Communication

477 relations: Absolute monarchy, Adam Jarzębski, Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia, Albrecht von Wallenstein, Alchemy, Aleksander Korwin Gosiewski, Amsterdam, Anita J. Prazmowska, Anna Jagiellon, Anne of Austria, Queen of Poland, Antoine Lavoisier, Antonio Possevino, Archduke Ernest of Austria, Artillery, Augustus II the Strong, Augustus III of Poland, Baltic Sea, Baltiysk, Baroque in Poland, Bartholomeus Strobel, Battle of Byczyna, Battle of Cecora (1620), Battle of Guzów, Battle of Humenné, Battle of Khotyn (1621), Battle of Kircholm, Battle of Klushino, Battle of Kokenhausen, Battle of Nördlingen (1634), Battle of Oliwa, Battle of Stångebro, Battle of Trzciana, Battle of Vienna, Battle of Wallhof, Battle of White Mountain, Bay of Puck, Belarus, Belarusian Greek Catholic Church, Belarusians, Bernardo Morando, Black Sea, Blacksmith, Blasphemy, Bochnia, Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania, Boris Godunov, Bourgeoisie, Boyar, Bracław Voivodeship, Braniewo, ..., Bratslav, Brodnica, Bucov, Budjak, Bytów, Byzantine Rite, Calvinism, Casimir Siemienowicz, Catherine Jagiellon, Cavalry, Chancellor (Poland), Charles IX of France, Charles IX of Sweden, Chemistry, 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Absolute monarchy

Absolute monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which one ruler has supreme authority and where that authority is not restricted by any written laws, legislature, or customs.

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Adam Jarzębski

Adam Jarzębski (c. 1590 in Warka – c. 1648 in Warsaw) was an early Baroque Polish composer, violinist, poet, and writer.

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Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia

Albert Frederick (Albrecht Friedrich, Albrecht Fryderyk; 7 May 1553, in Königsberg – 28 August 1618, in Fischhausen, Rybaki) was Duke of Prussia from 1568 until his death.

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Albrecht von Wallenstein

Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von Wallenstein (Albrecht Václav Eusebius z Valdštejna; 24 September 158325 February 1634),Schiller, Friedrich.

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Alchemy

Alchemy is a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practiced throughout Europe, Africa, Brazil and Asia.

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Aleksander Korwin Gosiewski

Aleksander Korwin Gosiewski (Aleksandras Korvinas Gosievskis) ''de armis'' Ślepowron (b. – d. 1639), was a Polish nobleman, military commander and diplomat, Lithuanian Field-Quartermaster since 1630, Palatine-Governor of Smolensk from 1625, Lithuanian Great-Quartermaster since 1615, Speaker of the Parliament in 1613, Great-Secretary of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1610 and District-Governor of Wieliż, Puńsk, Kupise, Biel, and Markowa.

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Amsterdam

Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Netherlands.

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Anita J. Prazmowska

Anita J. Prazmowska (also Prażmowska) is a Professor in International History at the London School of Economics, England.

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Anna Jagiellon

Anna Jagiellon (Anna Jagiellonka, Ona Jogailaitė; 18 October 1523 – 12 November 1596) was Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania in her own right from 1575 to 1586.

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Anne of Austria, Queen of Poland

Anne of Austria (16 August 1573 – 10 February 1598) was queen consort of Poland and Sweden by marriage to King Sigismund III Vasa.

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Antoine Lavoisier

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution;; 26 August 17438 May 1794) CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) was a French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology.

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Antonio Possevino

Antonio Possevino (Antonius Possevinus) (10 July 1533 – 26 February 1611) was a Jesuit protagonist of Counter Reformation as a papal diplomat and a Jesuit controversialist, encyclopedist and bibliographer.

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Archduke Ernest of Austria

Archduke Ernest of Austria (Ernst von Österreich; 15 June 1553 – 20 February 1595) was an Austrian prince, the son of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria of Spain.

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Artillery

Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry's small arms.

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Augustus II the Strong

Augustus II the Strong (August II.; August II Mocny; Augustas II; 12 May 16701 February 1733) of the Albertine line of the House of Wettin was Elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I), Imperial Vicar and elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania.

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Augustus III of Poland

Augustus III (August III Sas, Augustas III; 17 October 1696 5 October 1763) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1734 until 1763, as well as Elector of Saxony in the Holy Roman Empire from 1733 until 1763 where he was known as Frederick Augustus II (Friedrich August II).

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Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, enclosed by Scandinavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia, Poland, Germany and the North and Central European Plain.

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Baltiysk

Baltiysk (Балти́йск), before 1946 known by its German name Pillau (Piława; Piliava; Yiddish: פּילאַווע, Pilave), is a seaport town and the administrative center of Baltiysky District in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the northern part of the Vistula Spit, on the shore of the Strait of Baltiysk separating the Vistula Lagoon from the Gdańsk Bay.

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Baroque in Poland

The Polish Baroque lasted from the early 17th to the mid-18th century.

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Bartholomeus Strobel

Bartholomeus Strobel the Younger or Bartholomäus in German or Bartlomiej in Polish (11 April 1591 (baptised) – after 1650) was a Baroque painter from Silesia, who worked in Prague, Silesia, and finally Poland, where he emigrated to escape the disruption of the Thirty Years War.

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Battle of Byczyna

The Battle of Byczyna or Battle of Pitschen (Pitschen; Byczyna) was the deciding battle of the 1587–1588 War of the Polish Succession, which erupted after two rival candidates were elected to the Polish throne.

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Battle of Cecora (1620)

The Battle of Cecora (also known as the Battle of Ţuţora/Tsetsora Fields) was a battle between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (aided by rebel Moldavian troops) and Ottoman forces (backed by Nogais), fought from 17 September to 7 October 1620 in Moldavia, near the Prut River.

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Battle of Guzów

The Battle of Guzów (Bitwa pod Guzowem) took place on July 6, 1607, at the village of Guzów in Szydłowiec County, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Battle of Humenné

The Battle of Humenné (Hungarian: Homonnai csata, Polish: bitwa pod Humiennem or pierwsza odsiecz wiedeńska) took place on 22–23 November 1619 near Humenné (eastern Slovakia) during the first period of the Thirty Years' War between the Transylvanian army and the joined loyalist Hungarian and Polish forces of Lisowczycy.

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Battle of Khotyn (1621)

The Battle of Khotyn or Battle of Chocim or Hotin War (in Turkish: Hotin Muharebesi) was a combined siege and series of battles which took place between 2 September and 9 October 1621 between a Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth army and an invading Ottoman Imperial army.

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Battle of Kircholm

The Battle of Kircholm (27 September 1605, or 17 September in the Old Style calendar then in use in Protestant countries) was one of the major battles in the Polish–Swedish War.

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Battle of Klushino

The Battle of Klushino, or the Battle of Kłuszyn, was fought on 4 July 1610, between forces of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Tsardom of Russia during the Polish–Muscovite War, part of Russia's Time of Troubles.

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Battle of Kokenhausen

The Battle of Kokenhausen (Kokenhuza, Koknese) was a major battle opening the Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611).

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Battle of Nördlingen (1634)

The Battle of Nördlingen (Schlacht bei Nördlingen; Batalla de Nördlingen; Slaget vid Nördlingen) was fought in 1634 during the Thirty Years' War, on 27 August (Julian calendar) or 6 September (Gregorian calendar).

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Battle of Oliwa

The naval Battle of Oliwa, also Battle of Oliva or Battle of Gdańsk Roadstead, took place on 28 November 1627 (N.S.) during the Polish–Swedish War slightly north of the port of Danzig (Gdańsk) near the village of Oliva (Oliwa).

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Battle of Stångebro

The Battle of Stångebro, or the Battle of Linköping, took place at Linköping, Sweden, on 25 September 1598 (O.S.) and effectively ended the personal union between Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, that had existed since 1592.

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Battle of Trzciana

The Battle of Trzciana (also known as Battle of Honigfelde or Battle on the Stuhmer Heide or Battle of Sztum) took place on 25 June 1629 (usually said to be 27th in the New Style calendar) and was one of the battles of the Polish-Swedish War (1626–1629) or Second Swedish-Polish War.

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Battle of Vienna

The Battle of Vienna (Schlacht am Kahlen Berge or Kahlenberg; bitwa pod Wiedniem or odsiecz wiedeńska (The Relief of Vienna); Modern Turkish: İkinci Viyana Kuşatması, Ottoman Turkish: Beç Ḳalʿası Muḥāṣarası) took place at Kahlenberg Mountain near Vienna on 1683 after the imperial city had been besieged by the Ottoman Empire for two months.

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Battle of Wallhof

Battle of Wallhof (Valles kauja, also known as Battle of Walmozja) was a battle fought between Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth on 7 January 1626, in which a Swedish force of 3,100 men (2,100 of them cavalry) with 6 guns under Gustavus II Adolphus ambushed and took by surprise a Polish-Lithuanian force of 2,000 men with 3 guns under Jan Stanisław Sapieha, Polish-Lithuanian casualties amounted to between 500 and 1,500 dead, wounded or capturedWallhof i Nordisk familjebok (2:a upplagan, 1921) and their commander collapsed from a mental illness after this defeat.

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Battle of White Mountain

The Battle of White Mountain (Czech: Bitva na Bílé hoře, German: Schlacht am Weißen Berg) was an important battle in the early stages of the Thirty Years' War.

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Bay of Puck

The Bay of Puck or Puck Bay (Putziger Wiek), is a shallow western branch of the Bay of Gdańsk in the southern Baltic Sea, off the shores of Gdańsk Pomerania, Poland.

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Belarus

Belarus (Беларусь, Biełaruś,; Беларусь, Belarus'), officially the Republic of Belarus (Рэспубліка Беларусь; Республика Беларусь), formerly known by its Russian name Byelorussia or Belorussia (Белоруссия, Byelorussiya), is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe bordered by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest.

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Belarusian Greek Catholic Church

The Belarusian Greek Catholic Church (Беларуская грэка-каталіцкая царква, BHKC), sometimes called, in reference to its Byzantine Rite, the Belarusian Byzantine Catholic Church, is the heir within Belarus of the Union of Brest.

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Belarusians

Belarusians (беларусы, biełarusy, or Byelorussians (from the Byelorussian SSR), are an East Slavic ethnic group who are native to modern-day Belarus and the immediate region. There are over 9.5 million people who proclaim Belarusian ethnicity worldwide, with the overwhelming majority residing either in Belarus or the adjacent countries where they are an autochthonous minority.

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Bernardo Morando

Bernardo Morando, also known as Bernardino or Morandi (ca. 1540 - 1600) was an Italian architect from the Republic of Venice.

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Black Sea

The Black Sea is a body of water and marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean between Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Western Asia.

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Blacksmith

A blacksmith is a metalsmith who creates objects from wrought iron or steel by forging the metal, using tools to hammer, bend, and cut (cf. whitesmith).

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Blasphemy

Blasphemy is the act of insulting or showing contempt or lack of reverence to a deity, or sacred things, or toward something considered sacred or inviolable.

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Bochnia

Bochnia (German: Salzberg) is a town of 30,000 inhabitants on the river Raba in southern Poland.

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Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania

Bogislaw XIV of Pomerania or Bogislavs XIV (Bogislaus XIV; Bogusław XIV) (31 March 1580 – 10 March 1637) was the last Duke of Pomerania.

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Boris Godunov

Boris Fyodorovich Godunov (Бори́с Фёдорович Годуно́в,; c. 1551) ruled the Tsardom of Russia as de facto regent from c. 1585 to 1598 and then as the first non-Rurikid tsar from 1598 to 1605.

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Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie is a polysemous French term that can mean.

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Boyar

A boyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudal Bulgarian, Kievan, Moscovian, Wallachian and Moldavian and later, Romanian aristocracies, second only to the ruling princes (in Bulgaria, tsars), from the 10th century to the 17th century.

