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Sugar

Index Sugar

Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. [1]

243 relations: ABO blood group system, Activated carbon, Added sugar, Aldehyde, Alzheimer's disease, Amaranthaceae, Amylase, Apple, Apricot, Arabia Felix, Arabic, Arabic definite article, Aspartame, Ayurveda, Bagasse, Banana, Barley, Barley sugar, Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio, Beetroot, Bell pepper, Beta vulgaris, Biennial plant, Bihar, Biomarker, Biopolymer, Blockade, Brown sugar, Butanol fuel, Calcium hydroxide, Calorie, Canary Islands, Caramel, Caramelization, Carbohydrate, Carbonatation, Carbonyl group, Cardiovascular disease, Carrot, Causality, Cell (biology), Cell wall, Cellulose, Chaptalization, Chemical equilibrium, Chemical formula, Chewing gum, Christopher Columbus, Clarified butter, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, ..., Common fig, Cone, Cookie, Corn syrup, Crusades, Cultivar, Dačice, Date palm, De Materia Medica, Dementia, Deoxyribose, Devanagari, Developed country, Diabetes mellitus, Diacetyl, Diet food, Dietary fiber, Disaccharide, DNA, Domino Foods, Dust explosion, Emperor Taizong of Tang, Empty calorie, Energy homeostasis, Enzymatic hydrolysis, Enzyme, Ethanol, Etymology, Eugen Langen, Family (biology), Fermentation in winemaking, Feuerzangenbowle, Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database, Food energy, Fructose, Fruit preserves, Galactose, Glucose, Glycemic index, Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, Glycerol, Glycomics, Glycosidic bond, Grape, Greek language, Gupta Empire, Guyana Sugar Corporation, Hard candy, Harsha, Henry Tate, Heterocyclic compound, Hexose, High-fructose corn syrup, Hispaniola, Holing cane, Holy Land, Honey, Hydrolysis, Ice cream, Indentured servitude, India, Indian subcontinent, Indonesia, International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis, Inulin, Inverted sugar syrup, Ion-exchange resin, Iran, Isomer, Jaggery, Jakob Christof Rad, Juice, Ketone, Khyber Pass, La Gomera, Lactase, Lactose, Limewater, Lincolnshire, Liquorice, List of unrefined sweeteners, Malt, Maltase, Maltodextrin, Maltose, Marmalade, Medieval Latin, Metabolic syndrome, Metabolism, Molasses, Monosaccharide, Moravia, Morocco, Muscovado, Must, Napoleonic Wars, Natural History (Pliny), New Guinea, Nighantu, North India, Nutrient, Obesity, Old French, Oligosaccharide, Onion, Open-chain compound, Orange (fruit), Osmophile, Peach, Pear, Pectin, Pedanius Dioscorides, Pentose, Per capita, Persian language, Photosynthesis, Pineapple, Plantation, Pliny the Elder, Plum, Poaceae, Policy, Polyol, Polysaccharide, Portuguese language, Potential energy, Powdered sugar, Princeton University Press, Red blood cell, Reference Daily Intake, Refining, Ribose, RNA, Rum, Ruminant, Saccharin, Saccharum, Saccharum barberi, Saccharum edule, Saccharum officinarum, Sanskrit, Santa Catarina Island, Saturated fat, Slavery, Smoking (cooking), Soft drink, Starch, Stevia, Strawberry, Sucralose, Sucrase, Sucrose, Sugar alcohol, Sugar Association, Sugar beet, Sugar nips, Sugar plantations in the Caribbean, Sugar refinery, Sugar substitute, Sugarcane, Sugarcane juice, Sugarcane mill, Sugarloaf, Sugars in wine, Sulfur dioxide, Supersaturation, Sweet corn, Sweet potato, Sweetness, Sweetness of wine, Symbiosis, Syrup, Systematic review, Tang dynasty, Tate & Lyle, The Sugar Girls, Toffee, Tonne, Tooth decay, Trade route, Trapiche, Treacle, Tyre, Lebanon, United Nations, United States customary units, Vacuum drying, Venice, Volatility (chemistry), William of Tyre, Winemaking, World Health Organization, Yam (vegetable), 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion. Expand index (193 more) »

ABO blood group system

The ABO blood group system is used to denote the presence of one, both, or neither of the A and B antigens on erythrocytes.

