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS syndrome), also termed drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome (DIHS), is a rare reaction to certain medications.

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Ductus arteriosus

In the developing fetus, the ductus arteriosus, also called the ductus Botalli, is a blood vessel connecting the main pulmonary artery to the proximal descending aorta.

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Duodenum

The duodenum is the first section of the small intestine in most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds.

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Dysmenorrhea

Dysmenorrhea, also known as painful periods, or menstrual cramps, is pain during menstruation.

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Edward Stone (natural philosopher)

Edward Stone (1702–1768) was a Church of England cleric who discovered the active ingredient of aspirin.

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Eicosanoid

Eicosanoids are signaling molecules made by the enzymatic or non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid or other polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that are, similar to arachidonic acid, 20 carbon units in length.

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Elsevier

Elsevier is an information and analytics company and one of the world's major providers of scientific, technical, and medical information.

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Empirical evidence

Empirical evidence, also known as sensory experience, is the information received by means of the senses, particularly by observation and documentation of patterns and behavior through experimentation.

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Enantiomer

In chemistry, an enantiomer, also known as an optical isomer (and archaically termed antipode or optical antipode), is one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are non-superposable (not identical), much as one's left and right hands are the same except for being reversed along one axis (the hands cannot be made to appear identical simply by reorientation).

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Endocannabinoid system

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a biological system composed of endocannabinoids, which are endogenous lipid-based retrograde neurotransmitters that bind to cannabinoid receptors, and cannabinoid receptor proteins that are expressed throughout the mammalian central nervous system (including the brain) and peripheral nervous system.

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Enteric coating

An enteric coating is a polymer barrier applied on oral medication that prevents its dissolution or disintegration in the gastric environment.

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Enzyme

Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts.

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Enzyme inhibitor

4QI9) An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity.

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Erectile dysfunction

Erectile dysfunction (ED), also known as impotence, is a type of sexual dysfunction characterized by the inability to develop or maintain an erection of the penis during sexual activity.

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Esomeprazole

Esomeprazole, sold under the brand names Nexium among others, is a proton-pump inhibitor which reduces stomach acid.

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Etodolac

Etodolac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in January 1991.

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Etoricoxib

Etoricoxib (Arcoxia) is a selective COX-2 inhibitor from Merck & Co. Currently it is approved in more than 80 countries worldwide but not in the US, where the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has required additional safety and efficacy data for etoricoxib before it will issue approval.

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Everyday Health

Everyday Health, Inc. is a digital media company which owns websites and produces content relating to health and wellness.

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Fatty acid amide hydrolase

Fatty acid amide hydrolase or FAAH (oleamide hydrolase, anandamide amidohydrolase) is a member of the serine hydrolase family of enzymes.

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Felix Hoffmann

Felix Hoffmann was born on 21 January 1868 in Ludwigsburg, the son of an industrialist.

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Fenamic acid

Fenamic acid is a molecule which, especially in its ester form, fenamate, serves as a parent structure for several nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including mefenamic acid, tolfenamic acid, flufenamic acid, and meclofenamic acid.

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Fenoprofen

Fenoprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).

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Fever

Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set-point.

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Firocoxib

Firocoxib (INN; brand names Equioxx and Previcox) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug of the COX-2 inhibitor (coxib) class, currently approved for use in dogs and horses.

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Fixed drug reaction

Fixed drug reactions are common and so named because they recur at the same site with each exposure to a particular medication.

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Flufenamic acid

Flufenamic acid is a member of the anthranilic acid derivatives (or fenamate) class of NSAID drugs Like other members of the class, it is a COX inhibitor and prevents formation of prostaglandins.

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Flunixin

Flunixin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), analgesic, and antipyretic used in horses, cattle and pigs.

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Flurbiprofen

Flurbiprofen is a member of the phenylalkanoic acid derivative family of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

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Food and Drug Administration

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments.