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Bracław Voivodeship

The Bracław Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Braniewo

Braniewo, (Braunsberg in Ostpreußen, Brunsberga, Old Prussian: Brus, Prūsa), is a town in northeastern Poland, in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, with a population of 18,068 (2004).

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Bratslav

Bratslav (Брацлав; Bracław; בראָסלעוו, Broslev, today also pronounced Breslev or Breslov as the name of a Hasidic group, which originated from this town) is an urban-type settlement in Ukraine, located in Nemyriv Raion of Vinnytsia Oblast, by the Southern Bug river.

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Brodnica

Brodnica (Strasburg in Westpreußen or Strasburg an der Drewenz) is a town in north-central Poland with 28,574 inhabitants.

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Bucov

Bucov is a commune in Prahova County, Romania, just east of Ploieşti, the county seat.

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Budjak

Budjak or Budzhak (Russian, Ukrainian, and Bulgarian: Буджак; Bugeac; Bucak, historical Cyrillic: Буӂак; Bucak) is a historical region in Ukraine.

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Bytów

Bytów (Bëtowò; Bütow is a town in the Gdańsk Pomerania region of northern Poland with 16,888 inhabitants (2004). Previously in Słupsk Voivodeship (1975–1998), it is the capital of Bytów County in Pomeranian Voivodeship (since 1999). The origins of Bytów can be traced back to the early Middle Ages when a fortified stronghold once stood near the town. Bytów was later mentioned, under the Latin name castrum nomine Bitom, by notable Gallus Anonymus in his Chronicles describing medieval Poland. In 1346 Bütow got German town law from the Teutonic Order. During the Thirteen Years' War (1454-1466), the town was the sight of heavy fighting and changed hands over time. Eventually, King Casimir IV Jagiellon granted the town to Eric II, Duke of Pomerania, as a perpetual fiefdom. After the Partitions of Poland, Bytów became part of German Prussia and remained in Germany until the end of World War II. At the final stages of the war, Bytów was the center of heavy artillery shelling initiated by the Red Army; as a result over 55% of buildings were destroyed. Throughout its whole history, Bytów was known to be a multicultural town inhabited by Kashubians, Poles, Germans and Jews. Since 2000 a bugle call is played during important events which taking place in the area. Bytów is a popular tourist destination in the region of Pomerania and is famous for its medieval Teutonic Castle built in the late 14th century.

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Byzantine Rite

The Byzantine Rite, also known as the Greek Rite or Constantinopolitan Rite, is the liturgical rite used by the Eastern Orthodox Church as well as by certain Eastern Catholic Churches; also, parts of it are employed by, as detailed below, other denominations.

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Calvinism

Calvinism (also called the Reformed tradition, Reformed Christianity, Reformed Protestantism, or the Reformed faith) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians.

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Casimir Siemienowicz

Kazimierz Siemienowicz (Casimirus Siemienowicz, Kazimieras Simonavičius, Kazimierz Siemienowicz, born 1600 – 1651), was a Polish–Lithuanian general of artillery, gunsmith, military engineer, and pioneer of rocketry.

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Catherine Jagiellon

Catherine Jagiellon (Katarzyna Jagiellonka; Katarina Jagellonica, Lithuanian: Kotryna Jogailatė; 1 November 1526 – 16 September 1583) was a Polish princess and the wife of John III of Sweden.

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Cavalry

Cavalry (from the French cavalerie, cf. cheval 'horse') or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback.

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Chancellor (Poland)

Chancellor of Poland (Kanclerz -, from cancellarius) was one of the highest officials in the historic Poland.

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Charles IX of France

Charles IX (27 June 1550 – 30 May 1574) was a French monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1560 until his death from tuberculosis.

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Charles IX of Sweden

Charles IX, also Carl (Karl IX; 4 October 1550 – 30 October 1611), was King of Sweden from 1604 until his death.

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Chemistry

Chemistry is the scientific discipline involved with compounds composed of atoms, i.e. elements, and molecules, i.e. combinations of atoms: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other compounds.

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Chernihiv

Chernihiv (Чернігів) also known as Chernigov (p, Czernihów) is a historic city in northern Ukraine, which serves as the administrative center of the Chernihiv Oblast (province), as well as of the surrounding Chernihiv Raion (district) within the oblast.

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Church (congregation)

A church is a Christian religious organization or congregation or community that meets in a particular location.

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Church of the Gesù

The Church of the Gesù (Chiesa del Gesù) is the mother church of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), a Catholic religious order.

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Church Slavonic language

Church Slavonic, also known as Church Slavic, New Church Slavonic or New Church Slavic, is the conservative Slavic liturgical language used by the Orthodox Church in Bulgaria, Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Russia, Belarus, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Macedonia and Ukraine.

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Cieszyn

Cieszyn (Těšín, Teschen, Tessin) is a border town in southern Poland on the east bank of the Olza River, and the administrative seat of Cieszyn County, Silesian Voivodeship.

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Class conflict

Class conflict, frequently referred to as class warfare or class struggle, is the tension or antagonism which exists in society due to competing socioeconomic interests and desires between people of different classes.

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Collegium Hosianum

The Collegium Hosianum was the Jesuit collegium in Royal Prussia, (after 1945 Poland), founded in 1565, 1566 by Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius in Braunsberg (now Braniewo).

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Confederation (Poland)

A konfederacja ("confederation") was an ad hoc association formed by Polish-Lithuanian szlachta (nobility), clergy, cities, or military forces in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the attainment of stated aims.

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Cossack uprisings

The Cossack uprisings (also rebellions, revolts) were a series of military conflicts between the cossacks and the states claiming dominion over the territories the Cossacks lived in, namely the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russian Empire during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries.

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Cossacks

Cossacks (козаки́, translit, kozaky, казакi, kozacy, Czecho-Slovak: kozáci, kozákok Pronunciations.

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Council of Four Lands

The Council of Four Lands (Va'ad Arba' Aratzot) in Lublin, Poland was the central body of Jewish authority in Poland from the second half of the 16th century to 1764.

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Council of Trent

The Council of Trent (Concilium Tridentinum), held between 1545 and 1563 in Trent (or Trento, in northern Italy), was an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church.

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Counter-Reformation

The Counter-Reformation, also called the Catholic Reformation or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, beginning with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War (1648).

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Courland

Courland, or Kurzeme (in Latvian; Kurāmō; German and Kurland; Curonia/Couronia; Курляндия; Kuršas; Kurlandia), is one of the historical and cultural regions in western Latvia.

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Crimea

Crimea (Крым, Крим, Krym; Krym; translit;; translit) is a peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea in Eastern Europe that is almost completely surrounded by both the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov to the northeast.

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Crimean Khanate

The Crimean Khanate (Mongolian: Крымын ханлиг; Crimean Tatar / Ottoman Turkish: Къырым Ханлыгъы, Qırım Hanlığı, rtl or Къырым Юрту, Qırım Yurtu, rtl; Крымское ханство, Krymskoje hanstvo; Кримське ханство, Krymśke chanstvo; Chanat Krymski) was a Turkic vassal state of the Ottoman Empire from 1478 to 1774, the longest-lived of the Turkic khanates that succeeded the empire of the Golden Horde.

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Crimean Tatars

Crimean Tatars or Crimeans (Crimean Tatar: Qırımtatarlar, qırımlar, Kırım Tatarları, Крымские Татары, крымцы, Кримськi Татари, кримцi) are a Turkic ethnic group that formed in the Crimean Peninsula during the 13th–17th centuries, primarily from the Turkic tribes that moved to the land now known as Crimea in Eastern Europe from the Asian steppes beginning in the 10th century, with contributions from the pre-Cuman population of Crimea.

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Crown land

Crown land, also known as royal domain or demesne, is a territorial area belonging to the monarch, who personifies the Crown.

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Crown of the Kingdom of Poland

The Crown of the Kingdom of Poland (Korona Królestwa Polskiego, Latin: Corona Regni Poloniae), commonly known as the Polish Crown or simply the Crown, is the common name for the historic (but unconsolidated) Late Middle Ages territorial possessions of the King of Poland, including Poland proper.

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Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period.

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Czarne

Czarne (Hammerstein) is a town in Człuchów County of Pomeranian Voivodeship in northern Poland.

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Danube

The Danube or Donau (known by various names in other languages) is Europe's second longest river, after the Volga.

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Daugava

The Daugava (Daugova) or Western Dvina is a river rising in the Valdai Hills, Russia, flowing through Russia, Belarus, and Latvia and into the Gulf of Riga.

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Daugavpils

Daugavpils (Daugpiļs; Даугавпилс; see other names) is a city in southeastern Latvia, located on the banks of the Daugava River, from which the city gets its name.

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Deluge (history)

The term Deluge (pоtор szwedzki, švedų tvanas) denotes a series of mid-17th-century campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Depression (economics)

In economics, a depression is a sustained, long-term downturn in economic activity in one or more economies.

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Devaluation

In modern monetary policy, a devaluation is an official lowering of the value of a country's currency within a fixed exchange rate system, by which the monetary authority formally sets a new fixed rate with respect to a foreign reference currency or currency basket.

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Diocese

The word diocese is derived from the Greek term διοίκησις meaning "administration".

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Dissident

A dissident, broadly defined, is a person who actively challenges an established doctrine, policy, or institution.

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Dmitry of Uglich

Tsarevich Dmitry or Dmitri Ivanovich (Dmitrii Ivanovich; 19 October 1582 – 15 May 1591), also known as Dmitry of Uglich (Дмитрий Угличский, Uglichskii) or Dmitry of Moscow (Дмитрий Московский, Moskovskii), was a Russian tsarevich famously impersonated by a series of pretenders after the death of his father Ivan the Terrible.

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Dmitry Pozharsky

Dmitry Mikhaylovich Pozharsky (p; October 17, 1577 - April 30, 1642), a Rurikid prince, led Russian forces against Polish-Lithuanian invaders in 1611-1612 towards the end of the Time of Troubles.

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Dmytro Hunia

Dmytro Hunia was elected hetman of the Zaporozhian Host in 1638.

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Dmytro Vyshnevetsky

Dmytro Ivanovych Vyshnevetsky (Дмитро Іванович Вишневе́цький; Дмитрий Иванович Вишневе́цкий; Dymitr Wiśniowiecki) was a Hetman of the Ukrainian Cossacks.

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Dnieper

The Dnieper River, known in Russian as: Dnepr, and in Ukrainian as Dnipro is one of the major rivers of Europe, rising near Smolensk, Russia and flowing through Russia, Belarus and Ukraine to the Black Sea.

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Dniester

The Dniester or Dnister River is a river in Eastern Europe.

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Duchy of Pomerania

The Duchy of Pomerania (Herzogtum Pommern, Księstwo Pomorskie, 12th century – 1637) was a duchy in Pomerania on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, ruled by dukes of the House of Pomerania (Griffins).

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Duchy of Prussia

The Duchy of Prussia (Herzogtum Preußen, Księstwo Pruskie) or Ducal Prussia (Herzogliches Preußen, Prusy Książęce) was a duchy in the region of Prussia established as a result of secularization of the State of the Teutonic Order during the Protestant Reformation in 1525.

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East Slavs

The East Slavs are Slavic peoples speaking the East Slavic languages.

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East–West Schism

The East–West Schism, also called the Great Schism and the Schism of 1054, was the break of communion between what are now the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox churches, which has lasted since the 11th century.

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Eastern Catholic Churches

The Eastern Catholic Churches or Oriental Catholic Churches, also called the Eastern-rite Catholic Churches, and in some historical cases Uniate Churches, are twenty-three Eastern Christian particular churches sui iuris in full communion with the Pope in Rome, as part of the worldwide Catholic Church.

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Eastern Christianity

Eastern Christianity consists of four main church families: the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox churches, the Eastern Catholic churches (that are in communion with Rome but still maintain Eastern liturgies), and the denominations descended from the Church of the East.

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Eastern Europe

Eastern Europe is the eastern part of the European continent.

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Eastern Orthodox Church

The Eastern Orthodox Church, also known as the Orthodox Church, or officially as the Orthodox Catholic Church, is the second-largest Christian Church, with over 250 million members.