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Activated carbon

Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form of carbon processed to have small, low-volume pores that increase the surface area available for adsorption or chemical reactions.

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Added sugar

Added sugars are sugar carbohydrates (caloric sweeteners) added to food and beverages during their production (industrial processing).

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Aldehyde

An aldehyde or alkanal is an organic compound containing a functional group with the structure −CHO, consisting of a carbonyl center (a carbon double-bonded to oxygen) with the carbon atom also bonded to hydrogen and to an R group, which is any generic alkyl or side chain.

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Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), also referred to simply as Alzheimer's, is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time.

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Amaranthaceae

Amaranthaceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the amaranth family, in reference to its type genus Amaranthus.

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Amylase

An amylase is an enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of starch into sugars.

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Apple

An apple is a sweet, edible fruit produced by an apple tree (Malus pumila).

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Apricot

An apricot is a fruit, or the tree that bears the fruit, of several species in the genus Prunus (stone fruits).

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Arabia Felix

Arabia Felix (lit. Fertile Arabia; also Ancient Greek: Eudaimon Arabia) was the Latin name previously used by geographers to describe the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, and South Arabia.

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Arabic

Arabic (العَرَبِيَّة) or (عَرَبِيّ) or) is a Central Semitic language that first emerged in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living from Mesopotamia in the east to the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, in northwestern Arabia, and in the Sinai peninsula. Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage comprising 30 modern varieties, including its standard form, Modern Standard Arabic, which is derived from Classical Arabic. As the modern written language, Modern Standard Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic (fuṣḥā), which is the official language of 26 states and the liturgical language of Islam. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties, and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-classical era, especially in modern times. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also borrowed many words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages, mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese, Valencian and Catalan, owing to both the proximity of Christian European and Muslim Arab civilizations and 800 years of Arabic culture and language in the Iberian Peninsula, referred to in Arabic as al-Andalus. Sicilian has about 500 Arabic words as result of Sicily being progressively conquered by Arabs from North Africa, from the mid 9th to mid 10th centuries. Many of these words relate to agriculture and related activities (Hull and Ruffino). Balkan languages, including Greek and Bulgarian, have also acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. Some of the most influenced languages are Persian, Turkish, Spanish, Urdu, Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Hindi, Malay, Maldivian, Indonesian, Pashto, Punjabi, Tagalog, Sindhi, and Hausa, and some languages in parts of Africa. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed words from other languages, including Greek and Persian in medieval times, and contemporary European languages such as English and French in modern times. Classical Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.8 billion Muslims and Modern Standard Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script and is written from right to left, although the spoken varieties are sometimes written in ASCII Latin from left to right with no standardized orthography.

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Arabic definite article

(ال), also transliterated as el- as pronounced in varieties of Arabic, is the definite article in the Arabic language: a particle (ḥarf) whose function is to render the noun on which it is prefixed definite.

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Aspartame

Aspartame (APM) is an artificial non-saccharide sweetener used as a sugar substitute in some foods and beverages.

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Ayurveda

Ayurveda is a system of medicine with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent.

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Bagasse

Bagasse is the fibrous matter that remains after sugarcane or sorghum stalks are crushed to extract their juice.

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Banana

A banana is an edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa.

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Barley

Barley (Hordeum vulgare), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally.

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Barley sugar

Barley sugar (or barley sugar candy) is a traditional variety of boiled sweet (hard candy), often yellow or orange in colour, which is usually made with an extract of barley, giving it a characteristic taste and colour.

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Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio

Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio (Medina del Campo, 1462 – Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 1501) was the daughter of Juan de Bobadilla and the niece of her namesake Beatriz de Bobadilla.

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Beetroot

The beetroot is the taproot portion of the beet plant, usually known in North America as the beet, also table beet, garden beet, red beet, or golden beet.

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Bell pepper

The bell pepper (also known as sweet pepper, pepper or capsicum) is a cultivar group of the species Capsicum annuum.