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France-Soir

France Soir (France Evening) was a French daily newspaper that prospered during the 1950s and 1960s, reaching a circulation of 1.5 million in the 1950s.

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Functional group

In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific substituents or moieties within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules.

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Gastric bypass surgery

Gastric bypass surgery refers to a surgical procedure in which the stomach is divided into a small upper pouch and a much larger lower "remnant" pouch and then the small intestine is rearranged to connect to both.

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Gastric mucosa

The gastric mucosa is the mucous membrane layer of the stomach which contains the glands and the gastric pits.

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Gastrointestinal tract

The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as feces.

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Glomerulus

Glomerulus is a common term used in anatomy to describe globular structures of entwined vessels, fibers, or neurons.

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Glucose

Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6.

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Glycoside

In chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic bond.

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Gout

Gout is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of a red, tender, hot, and swollen joint.

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Harpagophytum

Harpagophytum procumbens, also called grapple plant, wood spider and most commonly devil's claw, is a genus of plants in the sesame family, native to southern Africa.

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Hazard ratio

In survival analysis, the hazard ratio (HR) is the ratio of the hazard rates corresponding to the conditions described by two levels of an explanatory variable.

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Headache

Headache is the symptom of pain anywhere in the region of the head or neck.

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Heart failure

Heart failure (HF), often referred to as congestive heart failure (CHF), is when the heart is unable to pump sufficiently to maintain blood flow to meet the body's needs.

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Heinrich Dreser

Heinrich Dreser (1 October 1860 – December 21, 1924) was a German chemist responsible for the aspirin and heroin projects at Bayer AG.

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Heparin

Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin (UFH), is medication which is used as an anticoagulant (blood thinner).

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Hepatotoxicity

Hepatotoxicity (from hepatic toxicity) implies chemical-driven liver damage.

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Hermann Kolbe

Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe (27 September 1818 – 25 November 1884), was a seminal contributor in the birth of modern organic chemistry.

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Hives

Hives, also known as urticaria, is a kind of skin rash with red, raised, itchy bumps.

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Human serum albumin

Human serum albumin is the serum albumin found in human blood.

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Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is a term used for both an electro-chemical process and a biological one.

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Hyperkalemia

Hyperkalemia, also spelled hyperkalaemia, is an elevated level of potassium (K+) in the blood serum.

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Hypertension

Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated.

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Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus(from Greek ὑπό, "under" and θάλαμος, thalamus) is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions.

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Ibuprofen

Ibuprofen is a medication in the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) class that is used for treating pain, fever, and inflammation.

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Ileus

Ileus is a disruption of the normal propulsive ability of the gastrointestinal tract.

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Immunoglobulin E

Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a type of antibody (or immunoglobulin (Ig) "isotype") that has only been found in mammals.

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In vivo

Studies that are in vivo (Latin for "within the living"; often not italicized in English) are those in which the effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organisms or cells, usually animals, including humans, and plants, as opposed to a tissue extract or dead organism.

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Indigestion

Indigestion, also known as dyspepsia, is a condition of impaired digestion.

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Indometacin

Indometacin (INN; or USAN indomethacin) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used as a prescription medication to reduce fever, pain, stiffness, and swelling from inflammation.

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Inflammation

Inflammation (from inflammatio) is part of the complex biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants, and is a protective response involving immune cells, blood vessels, and molecular mediators.

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Inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of inflammatory conditions of the colon and small intestine.

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Interstitial nephritis

Interstitial nephritis (or tubulo-interstitial nephritis) is a form of nephritis affecting the interstitium of the kidneys surrounding the tubules, i.e., is inflammation of the spaces between renal tubules.

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Irritable bowel syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a group of symptoms—including abdominal pain and changes in the pattern of bowel movements without any evidence of underlying damage.

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Isomerase

Isomerases are a general class of enzymes that convert a molecule from one isomer to another.

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Isostere

Classical Isosteres are molecules or ions with the similar shape and often electronic properties.