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Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople

The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (Οἰκουμενικόν Πατριαρχεῖον Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, Oikoumenikón Patriarkhíon Konstantinoupóleos,; Patriarchatus Oecumenicus Constantinopolitanus; Rum Ortodoks Patrikhanesi, "Roman Orthodox Patriarchate") is one of the fourteen autocephalous churches (or "jurisdictions") that together compose the Eastern Orthodox Church.

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Eight sermons before the Sejm

Sejm Sermons or the Eight sermons before the Sejm, (Kazania sejmowe) is a political treatise by Polish Jesuit Piotr Skarga, published in 1597.

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Elective monarchy

An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance.

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Engraving

Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it.

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Epic poetry

An epic poem, epic, epos, or epopee is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily involving a time beyond living memory in which occurred the extraordinary doings of the extraordinary men and women who, in dealings with the gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the moral universe that their descendants, the poet and his audience, must understand to understand themselves as a people or nation.

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Estonia

Estonia (Eesti), officially the Republic of Estonia (Eesti Vabariik), is a sovereign state in Northern Europe.

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Ethnic group

An ethnic group, or an ethnicity, is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities such as common ancestry, language, history, society, culture or nation.

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Europe: A History

Europe: A History is a 1996 narrative history book by Norman Davies.

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Executionist movement

The Executionist movement was a 16th-century political movement in the Kingdom of Poland and, later, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Exile

To be in exile means to be away from one's home (i.e. city, state, or country), while either being explicitly refused permission to return or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return.

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False Dmitry I

Dmitry I (Dmitrii) (historically known as Pseudo-Demetrius I) was the Tsar of Russia from 10 June 1605 until his death on 17 May 1606 under the name of Dimitriy Ivanovich (Дмитрий Иванович).

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False Dmitry II

False Dmitry II (Lzhedmitrii II; died 11 December 1610), historically known as Pseudo-Demetrius II and also called the "rebel of Tushino", was the second of three pretenders to the Russian throne who claimed to be Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible.

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Fedorovych uprising

The Fedorovych uprising (Повстання Федоровича, Powstanie Fedorowicza) was a rebellion headed by Taras Fedorovych against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1630.

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Feodor I of Russia

Fyodor (Theodore) I Ivanovich (Фёдор I Иванович) or Feodor I Ioannovich (Феодор I Иоаннович); 31 May 1557 – 16 or 17 January (NS) 1598), also known as Feodor the Bellringer, was the last Rurikid Tsar of Russia (1584–1598). Feodor's mother died when he was three, and he grew up in the shadow of his father, Ivan the Terrible. A pious man of retiring disposition, Feodor took little interest in politics, and the country was effectively administered in his name by Boris Godunov, the brother of his beloved wife Irina. His childless death left the Rurikid dynasty extinct, and spurred Russia's descent into the catastrophic Time of Troubles. In Russian documents, Feodor is sometimes called blessed (Блаженный). He is also listed in the "Great Synaxaristes" of the Orthodox Church, with his feast day on January 7 (OS).

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Feodor II of Russia

Fyodor II Borisovich Godunov of Russia (Фёдор II Борисович) (1589 – 10 or 20 June 1605) was a tsar of Russia in 1605, during the Time of Troubles.

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Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor

Ferdinand II (9 July 1578 – 15 February 1637), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Holy Roman Emperor (1619–1637), King of Bohemia (1617–1619, 1620–1637), and King of Hungary (1618–1637).

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Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor

Ferdinand III (13 July 1608 – 2 April 1657) was Holy Roman Emperor from 15 February 1637 until his death, as well as King of Hungary and Croatia, King of Bohemia and Archduke of Austria.

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Fief

A fief (feudum) was the central element of feudalism and consisted of heritable property or rights granted by an overlord to a vassal who held it in fealty (or "in fee") in return for a form of feudal allegiance and service, usually given by the personal ceremonies of homage and fealty.

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Financial capital

Financial capital is any economic resource measured in terms of money used by entrepreneurs and businesses to buy what they need to make their products or to provide their services to the sector of the economy upon which their operation is based, i.e. retail, corporate, investment banking, etc.

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Folwark

Folwark (фальварак, Falvarak; Vorwerk; Palivarkas) is a Polish word for a primarily serfdom-based farm and agricultural enterprise (a type of latifundium), often very large.

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Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg

Frederick William (Friedrich Wilhelm) (16 February 1620 – 29 April 1688) was Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, thus ruler of Brandenburg-Prussia, from 1640 until his death in 1688.

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Freedom of religion

Freedom of religion is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance without government influence or intervention.

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Gabriel Bethlen

Gabriel Bethlen (Bethlen Gábor; 15 November 1580 – 25 November 1629) was Prince of Transylvania from 1613 to 1629 and Duke of Opole from 1622 to 1625.

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Gaspar Graziani

Gaspar (or Gaşpar, Gasparo) Graziani (also credited as Grazziani, Gratiani and Graţiani; Kasper Gratiani in Polish; ca. 1575/1580–1620) was Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia between February 4OS/February 14 NS 1619 and September 19 OS/September 29 NS 1620 (see Adoption of the Gregorian calendar).

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Górzno

Górzno (Gorzno, 1939-45: Görzberg) is a town in Brodnica County, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland, with 1,369 inhabitants (2006).

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Gdańsk

Gdańsk (Danzig) is a Polish city on the Baltic coast.

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George Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach

George Frederick of Brandenburg-Ansbach (Georg Friedrich der Ältere; 5 April 1539 in Ansbach – 25 April 1603) was Margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth, as well as Regent of Prussia.

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George William, Elector of Brandenburg

George William (Georg Wilhelm; 13 November 1595 – 1 December 1640), of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was margrave and elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia from 1619 until his death.

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Germanisation

Germanisation (also spelled Germanization) is the spread of the German language, people and culture or policies which introduced these changes.

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Gniew

Gniew (Mewe; Gniéw) is a town situated on the left bank of the Vistula River, in the Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland, with 6,870 inhabitants (2016).

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Golden Liberty

Golden Liberty (Aurea Libertas; Złota Wolność, Auksinė laisvė), sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy or Nobles' Commonwealth (Szlachecka or Złota wolność szlachecka, aureă lībertās) was a political system in the Kingdom of Poland and, after the Union of Lublin (1569), in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Gothic architecture

Gothic architecture is an architectural style that flourished in Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages.

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Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state that lasted from the 13th century up to 1795, when the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and Austria.

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Graphics

Graphics (from Greek γραφικός graphikos, "belonging to drawing") are visual images or designs on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or stone to inform, illustrate, or entertain.

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Greek mythology

Greek mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices.

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Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden

Gustav II Adolf (9 December 1594 – 6 November 1632, O.S.), widely known in English by his Latinised name Gustavus Adolphus or as Gustav II Adolph, was the King of Sweden from 1611 to 1632 who is credited for the founding of Sweden as a great power (Stormaktstiden).

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Gymnasium (school)

A gymnasium is a type of school with a strong emphasis on academic learning, and providing advanced secondary education in some parts of Europe comparable to British grammar schools, sixth form colleges and US preparatory high schools.

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Habsburg Monarchy

The Habsburg Monarchy (Habsburgermonarchie) or Empire is an unofficial appellation among historians for the countries and provinces that were ruled by the junior Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg between 1521 and 1780 and then by the successor branch of Habsburg-Lorraine until 1918.

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Heir apparent

An heir apparent is a person who is first in a line of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person.

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Henrician Articles

The Henrician Articles or King Henry's Articles (Polish: Artykuły henrykowskie, Latin: Articuli Henriciani) were a permanent contract between the "Polish nation" (i.e., the szlachta (nobility) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a newly elected king upon his election to the throne that stated the fundamental principles of governance and constitutional law in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Henry III of France

Henry III (19 September 1551 – 2 August 1589; born Alexandre Édouard de France, Henryk Walezy, Henrikas Valua) was King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1573 to 1575 and King of France from 1574 until his death.

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Hetman

reason (translit; hejtman; hatman) is a political title from Central and Eastern Europe, historically assigned to military commanders.

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History of Europe

The history of Europe covers the peoples inhabiting Europe from prehistory to the present.

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History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty

The rule of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Poland between 1386 and 1572 spans the late Middle Ages and early Modern Era in European history.

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History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

The early modern era of Polish history follows the late Middle Ages.

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History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)

History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764) covers a period in the history of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, from the time their joint state became the theater of wars and invasions fought on a great scale in the middle of the 17th century, to the time just before the election of Stanisław August Poniatowski, the last king of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Holy Roman Empire

The Holy Roman Empire (Sacrum Romanum Imperium; Heiliges Römisches Reich) was a multi-ethnic but mostly German complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806.

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Homage (feudal)

Homage in the Middle Ages was the ceremony in which a feudal tenant or vassal pledged reverence and submission to his feudal lord, receiving in exchange the symbolic title to his new position (investiture).

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Hospodar

Hospodar or gospodar is a term of Slavonic origin, meaning "lord" or "master".

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House of Griffins

The House of Griffins or House of Pomerania (Greifen; Gryfici), also known as House of Greifen, was a dynasty of dukes ruling the Duchy of Pomerania from the 12th century until 1637.

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House of Habsburg

The House of Habsburg (traditionally spelled Hapsburg in English), also called House of Austria was one of the most influential and distinguished royal houses of Europe.

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House of Hohenzollern

The House of Hohenzollern is a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania.

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House of Vasa

The House of Vasa (Vasaätten, Wazowie, Vaza) was an early modern royal house founded in 1523 in Sweden, ruling Sweden 1523–1654, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1587–1668, and the Tsardom of Russia 1610–1613 (titular until 1634).

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Hungarians

Hungarians, also known as Magyars (magyarok), are a nation and ethnic group native to Hungary (Magyarország) and historical Hungarian lands who share a common culture, history and speak the Hungarian language.

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Ieremia Movilă

Ieremia Movilă (Jeremi Mohyła in Polish) was a Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia between August 1595 and May 1600, and again between September 1600 and July 10, 1606.

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Index Librorum Prohibitorum

The Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books) was a list of publications deemed heretical, or contrary to morality by the Sacred Congregation of the Index (a former Dicastery of the Roman Curia) and thus Catholics were forbidden to read them.

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Interregnum

An interregnum (plural interregna or interregnums) is a period of discontinuity or "gap" in a government, organization, or social order.

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Interrex

The interrex (plural interreges) was literally a ruler "between kings" (Latin inter reges) during the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Republic.

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Irenicism

Irenicism in Christian theology refers to attempts to unify Christian apologetical systems by using reason as an essential attribute.

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Ironworks

An ironworks or iron works is a building or site where iron is smelted and where heavy iron and steel products are made.

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Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27) was an English mathematician, astronomer, theologian, author and physicist (described in his own day as a "natural philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time, and a key figure in the scientific revolution.

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Iskender Pasha (governor of Ozi)

Iskender Pasha (اسکندر پاشا, Iskender Paşa; 1620) was an Ottoman commander and the beylerbey of Oczakov (Ozi).

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Ivan Bolotnikov

Ivan Isayevich Bolotnikov (Ива́н Иса́евич Боло́тников) (1565-1608) was the leader of a popular uprising in Russia in 1606–1607 known as the Bolotnikov Rebellion (Восстание Ивана Болотникова).

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Ivan the Terrible

Ivan IV Vasilyevich (pron; 25 August 1530 –), commonly known as Ivan the Terrible or Ivan the Fearsome (Ivan Grozny; a better translation into modern English would be Ivan the Formidable), was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then Tsar of All Rus' until his death in 1584.