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Beta vulgaris

Beta vulgaris (beet) is a plant which is included in Betoideae subfamily in the Amaranthaceae family.

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Biennial plant

A biennial plant is a flowering plant that takes two years to complete its biological lifecycle.

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Bihar

Bihar is an Indian state considered to be a part of Eastern as well as Northern India.

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Biomarker

A biomarker, or biological marker, generally refers to a measurable indicator of some biological state or condition.

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Biopolymer

Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms; in other words, they are polymeric biomolecules.

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Blockade

A blockade is an effort to cut off supplies, war material or communications from a particular area by force, either in part or totally.

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Brown sugar

Brown sugar is a sucrose sugar product with a distinctive brown color due to the presence of molasses.

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Butanol fuel

Butanol may be used as a fuel in an internal combustion engine.

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Calcium hydroxide

Calcium hydroxide (traditionally called slaked lime) is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ca(OH)2.

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Calorie

A calorie is a unit of energy.

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Canary Islands

The Canary Islands (Islas Canarias) is a Spanish archipelago and autonomous community of Spain located in the Atlantic Ocean, west of Morocco at the closest point.

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Caramel

Caramel is a medium- to dark-orange confectionery product made by heating a variety of sugars.

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Caramelization

Caramelization is the browning of sugar, a process used extensively in cooking for the resulting sweet nutty flavor and brown color.

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Carbohydrate

A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (where m may be different from n).

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Carbonatation

Carbonatation is a chemical reaction in which calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide and forms insoluble calcium carbonate: The process of forming a carbonate is sometimes referred to as "carbonation", although this term usually refers to the process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water.

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Carbonyl group

In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C.

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Cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels.

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Carrot

The carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) is a root vegetable, usually orange in colour, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist.

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Causality

Causality (also referred to as causation, or cause and effect) is what connects one process (the cause) with another process or state (the effect), where the first is partly responsible for the second, and the second is partly dependent on the first.

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Cell (biology)

The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms.

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Cell wall

A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just outside the cell membrane.

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Cellulose

Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units.

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Chaptalization

Chaptalization is the process of adding sugar to unfermented grape must in order to increase the alcohol content after fermentation.

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Chemical equilibrium

In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable change in the properties of the system.

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Chemical formula

A chemical formula is a way of presenting information about the chemical proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound or molecule, using chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, commas and plus (+) and minus (−) signs.

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Chewing gum

Chewing gum is a soft, cohesive substance designed to be chewed without being swallowed.

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Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus (before 31 October 145120 May 1506) was an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer.

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Clarified butter

Clarified butter is milk fat rendered from butter to separate the milk solids and water from the butterfat.

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College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources

The College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR), established in 1907, is the founding college of the University of Hawaii at Manoa in Honolulu, Hawai‘i.

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Common fig

Ficus carica is an Asian species of flowering plant in the mulberry family, known as the common fig (or just the fig).

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Cone

A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base (frequently, though not necessarily, circular) to a point called the apex or vertex.

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Cookie

A cookie is a baked or cooked food that is small, flat and sweet.

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Corn syrup

Corn syrup is a food syrup which is made from the starch of corn (called maize in some countries) and contains varying amounts of maltose and higher oligosaccharides, depending on the grade.

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Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period.

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Cultivar

The term cultivarCultivar has two denominations as explained in Formal definition.

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Dačice

Dačice (Datschitz) is a town in southwestern Moravia, currently belonging to the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic.

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Date palm

Phoenix dactylifera, commonly known as date or date palm, is a flowering plant species in the palm family, Arecaceae, cultivated for its edible sweet fruit.

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De Materia Medica

De Materia Medica (Latin name for the Greek work Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς, Peri hulēs iatrikēs, both meaning "On Medical Material") is a pharmacopoeia of herbs and the medicines that can be obtained from them.

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Dementia

Dementia is a broad category of brain diseases that cause a long-term and often gradual decrease in the ability to think and remember that is great enough to affect a person's daily functioning.

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Deoxyribose

Deoxyribose, or more precisely 2-deoxyribose, is a monosaccharide with idealized formula H−(C.