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Isoxicam

Isoxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that was taken or applied to reduce inflammation and as an analgesic reducing pain in certain conditions.

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Isozyme

Isozymes (also known as isoenzymes or more generally as multiple forms of enzymes) are enzymes that differ in amino acid sequence but catalyze the same chemical reaction.

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Johann Andreas Buchner

Johann Andreas Buchner (6 April 1783, Munich – 5 June 1852, Munich) was a German pharmacologist working in the area of alkaloids.

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John Vane

Sir John Robert Vane FRS (29 March 1927 – 19 November 2004) was an English pharmacologist who was instrumental in the understanding of how aspirin produces pain-relief and anti-inflammatory effects and his work led to new treatments for heart and blood vessel disease and introduction of ACE inhibitors.

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Journal für praktische Chemie

The Journal für praktische Chemie, was a German-language scientific journal for chemistry.

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Ketoprofen

Ketoprofen, (RS)-2-(3-benzoylphenyl)-propionic acid (chemical formula C16H14O3) is one of the propionic acid class of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) with analgesic and antipyretic effects.

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Ketorolac

Ketorolac, sold under the brand name Toradol among others, is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) in the family of heterocyclic acetic acid derivatives, used as an analgesic.

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Kidney disease

Kidney disease, or renal disease, also known as nephropathy, is damage to or disease of a kidney.

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Kolbe–Schmitt reaction

The Kolbe–Schmitt reaction or Kolbe process (named after Hermann Kolbe and Rudolf Schmitt) is a carboxylation chemical reaction that proceeds by heating sodium phenoxide (the sodium salt of phenol) with carbon dioxide under pressure (100 atm, 125 °C), then treating the product with sulfuric acid.

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Licofelone

Licofelone is a dual COX/LOX inhibitor that was studied in clinical trials as a treatment for osteoarthritis and which was under development by Merckle GmbH with partners Alfa Wassermann and Lacer.

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Lidocaine

Lidocaine, also known as xylocaine and lignocaine, is a medication used to numb tissue in a specific area.

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Liebigs Annalen

Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie (often cited as just Liebigs Annalen) was one of the oldest and historically most important journals in the field of organic chemistry worldwide.

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Lithium (medication)

Lithium compounds, also known as lithium salts, are primarily used as a psychiatric medication.

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Liver

The liver, an organ only found in vertebrates, detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins, and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion.

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Lornoxicam

Lornoxicam (INN, or chlortenoxicam; trade name Xefo, among others) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the oxicam class with analgesic (pain relieving), anti-inflammatory and antipyretic (fever reducing) properties.

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Low back pain

Low back pain (LBP) is a common disorder involving the muscles, nerves, and bones of the back.

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Loxoprofen

Loxoprofen (INN) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) in the propionic acid derivatives group, which also includes ibuprofen and naproxen among others.

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Lumiracoxib

Lumiracoxib (rINN) is a carboxylic acid COX-2 selective inhibitor nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, manufactured by Novartis and still sold in few countries, including Mexico, Ecuador and the Dominican Republic, under the trade name Prexige (sometimes misquoted as "Prestige" by the media).

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Macular edema

Macular edema occurs when fluid and protein deposits collect on or under the macula of the eye (a yellow central area of the retina) and causes it to thicken and swell (edema).

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Maculopapular rash

A maculopapular rash is a type of rash characterized by a flat, red area on the skin that is covered with small confluent bumps.

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Mechanism of action

In pharmacology, the term mechanism of action (MOA) refers to the specific biochemical interaction through which a drug substance produces its pharmacological effect.

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Mechanism of action of aspirin

Aspirin causes several different effects in the body, mainly the reduction of inflammation, analgesia (relief of pain), the prevention of clotting, and the reduction of fever.

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Meclofenamic acid

Meclofenamic acid (meclofenamate sodium, brand Meclomen) is a drug used for joint, muscular pain, arthritis and dysmenorrhea.