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Jagiellonian dynasty

The Jagiellonian dynasty was a royal dynasty, founded by Jogaila (the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who in 1386 was baptized as Władysław, married Queen regnant (also styled "King") Jadwiga of Poland, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło. The dynasty reigned in several Central European countries between the 14th and 16th centuries. Members of the dynasty were Kings of Poland (1386–1572), Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377–1392 and 1440–1572), Kings of Hungary (1440–1444 and 1490–1526), and Kings of Bohemia (1471–1526). The personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (converted in 1569 with the Treaty of Lublin into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) is the reason for the common appellation "Poland–Lithuania" in discussions about the area from the Late Middle Ages onward. One Jagiellonian briefly ruled both Poland and Hungary (1440–44), and two others ruled both Bohemia and Hungary (1490–1526) and then continued in the distaff line as a branch of the House of Habsburg. The Polish "Golden Age", the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance. The cultural flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk.

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Jagiellonian University

The Jagiellonian University (Polish: Uniwersytet Jagielloński; Latin: Universitas Iagellonica Cracoviensis, also known as the University of Kraków) is a research university in Kraków, Poland.

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Jakub Sobieski

Jakub Sobieski (May 5, 1590 – June 23, 1646) was a Polish noble, parliamentarian, diarist, political activist, military leader and father of King John III Sobieski.

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Jakub Uchański

Jakub Uchański (1502–81), of Radwan coat of arms, was an archbishop of Gniezno and primate of Poland from 1562 to 1581, interrex from 1572 to 1573 and from 1574 to 1575.

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Jakub Wujek

Jakub Wujek (1541 – 27 April 1597) son of Maciej Wujek; a Polish Jesuit, religious writer, Doctor of Theology, Vice-Chancellor of the Vilnius Academy and translator of the Bible into Polish.

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Jan Brożek

Jan Brożek (Ioannes Broscius, Joannes Broscius or Johannes Broscius; 1 November 1585 – 21 November 1652) was a Polish polymath: a mathematician, astronomer, physician, poet, writer, musician and rector of the Kraków Academy.

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Jan Karol Chodkiewicz

Jan Karol Chodkiewicz (c. 1560 – 24 September 1621; Ян Караль Хадкевіч, Jan Karal Chadkievič, Jonas Karolis Chodkevičius) was a military commander of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth army who was from 1601 Field Hetman of Lithuania, and from 1605 Grand Hetman of Lithuania, and was one of the most prominent noblemen and military commanders of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth of his era.

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Jan Mikołaj Daniłowicz

Jan Mikołaj Daniłowicz (born 1607 in Vilnius – 20 November 1650) was a Polish–Lithuanian noble and politician.

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Jan Zamoyski

Jan Zamoyski or Zamojski (Ioannes Zamoyski de Zamoscie; 19 March 1542 – 3 June 1605) was a Polish nobleman, magnate, and the 1st ordynat of Zamość.

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Janusz Radziwiłł (1579–1620)

Janusz Radziwiłł (Jonušas Radvila),(Януш Радзівіл) (2 July 1579 – 3 December 1620) was a noble and magnate of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Janusz Tazbir

Janusz Tazbir (August 5, 1927 – May 3, 2016) was a Polish historian, specializing in the culture and religion of Poland in the 16th and 17th centuries.

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Józef Andrzej Gierowski

Józef Andrzej Gierowski (1922-2006) was a Polish historian, professor and rector of the Jagiellonian University.

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Jürgen von Farensbach

Jürgen von Farensbach (1551–1602) (Юрий Францбек, Georg Farensbach, Jerzy Farensbach) was a Baltic German nobleman and Livonian general.

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Jeremias Falck

Jeremias Falck (also Jeremiah Falck in English, Jeremiasz Falck in Polish) (1610–1677) was an engraver of the 17th century Baroque, born and active in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Jerzy Besala

Jerzy Stanisław Besala (born 5 September 1951 in Warsaw) is a Polish historican and publicist.

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Jerzy Lukowski

Jerzy (George) Tadeusz Lukowski (or Łukowski) is a Polish-British historian at University of Birmingham.

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Jerzy Mniszech

Jerzy Mniszech (c. 1548 – 1613) was a Polish nobleman and diplomat in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Jerzy Ossoliński

Prince Jerzy Ossoliński h. Topór (15 December 1595 – 9 August 1650) was a Polish nobleman (szlachcic), Crown Court Treasurer from 1632, governor (voivode) of Sandomierz from 1636, Reichsfürst (Imperial Prince) since 1634, Crown Deputy Chancellor from 1639, Great Crown Chancellor from 1643, sheriff (starost) of Bydgoszcz (1633), Lubomel (1639), Puck and Bolim (1647), magnate, politician and diplomat.

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Jerzy Zbaraski

Prince Jerzy Zbaraski (Jerzy Zbaraski, Юрій Збаразький, b. 1574, d. 12 July 1631 in Kraków) was a Polish–Lithuanian szlachcic.

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Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg

Joachim Frederick (27 January 1546 – 18 July 1608), of the House of Hohenzollern, was Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from 1598 until his death.

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John Christian of Brieg

John Christian of Brieg (Jan Chrystian Brzeski; Johann Christian von Brieg; Ohlau, 28 August 1591 – Osterode in Ostpreußen (today Ostróda), 25 December 1639), was a Duke of Brzeg–Legnica–Wołów (since 1602; with his brother as co-ruler in Legnica and Wołów until 1612; in Oława since 1605).

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John II Casimir Vasa

John II Casimir (Jan II Kazimierz Waza; Johann II.; Jonas Kazimieras Vaza; 22 March 1609 – 16 December 1672) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania during the era of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Duke of Opole in Upper Silesia, and titular King of Sweden 1648–1660.

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John III of Sweden

John III (Johan III, Juhana III) (20 December 1537 – 17 November 1592) was King of Sweden from 1568 until his death.

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John III Sobieski

John III Sobieski (Jan III Sobieski; Jonas III Sobieskis; Ioannes III Sobiscius; 17 August 1629 – 17 June 1696), was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1674 until his death, and one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg

John Sigismund (Johann Sigismund; 8 November 1572 – 23 December 1619) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from the House of Hohenzollern.

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Jure uxoris

Jure uxoris is a Latin phrase meaning "by right of (his) wife".

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Kalinowski family

Kalinowski was a notable Polish noble family, like many other Szlachta houses of the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Duchy of Ruthenia, later prominent in Polish, and to a lesser extent, in Belarusian history.

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Kashubians

The Kashubs (Kaszëbi; Kaszubi; Kaschuben; also spelled Kaszubians, Kassubians, Cassubians, Cashubes, and Kashubians, and formerly known as Kashubes) are a West Slavic ethnic group in Pomerelia, north-central Poland.

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Königsberg

Königsberg is the name for a former German city that is now Kaliningrad, Russia.

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Kłodzko

Kłodzko (Kladsko; Glatz; Glacio) is a town in south-western Poland, in the region of Lower Silesia.

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Khmelnytsky Uprising

The Khmelnytsky Uprising (Powstanie Chmielnickiego; Chmelnickio sukilimas; повстання Богдана Хмельницького; восстание Богдана Хмельницкого; also known as the Cossack-Polish War, Chmielnicki Uprising, or the Khmelnytsky insurrection) was a Cossack rebellion within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648–1657, which led to the creation of a Cossack Hetmanate in Ukrainian lands.

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Khotyn

Khotyn (Хотин,; Hotin; see other names) is a city in Chernivtsi Oblast of western Ukraine, and is the administrative center of Khotyn Raion within the oblast, and is located south-west of Kamianets-Podilskyi.

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Kiev

Kiev or Kyiv (Kyiv; Kiyev; Kyjev) is the capital and largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper.

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Kiev Voivodeship

The Kiev Voivodeship (Województwo kijowskie, Київське воєводство, Kyivske voyevodstvo) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1471 until 1569 and of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland from 1569 until 1793, as part of Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown.

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Kievan Rus'

Kievan Rus' (Рѹ́сь, Рѹ́сьскаѧ землѧ, Rus(s)ia, Ruscia, Ruzzia, Rut(h)enia) was a loose federationJohn Channon & Robert Hudson, Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia (Penguin, 1995), p.16.

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Kodak Fortress

Kodak fortress (Кодак; Kudak) was a fort built in 1635 by the order of the Polish king Władysław IV Vasa and the Sejm on the Dnieper River near what would become the town of Stari Kodaky (now near the city of Dnipro in Ukraine. In 1711 according to the Treaty of the Pruth the fortress was destroyed by the Muscovites.

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Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski

Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski (2 February 1526 – 13 or 23 February 1608, also known as Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky, Костянтин-Василь Острозький, Канстантын Васіль Астрожскi, Konstantinas Vasilijus Ostrogiškis) was an Orthodox magnate of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a Ruthenian prince, starost of Volodymyr-Volynskyi, marshal of Volhynia and voivode of the Kiev Voivodeship.

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Kosiński uprising

Kosiński uprising (1591–1593) is a name applied to two rebellions in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (modern day Ukraine) organised by Krzysztof Kosiński against the local Ruthenian nobility and magnates.

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Kraków

Kraków, also spelled Cracow or Krakow, is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland.

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Krzysztof Kosiński

Krzysztof Kosiński, also Kryshtof Kosynsky of Rawicz Coat of Arms (Криштоф Косинський, Kryshtof Kosynsky; Krzysztof Kosiński; 1545–1593) was a Polish noble of Ruthenian origin from the Podlachia region.

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Krzysztof Mikołaj "Perkūnas" Radziwiłł

Prince Krzysztof Mikołaj Radziwiłł, nicknamed "Piorun" (Kristupas (Mikalojus) Radvila „Perkūnas“, 1547–1603) was a Reichsfürst of the Holy Roman Empire and a member of the nobility of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Krzysztof Zborowski

Krzysztof Zborowski (died 1593) was a Polish Royal Deputy Cup-bearer of the Crown (podczaszy koronny; 1574–1576), supporter of the Habsburgs.

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Kuzma Minin

Kuzma (Kozma) Minin (Кузьма́ (Козьма́) Ми́нин; full name Kuzma Minich Zakhariev-Sukhoruky, Кузьма́ Ми́нич Заха́рьев Сухору́кий; died 1616) was a Russian merchant from Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, who, together with Prince Dmitry Pozharsky, became a national hero for his role in defending the country against the Polish invasion in the early 17th century.

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Kwidzyn

Kwidzyn (Latin: Quedin; Marienwerder; Prussian: Kwēdina) is a town in northern Poland on the Liwa river in the Powiśle (right bank of Vistula) region, with 40,008 inhabitants (2004).

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Last Judgment

The Last Judgment, Final Judgment, Day of Judgment, Judgment Day, Doomsday, or The Day of the Lord (Hebrew Yom Ha Din) (יום הדין) or in Arabic Yawm al-Qiyāmah (یوم القيامة) or Yawm ad-Din (یوم الدین) is part of the eschatological world view of the Abrahamic religions and in the Frashokereti of Zoroastrianism.

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Latifundium

A latifundium is a very extensive parcel of privately owned land.

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Latin

Latin (Latin: lingua latīna) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages.

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Lębork

Lębork (Lãbòrg) is a town of 37,000 people on the Łeba and Okalica rivers in the Gdańsk Pomerania region in northwestern Poland.

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Leżajsk

Leżajsk (full name The Free Royal City of Leżajsk, Wolne Królewskie Miasto Leżajsk; Лежайськ, Lezhais’k; ליזשענסק-Lizhensk) is a town in southeastern Poland with 13,871 inhabitants.

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Lew Sapieha

Lew Sapieha (Леў Сапега or Leŭ Sapieha; Leonas Sapiega; 4 April 1557 – 7 July 1633) was a nobleman and statesman of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Liberum veto

The liberum veto (Latin for "free veto") was a parliamentary device in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Liepāja

Liepāja (pronounced) (Libau; see other names) is a city in western Latvia, located on the Baltic Sea.

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Lisowczycy

Lisowczycy (also known as Straceńcy ('lost men' or 'forlorn hope') or chorągiew elearska (company of); or in singular form: Lisowczyk or elear) – the name of an early 17th-century irregular unit of the Polish-Lithuanian light cavalry.

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List of Mongol and Tatar attacks in Europe

The Mongol invasion of Europe from the east took place over the course of three centuries, from the Middle Ages to the early modern period.