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Devanagari

Devanagari (देवनागरी,, a compound of "''deva''" देव and "''nāgarī''" नागरी; Hindi pronunciation), also called Nagari (Nāgarī, नागरी),Kathleen Kuiper (2010), The Culture of India, New York: The Rosen Publishing Group,, page 83 is an abugida (alphasyllabary) used in India and Nepal.

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Developed country

A developed country, industrialized country, more developed country, or "more economically developed country" (MEDC), is a sovereign state that has a highly developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations.

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Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM), commonly referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period.

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Diacetyl

Diacetyl (IUPAC systematic name: butanedione or butane-2,3-dione) is an organic compound with the chemical formula (CH3CO)2.

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Diet food

Diet food (or dietetic food) refers to any food or beverage whose recipe is altered to reduce fat, carbohydrates, and/or sugar in order to make it part of a weight loss program or diet. Such foods are usually intended to assist in weight loss or a change in body type, although bodybuilding supplements are designed to aid in gaining weight or muscle.

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Dietary fiber

Dietary fiber or roughage is the indigestible portion of food derived from plants.

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Disaccharide

A disaccharide (also called a double sugar or bivose) is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides (simple sugars) are joined by glycosidic linkage.

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DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a thread-like chain of nucleotides carrying the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

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Domino Foods

Domino Foods, Inc. is a US company owned by American Sugar Refining Inc.

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Dust explosion

A dust explosion is the rapid combustion of fine particles suspended in the air, often but not always in an enclosed location.

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Emperor Taizong of Tang

Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 598 10July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649.

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Empty calorie

In human nutrition, the term empty calories applies to foods and beverages composed primarily or solely of sugar, fats or oils, or alcohol-containing beverages.

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Energy homeostasis

In biology, energy homeostasis, or the homeostatic control of energy balance, is a biological process that involves the coordinated homeostatic regulation of food intake (energy inflow) and energy expenditure (energy outflow).

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Enzymatic hydrolysis

Enzymatic hydrolysis is a process in which enzymes facilitate the cleavage of bonds in molecules with the addition of the elements of water.

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Enzyme

Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts.

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Ethanol

Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is a chemical compound, a simple alcohol with the chemical formula.

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Etymology

EtymologyThe New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time".

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Eugen Langen

Carl Eugen Langen (9 October 1833 – 2 October 1895) was a German entrepreneur, engineer and inventor, involved in the development of the petrol engine and the Wuppertal Suspension Railway.

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Family (biology)

In biological classification, family (familia, plural familiae) is one of the eight major taxonomic ranks; it is classified between order and genus.

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Fermentation in winemaking

The process of fermentation in winemaking turns grape juice into an alcoholic beverage.

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Feuerzangenbowle

() is a traditional German alcoholic drink for which a rum-soaked sugarloaf is set on fire and drips into mulled wine.

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Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database

The Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) website disseminates statistical data collected and maintained by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

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Food energy

Food energy is chemical energy that animals (including humans) derive from food through the process of cellular respiration.

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Fructose

Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose.

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Fruit preserves

Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage.

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Galactose

Galactose (galacto- + -ose, "milk sugar"), sometimes abbreviated Gal, is a monosaccharide sugar that is about as sweet as glucose, and about 30% as sweet as sucrose.

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Glucose

Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6.

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Glycemic index

The glycemic index or glycaemic index (GI) is a number associated with the carbohydrates in a particular type of food that indicates the effect of these carbohydrates on a person's blood glucose (also called blood sugar) level.

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Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GA3P, GADP, GAP, TP, GALP or PGAL, is the metabolite that occurs as an intermediate in several central pathways of all organisms.

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Glycerol

Glycerol (also called glycerine or glycerin; see spelling differences) is a simple polyol compound.

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Glycomics

Glycomics is the comprehensive study of glycomes (the entire complement of sugars, whether free or present in more complex molecules of an organism), including genetic, physiologic, pathologic, and other aspects.

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Glycosidic bond

In chemistry, a glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.

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Grape

A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus Vitis.

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Greek language

Greek (Modern Greek: ελληνικά, elliniká, "Greek", ελληνική γλώσσα, ellinikí glóssa, "Greek language") is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea.