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Medscape

Medscape is a website providing access to medical information for clinicians; the organization also provides continuing education for physicians and health professionals.

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Mefenamic acid

Mefenamic acid is a member of the anthranilic acid derivatives (or fenamate) class of NSAID drugs, and is used to treat mild to moderate pain, including menstrual pain, and is sometimes used to prevent migraines associated with menstruation.

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Meloxicam

Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with analgesic and anti-pyretic effects.

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Menstruation

Menstruation, also known as a period or monthly, is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue (known as menses) from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina.

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Methotrexate

Methotrexate (MTX), formerly known as amethopterin, is a chemotherapy agent and immune system suppressant.

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Migraine

A migraine is a primary headache disorder characterized by recurrent headaches that are moderate to severe.

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Miscarriage

Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion and pregnancy loss, is the natural death of an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive independently.

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Misoprostol

Misoprostol, sold under the brandname Cytotec among others, is a medication used to start labor, cause an abortion, prevent and treat stomach ulcers, and treat postpartum bleeding due to poor contraction of the uterus.

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Mucous membrane

A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs.

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Myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI), commonly known as a heart attack, occurs when blood flow decreases or stops to a part of the heart, causing damage to the heart muscle.

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Myrtus

Myrtus, with the common name myrtle, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Myrtaceae, described by Swedish botanist Linnaeus in 1753.

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Nabumetone

Nabumetone is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).

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Naproxen

Naproxen (brand names: Aleve, Naprosyn, and many others) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the propionic acid class (the same class as ibuprofen) that relieves pain, fever, swelling, and stiffness.

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Nephrotic syndrome

Nephrotic syndrome is a collection of symptoms due to kidney damage.

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Nimesulide

Nimesulide is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with pain medication and fever reducing properties.

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Nobel Prize

The Nobel Prize (Swedish definite form, singular: Nobelpriset; Nobelprisen) is a set of six annual international awards bestowed in several categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances.

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NSAID hypersensitivity reactions

NSAID or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug hypersensitivity reactions encompasses a broad range of allergic or allergic-like symptoms that occur within minutes to hours after ingesting aspirin or other NSAID nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

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Omeprazole

Omeprazole, sold under the brand names Prilosec and Losec among others, is a medication used in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease, peptic ulcer disease, and Zollinger–Ellison syndrome.

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Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a type of joint disease that results from breakdown of joint cartilage and underlying bone.

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Over-the-counter drug

Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are medicines sold directly to a consumer without a prescription from a healthcare professional, as opposed to prescription drugs, which may be sold only to consumers possessing a valid prescription.

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Oxaprozin

Oxaprozin, also known as Oxaprozinum, (sold under the names: Daypro, Dayrun, Duraprox) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), used to relieve the inflammation, swelling, stiffness, and joint pain associated with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.

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Pain

Pain is a distressing feeling often caused by intense or damaging stimuli.