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Lithuania

Lithuania (Lietuva), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika), is a country in the Baltic region of northern-eastern Europe.

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Lithuanian nobility

The Lithuanian nobility was historically a legally privileged class in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania consisting of Lithuanians, from the historical regions of Lithuania Proper and Samogitia, and, following Lithuania's eastern expansion, many Ruthenian noble families (boyars).

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Livonia

Livonia (Līvõmō, Liivimaa, German and Scandinavian languages: Livland, Latvian and Livonija, Inflanty, archaic English Livland, Liwlandia; Liflyandiya) is a historical region on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.

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Livonian War

The Livonian War (1558–1583) was fought for control of Old Livonia (in the territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia), when the Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway, the Kingdom of Sweden, and the Union (later Commonwealth) of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.

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Low Countries

The Low Countries or, in the geographic sense of the term, the Netherlands (de Lage Landen or de Nederlanden, les Pays Bas) is a coastal region in northwestern Europe, consisting especially of the Netherlands and Belgium, and the low-lying delta of the Rhine, Meuse, Scheldt, and Ems rivers where much of the land is at or below sea level.

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Lower Silesia

Lower Silesia (Dolny Śląsk; Dolní Slezsko; Silesia Inferior; Niederschlesien; Silesian German: Niederschläsing; Dolny Ślůnsk) is the northwestern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia; Upper Silesia is to the southeast.

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Lutheranism

Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther (1483–1546), a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian.

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Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski

Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (in Latin, Matthias Casimirus Sarbievius; Lithuanian: Motiejus Kazimieras Sarbievijus; Sarbiewo, Poland, 24 February 1595 Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski's biography by Mirosław Korolko in: – 2 April 1640, Warsaw, Poland), was Europe's most prominent Latin poet of the 17th century, and a renowned theoretician of poetics.

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Magnate

Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus, 'great', designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities.

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Magnates of Poland and Lithuania

The magnates of Poland and Lithuania were an aristocracy of nobility (szlachta) that existed in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and, from the 1569 Union of Lublin, in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, until the Third Partition of Poland in 1795.

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Magnus, Duke of Holstein

Magnus of Denmark or Magnus of Holstein (–) was a Prince of Denmark, Duke of Holstein, and a member of the House of Oldenburg.

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Malbork

Malbork (Marienburg; Civitas Beatae Virginis) is a town in northern Poland in the Żuławy region (Vistula delta), with 38,478 inhabitants (2006).

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Mannerism

Mannerism, also known as Late Renaissance, is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520 and lasted until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it.

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Marcin Mielczewski

Marcin Mielczewski (c. 1600 – September 1651) was, together with his tutor Franciszek Lilius and Bartłomiej Pękiel, among the most notable Polish composers in the 17th century.

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Margraviate of Brandenburg

The Margraviate of Brandenburg (Markgrafschaft Brandenburg) was a major principality of the Holy Roman Empire from 1157 to 1806 that played a pivotal role in the history of Germany and Central Europe.

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Marina Mniszech

Marina Mniszech (Polish: Maryna Mniszchówna or Maryna Mniszech; Russian: Марина Мнишек (Marina Mnishek); also known as Marinka the Witch in Russian folklore; c. 1588 – 24 December 1614), was a Polish noblewoman, a Tsaritsa of Russia and a prominent warlord during Russia's Time of Troubles.

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Marko Zhmaylo

Marko Zhmaylo-Kulchytsky (Polish: Marek Żmajło – Date of birth and death unknown), hetman Cossack and leader of the Zhmaylo Uprising against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1625.

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Martin Kober

Martin Kober (also Chober, Cober, Coeber, Khober, Koeber, Koebner, Marcin Kober) (ca. 1550 – before 1598) was a portrait painter and court painter to different Central European monarchs - King Stephen Báthory, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, Queen Anna Jagiellon and King Sigismund III Vasa, active mainly in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor

Matthias (24 February 1557 – 20 March 1619) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1612, King of Hungary and Croatia from 1608 (as Matthias II) and King of Bohemia from 1611.

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Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor

Maximilian II (31 July 1527 – 12 October 1576), a member of the Austrian House of Habsburg, was Holy Roman Emperor from 1564 until his death.

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Maximilian III, Archduke of Austria

Maximilian III of Austria, also known as Maximilian the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (12 October 1558 – 2 November 1618) was the Archduke of Further Austria from 1612 until his death.

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Measurement

Measurement is the assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event, which can be compared with other objects or events.

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Metaphysics

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of being, existence, and reality.

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Metropolitan bishop

In Christian churches with episcopal polity, the rank of metropolitan bishop, or simply metropolitan, pertains to the diocesan bishop or archbishop of a metropolis (then more precisely called metropolitan archbishop); that is, the chief city of a historical Roman province, ecclesiastical province, or regional capital.

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Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki

Michael I (Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, Mykolas I Kaributas Višnioveckis; May 31, 1640 – November 10, 1673) was the ruler of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from September 29, 1669 until his death in 1673.

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Michał Wiśniowiecki

Michał Wiśniowiecki (died 1616) was a Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth szlachcic, prince at Wiśniowiec, magnate, grandfather of future Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth monarch, Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki.

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Michael of Russia

Michael I of Russia (Russian: Михаи́л Фёдорович Рома́нов, Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov) became the first Russian Tsar of the House of Romanov after the zemskiy sobor of 1613 elected him to rule the Tsardom of Russia.

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Michael the Brave

Michael the Brave (Mihai Viteazu(l) or Mihai Bravu, Vitéz Mihály; 1558 – 9 August 1601) was the Prince of Wallachia (as Michael II, 1593–1601), Prince of Moldavia (1600) and de facto ruler of Transylvania (1599–1600).

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Middle Ages

In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages (or Medieval Period) lasted from the 5th to the 15th century.

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Mikhail Shein

Mikhail Borisovich Shein (Михаил Борисович Шеин) (?–1634) was a leading Russian general during the reign of Tsar Mikhail Romanov.

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Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł

Prince Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł (Mikalojus Kristupas Radvila Našlaitėlis) (2 Augustus 1549 – 28 February 1616) and nicknamed "the Orphan" (Sierotka, Našlaitėlis), was a Polish-Lithuanian nobleman (szlachcic), Ordynat of Nieśwież from 1586, Court Marshal of Lithuania from 1569, Grand Marshal of Lithuania from 1579, castellan of Trakai from 1586, voivode of Trakai Voivodeship from 1590, voivode of Vilnius Voivodeship from 1604 and governor of Šiauliai.

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Mikołaj Sienicki

Mikołaj Sienicki of Bończa (c. 1521-1582) was a member of the landed gentry of the Kingdom of Poland.

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Mikołaj Zebrzydowski

Mikołaj Zebrzydowski (1553–1620) of Radwan coat of arms, voivode of Lublin from 1589, Grand Crown Marshal 1596–1600, voivode of Kraków from 1601.

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Minority group

A minority group refers to a category of people differentiated from the social majority, those who hold on to major positions of social power in a society.

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Moldavia

Moldavia (Moldova, or Țara Moldovei (in Romanian Latin alphabet), Цара Мѡлдовєй (in old Romanian Cyrillic alphabet) is a historical region and former principality in Central and Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially independent and later autonomous state, it existed from the 14th century to 1859, when it united with Wallachia (Țara Românească) as the basis of the modern Romanian state; at various times, Moldavia included the regions of Bessarabia (with the Budjak), all of Bukovina and Hertza. The region of Pokuttya was also part of it for a period of time. The western half of Moldavia is now part of Romania, the eastern side belongs to the Republic of Moldova, and the northern and southeastern parts are territories of Ukraine.

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Moldavian Magnate Wars

The Moldavian Magnate Wars refer to the period at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century when the magnates of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth intervened in the affairs of Moldavia, clashing with the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire for domination and influence over the principality.

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Morality

Morality (from) is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper.

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Moscow Kremlin

The Moscow Kremlin (p), usually referred to as the Kremlin, is a fortified complex at the heart of Moscow, overlooking the Moskva River to the south, Saint Basil's Cathedral and Red Square to the east, and the Alexander Garden to the west.

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Movilești

The Movileşti (Mohyła, Cyrillic: Могила) were a family of boyars in the principality of Moldavia, which became related through marriage with the Muşatin family – the traditional House of Moldavian sovereigns.

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Mustafa I

Mustafa I (24 June 1591 – 20 January 1639), called Mustafa the Saint (Veli Mustafa) during his second reign and often called Mustafa the Mad (Deli Mustafa) by modern historians, was the son of Mehmed III and was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1617 to 1618 and from 1622 to 1623.

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Mykhailo Doroshenko

Mykhailo Doroshenko (Михайло Дорошенко) (?–1628) was the Hetman of the registered Ukrainian Cossacks from 1623–28.

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Mysticism

Mysticism is the practice of religious ecstasies (religious experiences during alternate states of consciousness), together with whatever ideologies, ethics, rites, myths, legends, and magic may be related to them.

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Nalyvaiko Uprising

The Nalyvaiko Uprising (powstanie Nalewajki, повстання Наливайка) was a failed Cossack rebellion against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Narva

Narva (Нарва) is the third largest city in Estonia.

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National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy

National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy (NaUKMA) (Національний університет «Києво-Могилянська академія» (НаУКМА), Natsional'nyi universytet "Kyyevo-Mohylians'ka akademiya") is a national, coeducational research university located in Kiev, Ukraine.

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Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik; Nikolaus Kopernikus; Niklas Koppernigk; 19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe, likely independently of Aristarchus of Samos, who had formulated such a model some eighteen centuries earlier.

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Nobility

Nobility is a social class in aristocracy, normally ranked immediately under royalty, that possesses more acknowledged privileges and higher social status than most other classes in a society and with membership thereof typically being hereditary.

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Nontrinitarianism

Nontrinitarianism is a form of Christianity that rejects the mainstream Christian doctrine of the Trinity—the teaching that God is three distinct hypostases or persons who are coeternal, coequal, and indivisibly united in one being, or essence (from the Greek ousia).

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Norman Davies

Ivor Norman Richard Davies (born 8 June 1939) is a British-Polish historian noted for his publications on the history of Europe, Poland and the United Kingdom.

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Novhorod-Siverskyi

Novhorod-Siverskyi (Новгород-Сіверський, Novhorod Siverskyi,; Но́вгород-Се́верский, Novgorod-Seversky; Nowogród Siewierski) is a historic city in Chernihiv Oblast (province) of Ukraine.

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Number theory

Number theory, or in older usage arithmetic, is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers.

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Opole

Opole (Oppeln, Silesian German: Uppeln, Uopole, Opolí) is a city located in southern Poland on the Oder River and the historical capital of Upper Silesia.

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Orient

The Orient is the East, traditionally comprising anything that belongs to the Eastern world, in relation to Europe.

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Osman II

Osman II (عثمان ثانى ‘Osmān-i sānī; 3 November 1604 – 20 May 1622), commonly known in Turkey as Genç Osman ("Osman the Young" in English), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1618 until his death by regicide on 20 May 1622.

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Ostrog Bible

The Ostrog Bible (translit; translit) was one of the earliest East Slavic translations of the Bible and the first complete printed edition of the Bible in Old Church Slavonic, published in Ostroh, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (modern territory of Ukraine), by the printer Ivan Fyodorov in 1581 with the assistance of the Ruthenian Prince Konstantin Ostrogski.

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Ostrogski family

The Ostrogski family (Ostrogscy, Ostrogiškiai, Острозькі - Ostroz'ki, Астрожскія, "Астроскія", Острожские -Ostrozhskie) was one of the greatest Polish-Ruthenian families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

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Ostroh Academy

Ostroh Academy was an academy located in Ostroh, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Ostryanyn uprising

The Ostryanyn uprising was a 1638 Cossack uprising against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire (دولت عليه عثمانیه,, literally The Exalted Ottoman State; Modern Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti), also historically known in Western Europe as the Turkish Empire"The Ottoman Empire-also known in Europe as the Turkish Empire" or simply Turkey, was a state that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries.

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Oxygen

Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8.

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Pacta conventa

Pacta conventa (Latin for "articles of agreement") was a contractual agreement, from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i.e., the szlachta (nobility) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a newly elected king upon his "free election" (''wolna elekcja'') to the throne.

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Paide

Paide (Weißenstein) is the capital of Järva County, Estonia.

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Papal legate

A woodcut showing Henry II of England greeting the pope's legate. A papal legate or Apostolic legate (from the Ancient Roman title legatus) is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church.

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Partitions of Poland

The Partitions of Poland were three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 123 years.

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Patriarch Filaret of Moscow

Feodor Nikitich Romanov (Фео́дор Ники́тич Рома́нов,; 1553 – 1 October 1633) was a Russian boyar who after temporary disgrace rose to become patriarch of Moscow as Filaret (Филаре́т), and became de facto ruler of Russia during the reign of his son, Mikhail Feodorovich.

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Patriarch Hermogenes of Moscow

Hermogenes, or Germogen (Гермоге́н) (secular name Yermolay) (before 1530 – February 17, 1612) was the Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia from 1606.

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Pavlo Pavliuk

Pavlo Pavliuk, or Pavlo Mikhnovych (died 1638 in Warsaw).

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Pavlyuk uprising

The Pavlyuk uprising of 1637 was a Cossack uprising in Left-bank Ukraine and Zaporizhia headed by Pavlo Mikhnovych against the abuses of the nobility and magnates of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Pärnu

Pärnu (Pernau) is the fourth-largest city in Estonia.

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Peace of Busza

The Peace of Busza (Busha, Bose) also known as the Treaty of Jaruga was negotiated by Stanisław Żółkiewski of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Iskender Pasha of the Ottoman Empire in Busza (Bose) near the Jaruga and Dniester rivers on 23 September 1617.

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Peace of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia (Westfälischer Friede) was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster that virtually ended the European wars of religion.

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Personal union

A personal union is the combination of two or more states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct.

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Peter Mogila

Metropolitan Peter (secular name Pyotr Simeonovich Mogila, Петро Симеонович Могила, Piotr Mohyła, Petru Movilă, Петр Симеонович Могила; 21 December 1596 –) was an influential Orthodox theologian and reformer, Metropolitan of Kiev, Halych and All Rus' from 1633 until his death.

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Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny

Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny (Петро Конашевич-Сагайдачний; Piotr Konaszewicz-Sahajdaczny; born near 1582 in Kulchytsi, today Sambir Raion – April 20, 1622 in Kyiv) was a Ukrainian political and civic leader, Hetman of Ukrainian Zaporozhian Cossacks from 1616–1622, a brilliant military leader both on land and sea.

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Petty nobility

Petty nobility refers to lower nobility classes.

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Piast dynasty

The Piast dynasty was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland.

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Piotr Skarga

Piotr Skarga (less often, Piotr Powęski; 2 February 1536 – 27 September 1612) was a Polish Jesuit, preacher, hagiographer, polemicist, and leading figure of the Counter-Reformation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Pipe organ

The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air (called wind) through organ pipes selected via a keyboard.

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Plebs

The plebs were, in ancient Rome, the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census.

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Podolia

Podolia or Podilia (Подíлля, Podillja, Подо́лье, Podolʹje., Podolya, Podole, Podolien, Podolė) is a historic region in Eastern Europe, located in the west-central and south-western parts of Ukraine and in northeastern Moldova (i.e. northern Transnistria).

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Poland

Poland (Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country located in Central Europe.

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Polish Academy of Sciences

The Polish Academy of Sciences (Polska Akademia Nauk, PAN) is a Polish state-sponsored institution of higher learning.

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Polish Brethren

The Polish Brethren (Polish: Bracia Polscy) were members of the Minor Reformed Church of Poland, a Nontrinitarian Protestant church that existed in Poland from 1565 to 1658.

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Polish Golden Age

The Polish Golden Age refers to the period from the late 15th century Jagiellon Poland to the death of the last of the Jagiellons, Sigismund August in 1572.

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Polish hussars

The Polish Hussars (or; Husaria), or Winged Hussars, were one of the main types of the cavalry in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between the 16th and 18th centuries.

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Polish Scientific Publishers PWN

Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN; until 1991 Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe - National Scientific Publishers PWN, PWN) is a Polish book publisher, founded in 1951.

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Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, after 1791 the Commonwealth of Poland, was a dualistic state, a bi-confederation of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch, who was both the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania.

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Polish–Lithuanian royal election, 1632

The Election Sejm of 1632 (September 27 – November 8, 1632, extended to November 13, 1632) was the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's election sejm that elevated Władysław IV to the Polish throne.

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Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18)

The Polish–Muscovite War or the Polish–Russian War (1605–1618), also known as the Dimitriads, was a sequence of military conflicts and eastward invasions carried out by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, or the private armies and mercenaries led by the magnates (the Commonwealth aristocracy).

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Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21)

The Polish-Ottoman War (1620–21) or First Polish-Ottoman War was a conflict between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire over the control of Moldavia.

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Polish–Ottoman War (1633–34)

The Polish-Ottoman War of 1633–1634 refers to one of the many military conflicts between the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Ottoman Empire and its vassals.

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Polish–Swedish War (1600–11)

The Polish–Swedish War (1600–11) was a continuation of struggle between Sweden and Poland over control of Livonia and Estonia, as well as the dispute over the Swedish throne between Charles IX of Sweden and Sigismund III of Poland.

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Polish–Swedish War (1617–18)

The Polish–Swedish War (1617–18) was a phase of the longer Polish–Swedish War (1600–29).

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Polish–Swedish War (1621–25)

The Polish–Swedish War (1621–26) was another war in the series of conflicts between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Swedish Empire (see Polish–Swedish wars).

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Polish–Swedish War (1626–29)

The Polish–Swedish War of 1626–1629 was the fourth stage (after 1600–1611, 1617–1618, and 1620–1625) in a series of conflicts between Sweden and Poland fought in the 17th century.

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Polityka

Polityka (Politics) is a centre-left weekly newsmagazine in Poland.

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Polonization

Polonization (or Polonisation; polonizacja)In Polish historiography, particularly pre-WWII (e.g., L. Wasilewski. As noted in Смалянчук А. Ф. (Smalyanchuk 2001) Паміж краёвасцю і нацыянальнай ідэяй. Польскі рух на беларускіх і літоўскіх землях. 1864–1917 г. / Пад рэд. С. Куль-Сяльверставай. – Гродна: ГрДУ, 2001. – 322 с. (2004). Pp.24, 28.), an additional distinction between the Polonization (polonizacja) and self-Polonization (polszczenie się) has been being made, however, most modern Polish researchers don't use the term polszczenie się.

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Polotsk

Polack (official transliteration), Polotsk or Polatsk (translit, translit, Połock, Polockas, Polotsk) is a historical city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina River.

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Pospolite ruszenie

Pospolite ruszenie (lit. mass mobilization; "Noble Host", motio belli, the French term levée en masse is also used) is a name for the mobilisation of armed forces during the period of the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Primate (bishop)

Primate is a title or rank bestowed on some archbishops in certain Christian churches.

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Prince-elector

The prince-electors (or simply electors) of the Holy Roman Empire (Kurfürst, pl. Kurfürsten, Kurfiřt, Princeps Elector) were the members of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire.

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Protestantism

Protestantism is the second largest form of Christianity with collectively more than 900 million adherents worldwide or nearly 40% of all Christians.

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Prussia

Prussia (Preußen) was a historically prominent German state that originated in 1525 with a duchy centred on the region of Prussia.

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Prussian Homage

The Prussian Homage or Prussian Tribute (Preußische Huldigung; hołd pruski) was the formal investment of Albert of Prussia as duke of the Polish fief of Ducal Prussia.

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Pskov

Pskov (p; see also names in other languages) is a city and the administrative center of Pskov Oblast, Russia, located about east from the Estonian border, on the Velikaya River.

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Puck, Poland

Puck (Pùckò, Pùck, Pëck, Putzig, Puckas, Pucka) is a town in northwestern Poland with 11,350 inhabitants.

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Quietism (Christian philosophy)

Quietism is the name given (especially in Roman Catholic Church theology) to a set of Christian beliefs that rose in popularity in France, Italy, and Spain during the late 1670s and 1680s, particularly associated with the writings of Miguel de Molinos (and subsequently François Malaval and Madame Guyon), and which were condemned as heresy by Pope Innocent XI in the papal bull Coelestis Pastor of 1687.

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Racibórz

Racibórz (Ratibor, Ratiboř, Raćibůrz) is a town in Silesian Voivodeship in southern Poland.

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Racovian Academy

The Racovian Academy (Gymnasium Bonarum Artium) was a Socinian school operated from 1602 to 1638 by the Polish Brethren in Raków, Sandomierz Voivodeship of Lesser Poland.

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Raków, Kielce County

Raków is a village in Kielce County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland.

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Real union

Real union is a union of two or more states, which share some state institutions as in contrast to personal unions; however they are not as unified as states in a political union.

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Red Ruthenia

Red Ruthenia or Red Rus' (Ruthenia Rubra; Russia Rubra; Chervona Rus'; Ruś Czerwona, Ruś Halicka; Chervonnaya Rus') is a term used since the Middle Ages for a region now comprising south-eastern Poland and adjoining parts of western Ukraine.

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Reformation

The Reformation (or, more fully, the Protestant Reformation; also, the European Reformation) was a schism in Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther and continued by Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin and other Protestant Reformers in 16th century Europe.

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Regent

A regent (from the Latin regens: ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state because the monarch is a minor, is absent or is incapacitated.

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Registered Cossacks

Registered Cossacks (Kozacy rejestrowi) comprised special Cossack units of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth army in the 16th and 17th centuries.

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Renaissance humanism

Renaissance humanism is the study of classical antiquity, at first in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.

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Renaissance in Poland

The Renaissance in Poland (Renesans, Odrodzenie; literally: the Rebirth) lasted from the late 15th to the late 16th century and is widely considered to have been the Golden Age of Polish culture.

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Republic

A republic (res publica) is a form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter", not the private concern or property of the rulers.

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Richard Overy

Richard James Overy (born 23 December 1947) is a British historian who has published extensively on the history of World War II and Nazi Germany.

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Riga

Riga (Rīga) is the capital and largest city of Latvia.

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Riksdag of the Estates

Riksdag of the Estates (formally Riksens ständer; informally Ståndsriksdagen) was the name used for the Estates of Sweden when they were assembled.

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Rocket

A rocket (from Italian rocchetto "bobbin") is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine.

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Rokosz

A rokosz originally was a gathering of all the Polish szlachta (nobility), not merely of deputies, for a sejm.

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Roman Curia

The Roman Curia is the administrative apparatus of the Holy See and the central body through which the Roman Pontiff conducts the affairs of the universal Catholic Church.

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Royal Castle, Warsaw

The Royal Castle in Warsaw (Zamek Królewski w Warszawie) is a castle residency that formerly served throughout the centuries as the official residence of the Polish monarchs.

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Royal elections in Poland

Royal elections in Poland (wolna elekcja, lit. free election) was the election of individual kings, rather than of dynasties, to the Polish throne.

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Royal Prussia

Royal Prussia (Prusy Królewskie; Königlich-Preußen or Preußen Königlichen Anteils, Królewsczé Prësë) or Polish PrussiaAnton Friedrich Büsching, Patrick Murdoch.

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Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor

Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608).

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Rurik dynasty

The Rurik dynasty, or Rurikids (Рю́риковичи, Ryúrikovichi; Рю́риковичі, Ryúrykovychi; Ру́рыкавічы, Rúrykavichi, literally "sons of Rurik"), was a dynasty founded by the Varangian prince Rurik, who established himself in Novgorod around the year AD 862.

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Russian Empire

The Russian Empire (Российская Империя) or Russia was an empire that existed across Eurasia and North America from 1721, following the end of the Great Northern War, until the Republic was proclaimed by the Provisional Government that took power after the February Revolution of 1917.