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Paracetamol

--> Acetanilide was the first aniline derivative serendipitously found to possess analgesic as well as antipyretic properties, and was quickly introduced into medical practice under the name of Antifebrin by A. Cahn and P. Hepp in 1886. But its unacceptable toxic effects, the most alarming being cyanosis due to methemoglobinemia, prompted the search for less toxic aniline derivatives. Harmon Northrop Morse had already synthesised paracetamol at Johns Hopkins University via the reduction of ''p''-nitrophenol with tin in glacial acetic acid in 1877, but it was not until 1887 that clinical pharmacologist Joseph von Mering tried paracetamol on humans. In 1893, von Mering published a paper reporting on the clinical results of paracetamol with phenacetin, another aniline derivative. Von Mering claimed that, unlike phenacetin, paracetamol had a slight tendency to produce methemoglobinemia. Paracetamol was then quickly discarded in favor of phenacetin. The sales of phenacetin established Bayer as a leading pharmaceutical company. Overshadowed in part by aspirin, introduced into medicine by Heinrich Dreser in 1899, phenacetin was popular for many decades, particularly in widely advertised over-the-counter "headache mixtures", usually containing phenacetin, an aminopyrine derivative of aspirin, caffeine, and sometimes a barbiturate. Paracetamol is the active metabolite of phenacetin and acetanilide, both once popular as analgesics and antipyretics in their own right. However, unlike phenacetin, acetanilide and their combinations, paracetamol is not considered carcinogenic at therapeutic doses. Von Mering's claims remained essentially unchallenged for half a century, until two teams of researchers from the United States analyzed the metabolism of acetanilide and paracetamol. In 1947 David Lester and Leon Greenberg found strong evidence that paracetamol was a major metabolite of acetanilide in human blood, and in a subsequent study they reported that large doses of paracetamol given to albino rats did not cause methemoglobinemia. In three papers published in the September 1948 issue of the Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Bernard Brodie, Julius Axelrod and Frederick Flinn confirmed using more specific methods that paracetamol was the major metabolite of acetanilide in human blood, and established that it was just as efficacious an analgesic as its precursor. They also suggested that methemoglobinemia is produced in humans mainly by another metabolite, phenylhydroxylamine. A follow-up paper by Brodie and Axelrod in 1949 established that phenacetin was also metabolised to paracetamol. This led to a "rediscovery" of paracetamol. It has been suggested that contamination of paracetamol with 4-aminophenol, the substance von Mering synthesised it from, may be the cause for his spurious findings. Paracetamol was first marketed in the United States in 1950 under the name Triagesic, a combination of paracetamol, aspirin, and caffeine. Reports in 1951 of three users stricken with the blood disease agranulocytosis led to its removal from the marketplace, and it took several years until it became clear that the disease was unconnected. Paracetamol was marketed in 1953 by Sterling-Winthrop Co. as Panadol, available only by prescription, and promoted as preferable to aspirin since it was safe for children and people with ulcers. In 1955, paracetamol was marketed as Children's Tylenol Elixir by McNeil Laboratories. In 1956, 500 mg tablets of paracetamol went on sale in the United Kingdom under the trade name Panadol, produced by Frederick Stearns & Co, a subsidiary of Sterling Drug Inc. In 1963, paracetamol was added to the British Pharmacopoeia, and has gained popularity since then as an analgesic agent with few side-effects and little interaction with other pharmaceutical agents. Concerns about paracetamol's safety delayed its widespread acceptance until the 1970s, but in the 1980s paracetamol sales exceeded those of aspirin in many countries, including the United Kingdom. This was accompanied by the commercial demise of phenacetin, blamed as the cause of analgesic nephropathy and hematological toxicity. In 1988 Sterling Winthrop was acquired by Eastman Kodak which sold the over the counter drug rights to SmithKline Beecham in 1994. Available without a prescription since 1959, it has since become a common household drug. Patents on paracetamol have long expired, and generic versions of the drug are widely available.

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Parecoxib

Parecoxib is a water-soluble and injectable prodrug of valdecoxib.

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Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the motor system.

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Patent ductus arteriosus

Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a condition wherein the ductus arteriosus fails to close after birth.

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Peptic ulcer disease

Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is a break in the lining of the stomach, first part of the small intestine or occasionally the lower esophagus.

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Phagocytosis

In cell biology, phagocytosis is the process by which a cell—often a phagocyte or a protist—engulfs a solid particle to form an internal compartment known as a phagosome.

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Phenacetin

Phenacetin (or acetophenetidin) is a pain-relieving and fever-reducing drug, which was widely used between its introduction in 1887 and the 1983 ban imposed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

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Phenol

Phenol, also known as phenolic acid, is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH.

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Phenylbutazone

Phenylbutazone, often referred to as "bute," is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) for the short-term treatment of pain and fever in animals.

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Phospholipase A2

Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) are enzymes that release fatty acids from the second carbon group of glycerol.

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Phospholipid

Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes.