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Russian Orthodox Church

The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC; Rússkaya pravoslávnaya tsérkov), alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate (Moskóvskiy patriarkhát), is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox patriarchates.

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Ruthenia

Ruthenia (Рѹ́сь (Rus) and Рѹ́сьскаѧ землѧ (Rus'kaya zemlya), Ῥωσία, Rus(s)ia, Ruscia, Ruzzia, Rut(h)enia, Roxolania, Garðaríki) is a proper geographical exonym for Kievan Rus' and other, more local, historical states.

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Ruthenian language

Ruthenian or Old Ruthenian (see other names) was the group of varieties of East Slavic spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Rzeczpospolita

Rzeczpospolita Polska is a traditional and official name of the Polish State – Rzeczpospolita Polska (Res Publica Poloniae, Republic of Poland).

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Rzeczpospolita (newspaper)

Rzeczpospolita is a nationwide daily economic and legal newspaper and the only conservative-liberal newspaper in Poland.

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Samuel Korecki

Samuel Korecki (c. 1586 – June 27, 1622), Polish duke, nobleman (szlachcic) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, famous adventurer and zagończyk. His coat of arms was Pogonia.

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Samuel Twardowski

Samuel Twardowski (before 1600 – 1661) was a Polish poet, diarist, and essayist who gained popularity in 17th century Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, called by his contemporaries 'Polish Virgil'.

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Samuel Zborowski

Samuel Zborowski (died 1584) was a Polish military commander and a notable member of the szlachta (Polish nobility).

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Sandomierz

Sandomierz (pronounced:; Tsoizmer צויזמער) is a town in south-eastern Poland with 25,714 inhabitants (2006), situated in the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (since 1999).

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Sandomierz Agreement

The Sandomierz Agreement (or Sandomierz Consensus; lat. Consensus Sendomiriensis) was an agreement reached in 1570 in Sandomierz between a number of Protestant groups in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Sandomierz Voivodeship

Sandomierz Voivodeship (Województwo Sandomierskie, Palatinatus Sandomirensis) was a unit of administration and local government in Poland from the 14th century to the partitions of Poland in 1772–1795.

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Sarmatism

Sarmatism (or Sarmatianism) is an ethno-cultural concept with a shade of politics designating the formation of an idea of Poland's origin from Sarmatians within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Słupsk

Słupsk (Stolp; also known by several alternative names) is a city in the Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland, with a population of 98,757.

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Sebastian Grabowiecki

Sebastian Grabowiecki (c. 1543 – 1607) was a Polish Catholic priest and poet.

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Sebastian Klonowic

Sebastian Fabian Klonowic (1545 Sulmierzyce – August 29, 1602 Lublin) was a Polish poet and composer.

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Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The general sejm (sejm walny, also translated as the full or ordinary sejm) was the bicameral parliament of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Sejmik

A sejmik (diminutive of sejm, occasionally translated as a dietine; seimelis) was one of various local parliaments in the history of Poland.

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Senate of Poland

The Senate (Senat) is the upper house of the Polish parliament, the lower house being the 'Sejm'.

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Sendivogius

Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój; 1566–1636) was a Polish alchemist, philosopher, and medical doctor.

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Serfdom

Serfdom is the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism.

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Seven Boyars

The Seven Boyars (Семибоярщина, the Russian term indicating "Rule of the Seven Boyars" or "the Deeds of the Seven Boyars") were a group of Russian nobles who deposed Tsar Vasily Shuisky on 17 July 1610 and, later that year, invited the Poles into Moscow.

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Severyn Nalyvaiko

Severyn (Semeriy) Nalyvaiko (in older historiography also Semen Nalewajko, died 21 April 1597) was a leader of the Ukrainian Cossacks who became a hero of Ukrainian folklore.

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Shuysky

The Princes Shuysky (Шуйские) is a Rurikid Princely family of former boyars descending from Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich of Vladimir-Suzdal and Prince Andrey Yaroslavich, brother to Alexander Nevsky.

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Siege of Smolensk (1609–11)

The Siege of Smolensk, known as the Smolensk Defense in Russia (Смоленская оборона in Russian) lasted 20 months between September 1609 and June 1611, when the Polish army besieged the Russian city of Smolensk during the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–18).

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Siege of Smolensk (1632–33)

The Siege of Smolensk lasted almost a year between 1632 and 1633, when the Muscovite army besieged the Polish–Lithuanian city of Smolensk during the war named after that siege.

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Sigismund II Augustus

Sigismund II Augustus (Zygmunt II August, Ruthenian: Żygimont II Awgust, Žygimantas II Augustas, Sigismund II.) (1 August 1520 – 7 July 1572) was the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548.

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Sigismund III Vasa

Sigismund III Vasa (also known as Sigismund III of Poland, Zygmunt III Waza, Sigismund, Žygimantas Vaza, English exonym: Sigmund; 20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632 N.S.) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, monarch of the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1587 to 1632, and King of Sweden (where he is known simply as Sigismund) from 1592 as a composite monarchy until he was deposed in 1599.

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Sigismund's Column

Sigismund's Column (Kolumna Zygmunta), originally erected in 1644, is located in Castle Square, Warsaw, Poland and is one of Warsaw's most famous landmarks.

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Silesia

Silesia (Śląsk; Slezsko;; Silesian German: Schläsing; Silesian: Ślůnsk; Šlazyńska; Šleska; Silesia) is a region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany.

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Simion Movilă

Simion Movilă, a boyar of the Movileşti family, was twice Prince of Wallachia (October 1600 – 3 July 1601; August 1601 – August 1602) and Prince of Moldavia on one occasion (10 July 1606 – 24 September 1607).

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Sinop, Turkey

Sinop (Σινώπη, Sinōpē, historically known as Sinope) is a city with a population of 36,734 on the isthmus of İnce Burun (İnceburun, Cape Ince), near Cape Sinope (Sinop Burnu, Boztepe Cape, Boztepe Burnu) which is situated on the most northern edge of the Turkish side of the Black Sea coast, in the ancient region of Paphlagonia, in modern-day northern Turkey.

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Slovakia

Slovakia (Slovensko), officially the Slovak Republic (Slovenská republika), is a landlocked country in Central Europe.

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Slovincian language

Slovincian is the language formerly spoken by the Slovincians (Słowińcë, Słowińcy, Slowinzen, Lebakaschuben), a West Slavic tribe living between lakes Gardno and Łebsko near Słupsk in Pomerania.

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Smolensk

Smolensk (a) is a city and the administrative center of Smolensk Oblast, Russia, located on the Dnieper River, west-southwest of Moscow.

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Smolensk War

The Smolensk War (1632–1634) was a conflict fought between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia.

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Social mobility

Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society.

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Society of Jesus

The Society of Jesus (SJ – from Societas Iesu) is a scholarly religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in sixteenth-century Spain.

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Stanisław August Poniatowski

Stanisław II Augustus (also Stanisław August Poniatowski; born Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski; 17 January 1732 – 12 February 1798), who reigned as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1764 to 1795, was the last monarch of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Stanisław Łubieński

Stanisław Łubieński (1573 – 16 April 1640), of Pomian coat of arms, was a Polish noble, politician and bishop.

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Stanisław Żółkiewski

Stanisław Żółkiewski (1547 – 7 October 1620) was a Polish nobleman of the Lubicz coat of arms, magnate and military commander of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, who took part in many campaigns of the Commonwealth and on its southern and eastern borders.

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Stanisław Karnkowski

Stanisław Karnkowski (1520–1603), from Junosza, was the Great Referendary of the Crown (since 1558), the Great Secretary of the Crown (since 1563), bishop of Włocławek (1567-1580), archbishop of Gniezno – Primate of Poland (since 1581).

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Stanisław Koniecpolski

Stanisław Koniecpolski (1591 – 11 March 1646) was a Polish military commander, regarded as one of the most talented and capable in the history of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Stanisław Leszczyński

Stanisław I Leszczyński (also Anglicized and Latinized as Stanislaus I, Stanislovas Leščinskis, Stanislas Leszczynski; 20 October 1677 – 23 February 1766) was King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Duke of Lorraine and a count of the Holy Roman Empire.

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Stanisław Orzechowski

Stanisław Orzechowski, also Stanislas Orzechowski and Stanislaus Orzechowski (1513–1566) was a Ruthenian and Polish political writer.

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Stanislaus Hosius

Stanislaus Hosius (Stanisław Hozjusz; 5 May 1504 – 5 August 1579) was a Polish Roman Catholic cardinal.

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Stefan Chmielecki

Stefan Chmielecki (died 1630) was a Polish noble of Chmieleccy noble family and voivode of Kiev (1629–1630).

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Stephen Báthory

Stephen Báthory (Báthory István; Stefan Batory; Steponas Batoras; 27 September 1533 – 12 December 1586) was Voivode of Transylvania (1571–76), Prince of Transylvania (1576–86), from 1576 Queen Anna Jagiellon's husband and jure uxoris King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1576-1586).

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Sultan

Sultan (سلطان) is a position with several historical meanings.

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Sweden

Sweden (Sverige), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish), is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe.

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Szlachta

The szlachta (exonym: Nobility) was a legally privileged noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Samogitia (both after Union of Lublin became a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and the Zaporozhian Host.

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Szymon Szymonowic

Szymon Szymonowic (in Latin, Simon Simonides; in Armenian, Շիմոն Շիմոնովիչ; also, in Polish, "Szymonowicz" and "Bendoński"; born Lwów, 24 October 1558 – died 5 May 1629, Czarnięcin, near Zamość) was a Polish Renaissance poet.

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Tallinn

Tallinn (or,; names in other languages) is the capital and largest city of Estonia.

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Taras Fedorovych

Taras Fedorovych (pseudonym, Taras Triasylo, Hassan Tarasa, Assan Trasso) (Тара́с Федоро́вич, Taras Fedorowicz) (died after 1636) was a prominent leader of the Dnieper Cossacks, a popular Hetman (Cossack leader) elected by unregistered Cossacks.

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Tatars

The Tatars (татарлар, татары) are a Turkic-speaking peoples living mainly in Russia and other Post-Soviet countries.

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Tczew

Tczew (Dërszewò) is a town on the Vistula River in Eastern Pomerania, Kociewie, northern Poland with 60,279 inhabitants (June 2009).

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Thirty Years' War

The Thirty Years' War was a war fought primarily in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648.

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Time of Troubles

The Time of Troubles (Смутное время, Smutnoe vremya) was a period of Russian history comprising the years of interregnum between the death of the last Russian Tsar of the Rurik Dynasty, Feodor Ivanovich, in 1598, and the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613.

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Timothy D. Snyder

Timothy David Snyder (born 1969) is an American author and historian specializing in the history of Central and Eastern Europe, and the Holocaust.

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Tommaso Dolabella

Tommaso Dolabella (Tomasz Dolabella; 1570 – 17 January 1650) was a Baroque Italian painter from Venice, who settled in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the royal court of King Sigismund III Vasa.

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Toruń

Toruń (Thorn) is a city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River.

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Transylvania

Transylvania is a historical region in today's central Romania.

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Treaty of Khotyn

Treaty of Khotyn (Chocim/Hotin), signed in the aftermath of the Battle of Khotyn (1621), ended the Polish-Ottoman War (1620–1621).

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Treaty of Kurukove

The Treaty of Kurukove (Куруківський Договір) was an agreement between Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Mykhailo Doroshenko of the Ukrainian Cossacks.

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Treaty of Pereyaslav (1630)

Treaty of Pereiaslav was signed in late June 1630 between rebellious Cossack forces of Taras Fedorovych (see Fedorovych Uprising) and Polish forces led by hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski.

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Treaty of Polyanovka

The Treaty of Polyanovka (Polanów, also known as the Peace of Polyanovka / Polanów) was a peace treaty signed on 14 June 1634 between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Tsardom of Russia in the village of Semlevo located near the Polyanovka river between Vyazma and Dorogobuzh.

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Treaty of Stettin (1570)

The Treaty of Stettin (Frieden von Stettin, Freden i Stettin, Freden i Stettin) of 13 December 1570, ended the Northern Seven Years' War fought between Sweden and Denmark with her internally fragmented alliance of Lübeck and Poland.

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Treaty of Stuhmsdorf

The Treaty of Stuhmsdorf (Stilleståndet i Stuhmsdorf) or Sztumska Wieś (Rozejm w Sztumskiej Wsi) was a treaty signed on 12 September 1635 between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden in the village of Stuhmsdorf, Royal Prussia (now Sztumska Wieś, Poland), just south of Stuhm (Sztum).

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Truce of Altmark

The six-year Truce of Altmark (or Treaty of Stary Targ, Vertrag von Altmark, Stillståndet i Altmark, Rozejm w Altmarku) was signed on 16 (O.S.)/26 (N.S.) September 1629 at the Altmark (Stary Targ), near Danzig (Gdańsk) by Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during Thirty Years' War, ending the Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629).

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Truce of Deulino

Truce of Deulino (also known as Peace or Treaty of Dywilino) was signed on 11 December 1618 and took effect on 4 January 1619.

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Truce of Mitawa

The Truce of Mitawa or Truce of Mitau, signed in November 1622 in Jelgava (Mitawa, Mitau), ended the Polish–Swedish War (1620–1622).

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Truce of Yam-Zapolsky

The Truce or Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky (Ям-Запольский) or Jam Zapolski, signed on 15 January 1582 between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia, was one of the treaties that ended the Livonian War.

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Tsar

Tsar (Old Bulgarian / Old Church Slavonic: ц︢рь or цар, цaрь), also spelled csar, or czar, is a title used to designate East and South Slavic monarchs or supreme rulers of Eastern Europe.

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Tsardom of Russia

The Tsardom of Russia (Русское царство, Russkoye tsarstvo or Российское царство, Rossiyskoye tsarstvo), also known as the Tsardom of Muscovy, was the name of the centralized Russian state from assumption of the title of Tsar by Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great in 1721.

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Tugay Bey

Mirza Tughai Bey, Tuhay Bey (Toğay bey; Tuhaj-bej; Cyrillic: Тугай-бей) sometimes also spelled as Tugai Bey (died June 1651) was a notable military leader and politician of the Crimean Tatars.

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Ujazdów Castle

Ujazdów Castle (Zamek Ujazdowski) is a castle in the historic Ujazdów district, between Ujazdów Park (Park Ujazdowski) and the Royal Baths Park (Łazienki Królewskie), in Warsaw, Poland.

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Ukraine

Ukraine (Ukrayina), sometimes called the Ukraine, is a sovereign state in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the east and northeast; Belarus to the northwest; Poland, Hungary, and Slovakia to the west; Romania and Moldova to the southwest; and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively.

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Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church

The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC) (Ecclesia Graeco-Catholica Ucrainae) is a Byzantine Rite Eastern Catholic Church in full communion with the Holy See.

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Ukrainians

Ukrainians (українці, ukrayintsi) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is by total population the sixth-largest nation in Europe.

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Union of Brest

The Union of Brest, or Union of Brześć, was the 1595-96 decision of the Ruthenian Orthodox Church eparchies (dioceses) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to break relations with the Eastern Orthodox Church and to enter into communion with, and place itself under the authority of the Pope of Rome.

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Union of Lublin

The Union of Lublin (unia lubelska; Liublino unija) was signed on 1 July 1569, in Lublin, Poland, and created a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Upper Silesia

Upper Silesia (Górny Śląsk; Silesian Polish: Gůrny Ślůnsk; Horní Slezsko; Oberschlesien; Silesian German: Oberschläsing; Silesia Superior) is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia, located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic.

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Varna

Varna (Варна, Varna) is the third-largest city in Bulgaria and the largest city and seaside resort on the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast.

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Vasili IV of Russia

Vasili IV of Russia (Василий IV Иванович Шуйский, Vasíliy Ivánovich Shúyskiy, other transliterations: Vasily, Vasilii; 22 September 155212 September 1612) was Tsar of Russia between 1606 and 1610 after the murder of False Dmitriy I. His reign fell during the Time of Troubles.

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Vassal

A vassal is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe.

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Vassal state

A vassal state is any state that is subordinate to another.

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Veliky Novgorod

Veliky Novgorod (p), also known as Novgorod the Great, or Novgorod Veliky, or just Novgorod, is one of the most important historic cities in Russia, which serves as the administrative center of Novgorod Oblast.

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Velizh

Velizh (Ве́лиж; Веліж; Wieliż; Veližas) is a town and the administrative center of Velizhsky District in Smolensk Oblast, Russia, located on the bank of the Western Dvina, from Smolensk, the administrative center of the oblast.

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Venice

Venice (Venezia,; Venesia) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region.

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Vienna

Vienna (Wien) is the federal capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria.

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Vilnius

Vilnius (see also other names) is the capital of Lithuania and its largest city, with a population of 574,221.

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Vilnius University

Vilnius University (Vilniaus universitetas; former names exist) is the oldest university in the Baltic states and one of the oldest in Northern Europe.

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Vistula

The Vistula (Wisła, Weichsel,, ווייסל), Висла) is the longest and largest river in Poland, at in length. The drainage basin area of the Vistula is, of which lies within Poland (54% of its land area). The remainder is in Belarus, Ukraine and Slovakia. The Vistula rises at Barania Góra in the south of Poland, above sea level in the Silesian Beskids (western part of Carpathian Mountains), where it begins with the White Little Vistula (Biała Wisełka) and the Black Little Vistula (Czarna Wisełka). It then continues to flow over the vast Polish plains, passing several large Polish cities along its way, including Kraków, Sandomierz, Warsaw, Płock, Włocławek, Toruń, Bydgoszcz, Świecie, Grudziądz, Tczew and Gdańsk. It empties into the Vistula Lagoon (Zalew Wiślany) or directly into the Gdańsk Bay of the Baltic Sea with a delta and several branches (Leniwka, Przekop, Śmiała Wisła, Martwa Wisła, Nogat and Szkarpawa).

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Voivode

VoivodeAlso spelled "voievod", "woiwode", "voivod", "voyvode", "vojvoda", or "woiwod" (Old Slavic, literally "war-leader" or "warlord") is an Eastern European title that originally denoted the principal commander of a military force.

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Volhynia

Volhynia, also Volynia or Volyn (Wołyń, Volýn) is a historic region in Central and Eastern Europe straddling between south-eastern Poland, parts of south-western Belarus, and western Ukraine.

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Vyazma

Vyazma (Вя́зьма) is a town and the administrative center of Vyazemsky District in Smolensk Oblast, Russia, located on the Vyazma River, about halfway between Smolensk, the administrative center of the oblast, and Mozhaysk.

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Wallachia

Wallachia or Walachia (Țara Românească; archaic: Țeara Rumânească, Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: Цѣра Рȣмѫнѣскъ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania.

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War against Sigismund

The war against Sigismund (Kriget mot Sigismund) was a war between Duke Charles, later King Charles IX and Sigismund, King of Sweden and Poland.

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War of the Polish Succession (1587–88)

The War of the Polish Succession or the Habsburg-Polish War took place from 1587 to 1588 over the election of monarch after the death of King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Stephen Báthory.

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Warmia

Warmia (Warmia, Latin: Varmia,, Old Prussian: Wārmi, Varmė) is a historical region in northern Poland.

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Warsaw

Warsaw (Warszawa; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland.

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Warsaw Confederation

The Warsaw Confederation, signed on 28 January 1573 by the Polish national assembly (sejm konwokacyjny) in Warsaw, was the first European act granting religious freedoms.

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Władysław IV Vasa

Władysław IV Vasa (Władysław IV Waza; Vladislovas Vaza; r; Vladislaus IV Vasa or Ladislaus IV Vasa; 9 June 1595 – 20 May 1648) was a Polish prince from the Royal House of Vasa.

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Western Christianity

Western Christianity is the type of Christianity which developed in the areas of the former Western Roman Empire.

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Western culture

Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization, Occidental culture, the Western world, Western society, European civilization,is a term used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief systems, political systems and specific artifacts and technologies that have some origin or association with Europe.

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Western Hemisphere

The Western Hemisphere is a geographical term for the half of Earth which lies west of the prime meridian (which crosses Greenwich, London, United Kingdom) and east of the antimeridian.

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Wiśniowiecki

Wiśniowiecki (Вишневе́цькі, Vyshnevetski; Višnioveckiai) was a Polish princely family of Ruthenian-Lithuanian origin, notable in the history of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Wieliczka

Wieliczka (German: Groß Salze) is a town (2006 population: 19,128) in southern Poland in the Kraków metropolitan area, and situated (since 1999) in Lesser Poland Voivodeship; previously, it was in Kraków Voivodeship (1975–1998).

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Willem Hondius

Willem Hondius or Willem Hondt (ca. 1598 in The Hague – 1652 or 1658 in Danzig (Gdańsk)) was a Dutch engraver, cartographer and painter who spent most of his life in Poland.

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Wojsko komputowe

Wojsko komputowe (comput army) is a type of military unit used in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 17th century and the 18th century.

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Wojsko kwarciane

Wojsko kwarciane (quarter army) was the term used for regular army units of Poland (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth).

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Wrocław

Wrocław (Breslau; Vratislav; Vratislavia) is the largest city in western Poland.

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Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie

Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie is a publishing company founded in 1986 with cooperation with Bertelsmann Media.

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Zamość

Zamość (Yiddish: זאמאשטש Zamoshtsh) is a city in southeastern Poland, situated in the southern part of Lublin Voivodeship (since 1999), about from Lublin, from Warsaw and from the border with Ukraine.

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Zamojski Academy

The Zamojski Academy (Akademia Zamojska; Hippaeum Zamoscianum) 1594–1784) was an academy founded in 1594 by Polish Crown Chancellor Jan Zamoyski."Akademia Zamojska" ("Zamojski Academy"), Encyklopedia Polski, p. 13. It was the third institution of higher education to be founded in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth., Urząd Marszałkowski Województwa Lubelskiego w Lublinie After his death it slowly lost its importance, and in 1784 it was downgraded to a lyceum. The present-day I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Hetmana Jana Zamoyskiego w Zamościu is one of several secondary schools in Zamość.

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Zaporizhia (region)

Zaporizhia (Запоріжжя or Запорожжя, Zaporozhia) is a historical region in central Ukraine below the Dnieper River rapids (пороги porohy) - hence the name, literally "(territory) beyond the rapids".

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Zaporozhian Cossacks

The Zaporozhian Cossacks, Zaporozhian Cossack Army, Zaporozhian Host (Військо Запорізьке, Войско Запорожское) or simply Zaporozhians (translit) were Cossacks who lived beyond the rapids of the Dnieper River, the land also known under the historical term Wild Fields in today's Central Ukraine.

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Zasławski

Zasławski (plural Zasławscy) was the name of a Polish–Ruthenian noble family and a cadet branch of the Ostrogski family.

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Zbaraski

Korybut coat of arms Zbaraski was a princely family of Ruthenian origin in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland domiciled in Volhynia (today Ukraine).

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Zbigniew Szydlo

Zbigniew A. Szydło (born 1949; also known as Andrew Szydlo) is a chemist, academic and teacher.

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Zborowski

Zborowski is a Polish surname, it may refer to.

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Zebrzydowski rebellion

Zebrzydowski's rebellion (rokosz Zebrzydowskiego), or the Sandomierz rebellion (rokosz sandomierski), was a rokosz (semi-legal rebellion) in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth against King Sigismund III Vasa.

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Zielona Góra

Zielona Góra (Grünberg in Schlesien) is the largest city in Lubusz Voivodeship, in western Poland, with 138,512 inhabitants (2015).

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Redirects here:

History of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569-1648), Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the early stage (1569-1648), Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the early stage (1569-1648).

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth_(1569–1648)

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