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Photodermatitis

Photodermatitis, sometimes referred to as sun poisoning or photoallergy, is a form of allergic contact dermatitis in which the allergen must be activated by light to sensitize the allergic response, and to cause a rash or other systemic effects on subsequent exposure.

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Piroxicam

Piroxicam (INN, BAN, USAN, AAN; in some countries it is spelled piroksikam or piroxikam) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the oxicam class used to relieve the symptoms of painful, inflammatory conditions like arthritis.

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Placebo

A placebo is a substance or treatment of no intended therapeutic value.

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Polyhydramnios

Polyhydramnios (polyhydramnion, hydramnios, polyhydramnios) is a medical condition describing an excess of amniotic fluid in the amniotic sac.

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Pregnancy

Pregnancy, also known as gestation, is the time during which one or more offspring develops inside a woman.

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Preterm birth

Preterm birth, also known as premature birth, is the birth of a baby at fewer than 37 weeks gestational age.

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Prostaglandin

The prostaglandins (PG) are a group of physiologically active lipid compounds having diverse hormone-like effects in animals.

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Prostaglandin E2

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), also known as dinoprostone, is a naturally occurring prostaglandin which is used as a medication.

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Prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2

Prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (prostaglandin G/H synthase and cyclooxygenase) (The HUGO official symbol is PTGS2; HGNC ID, HGNC:9605), also known as cyclooxygenase-2 or COX-2, is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PTGS2 gene.

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Prostanoid

Prostanoids are a subclass of eicosanoids consisting of the prostaglandins (mediators of inflammatory and anaphylactic reactions), the thromboxanes (mediators of vasoconstriction), and the prostacyclins (active in the resolution phase of inflammation.).

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Proton-pump inhibitor

Proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) are a group of drugs whose main action is a pronounced and long-lasting reduction of stomach acid production.

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Psoriatic arthritis

Psoriatic arthritis is a long-term inflammatory arthritis that occurs in people affected by the autoimmune disease psoriasis.

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PTGS1

Cyclooxygenase 1 (COX-1), also known as prostaglandin G/H synthase 1, prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1 or prostaglandin H2 synthase 1, is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PTGS1 gene.

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Quinolone antibiotic

A quinolone antibiotic is any member of a large group of broad-spectrum bactericides that share a bicyclic core structure related to the compound 4-quinolone.

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Racemic mixture

In chemistry, a racemic mixture, or racemate, is one that has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule.

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Reactive arthritis

Reactive arthritis, formerly known as Reiter's syndrome, is a form of inflammatory arthritis that develops in response to an infection in another part of the body (cross-reactivity).

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Renal colic

Renal colic is a type of abdominal pain commonly caused by kidney stones.

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Renal function

Renal function, in nephrology, is an indication of the kidney's condition and its role in renal physiology.

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Renal papillary necrosis

Renal papillary necrosis is a form of nephropathy involving the necrosis of the renal papilla.

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Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects joints.

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Rhinitis

Rhinitis, also known as coryza, is irritation and inflammation of the mucous membrane inside the nose.

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Rofecoxib

Rofecoxib is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that has now been withdrawn over safety concerns.

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Royal Society

The President, Council and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, commonly known as the Royal Society, is a learned society.

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Ruminant

Ruminants are mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through microbial actions.

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Salicin

Salicin is an alcoholic β-glucoside.

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Salicylic acid

Salicylic acid (from Latin salix, willow tree) is a lipophilic monohydroxybenzoic acid, a type of phenolic acid, and a beta hydroxy acid (BHA).

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Salsalate

Salsalate is a medication that belongs to the salicylate and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) classes.

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Scrophularia

The genus Scrophularia of the family Scrophulariaceae comprises about 200 species of herbaceous flowering plants commonly known as figworts.

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Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of drugs that are typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders.

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Sodium in biology

Sodium ions are necessary in small amounts for some types of plants, but sodium as a nutrient is more generally needed in larger amounts by animals, due to their use of it for generation of nerve impulses and for maintenance of electrolyte balance and fluid balance.

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Steroid

A steroid is a biologically active organic compound with four rings arranged in a specific molecular configuration.

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Stevens–Johnson syndrome

Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS) is a type of severe skin reaction.

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Stomach

The stomach (from ancient Greek στόμαχος, stomachos, stoma means mouth) is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates.

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Stroke

A stroke is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain results in cell death.

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Sulindac

Sulindac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the arylalkanoic acid class that is marketed in the UK & U.S. by Merck as Clinoril.

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T cell

A T cell, or T lymphocyte, is a type of lymphocyte (a subtype of white blood cell) that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity.

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Tennis elbow

Tennis elbow, also known as lateral epicondylitis, is a condition in which the outer part of the elbow becomes painful and tender.

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Tenoxicam

Tenoxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).

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Teratology

Teratology is the study of abnormalities of physiological development.

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The Journal of Urology

The Journal of Urology is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering urology published by Elsevier on behalf of the American Urological Association.

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The New England Journal of Medicine

The New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) is a weekly medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society.

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Therapeutic effect

Therapeutic effect refers to the responses(s) after a treatment of any kind, the results of which are judged to be desirable and beneficial.

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Therapeutic Innovation & Regulatory Science

Therapeutic Innovation & Regulatory Science is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal that covers research and developments concerning pharmaceuticals and the development and use of medical products.

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Thrombosis

Thrombosis (from Ancient Greek θρόμβωσις thrómbōsis "clotting”) is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system.

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Thromboxane

Thromboxane is a member of the family of lipids known as eicosanoids.

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Thromboxane A2

Thromboxane A2 (TXA2) is a type of thromboxane that is produced by activated platelets and has prothrombotic properties: it stimulates activation of new platelets as well as increases platelet aggregation.

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Tolfenamic acid

Tolfenamic acid (Clotam) is a member of the anthranilic acid derivatives (or fenamate) class of NSAID drugs discovered by scientists at Medica Pharmaceutical Company in Finland. Like other members of the class, it is a COX inhibitor and prevents formation of prostaglandins. It is used in the UK as a treatment for migraine. It is generally not available in the US.NIH LiverTox Database Last updated June 23, 2015. Page accessed July 3, 2015. Quote: "(fenamates generally not available in the United States, such as tolfenamic acid and flufenamic acid)" It is available in some Asian, Latin American and European countries as a generic drug for humans and for animals.

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Tolmetin

Tolmetin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the heterocyclic acetic acid derivative class.

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Toxic epidermal necrolysis

Toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) is a type of severe skin reaction.

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Transient ischemic attack

A transient ischemic attack (TIA) is a brief episode of neurological dysfunction caused by loss of blood flow (ischemia) in the brain, spinal cord, or retina, without tissue death (infarction).

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Ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a long-term condition that results in inflammation and ulcers of the colon and rectum.

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United States

The United States of America (USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a federal republic composed of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, and various possessions.

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Uric acid

Uric acid is a heterocyclic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen with the formula C5H4N4O3.

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Urine

Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many animals.

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Valdecoxib

Valdecoxib is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms.

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Vascular disease

Vascular disease is a class of diseases of the blood vessels – the arteries and veins of the circulatory system of the body.

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Volume of distribution

In pharmacology, the volume of distribution (VD, also known as apparent volume of distribution) is the theoretical volume that would be necessary to contain the total amount of an administered drug at the same concentration that it is observed in the blood plasma.

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Warfarin

Warfarin, sold under the brand name Coumadin among others, is a medication that is used as an anticoagulant (blood thinner).

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Willow

Willows, also called sallows, and osiers, form the genus Salix, around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997.

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Yonkers, New York

Yonkers is the fourth most populous city in the U.S. state of New York, behind New York City, Buffalo, and Rochester.

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References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonsteroidal_anti-inflammatory_drug

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