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Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire, existing from approximately 240 to 590 CE.

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Guyana Sugar Corporation

The Guyana Sugar Corporation, best known by its acronym GuySuCo, is a Guyanese sugar company owned by the government.

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Hard candy

A hard candy, or boiled sweet, is a sugar candy prepared from one or more sugar-based syrups that is boiled to a temperature of 160 °C (320 °F) to make candy.

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Harsha

Harsha (c. 590–647 CE), also known as Harshavardhana, was an Indian emperor who ruled North India from 606 to 647 CE.

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Henry Tate

Sir Henry Tate, 1st Baronet (11 March 18195 December 1899) was an English sugar merchant and philanthropist, noted for establishing the Tate Gallery in London.

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Heterocyclic compound

A heterocyclic compound or ring structure is a cyclic compound that has atoms of at least two different elements as members of its ring(s).

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Hexose

In bio-organic chemistry, a hexose is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms, having the chemical formula C6H12O6.

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High-fructose corn syrup

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) (also called glucose-fructose, isoglucose and glucose-fructose syrup) is a sweetener made from corn starch that has been processed by glucose isomerase to convert some of its glucose into fructose.

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Hispaniola

Hispaniola (Spanish: La Española; Latin and French: Hispaniola; Haitian Creole: Ispayola; Taíno: Haiti) is an island in the Caribbean island group, the Greater Antilles.

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Holing cane

Holing cane was a process by which slave labor gangs planted sugar cane on plantations.

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Holy Land

The Holy Land (Hebrew: אֶרֶץ הַקּוֹדֶשׁ, Terra Sancta; Arabic: الأرض المقدسة) is an area roughly located between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea that also includes the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River.

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Honey

Honey is a sweet, viscous food substance produced by bees and some related insects.

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Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is a term used for both an electro-chemical process and a biological one.

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Ice cream

Ice cream (derived from earlier iced cream or cream ice) is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert.

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Indentured servitude

An indentured servant or indentured laborer is an employee (indenturee) within a system of unfree labor who is bound by a signed or forced contract (indenture) to work for a particular employer for a fixed time.

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India

India (IAST), also called the Republic of India (IAST), is a country in South Asia.

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Indian subcontinent

The Indian subcontinent is a southern region and peninsula of Asia, mostly situated on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas.

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Indonesia

Indonesia (or; Indonesian), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Republik Indonesia), is a transcontinental unitary sovereign state located mainly in Southeast Asia, with some territories in Oceania.

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International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis

The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis (ICUMSA) is an international standards body, founded in 1897, that publishes detailed laboratory procedures for the analysis of sugar.

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Inulin

Inulins are a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides produced by many types of plants, industrially most often extracted from chicory.

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Inverted sugar syrup

Invert(ed) sugar (syrup) is an edible mixture of two simple sugars—glucose and fructose—that is made by heating sucrose (table sugar) with water.

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Ion-exchange resin

An ion-exchange resin or ion-exchange polymer is a resin or polymer that acts as a medium for ion exchange.

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Iran

Iran (ایران), also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ایران), is a sovereign state in Western Asia. With over 81 million inhabitants, Iran is the world's 18th-most-populous country. Comprising a land area of, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East and the 17th-largest in the world. Iran is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. The country's central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, give it geostrategic importance. Tehran is the country's capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BCE. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BCE, reaching its greatest territorial size in the sixth century BCE, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley, becoming one of the largest empires in history. The Iranian realm fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion culminated in the establishment of the Parthian Empire, which was succeeded in the third century CE by the Sasanian Empire, a leading world power for the next four centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century CE, displacing the indigenous faiths of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism with Islam. Iran made major contributions to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential figures in art and science. After two centuries, a period of various native Muslim dynasties began, which were later conquered by the Turks and the Mongols. The rise of the Safavids in the 15th century led to the reestablishment of a unified Iranian state and national identity, with the country's conversion to Shia Islam marking a turning point in Iranian and Muslim history. Under Nader Shah, Iran was one of the most powerful states in the 18th century, though by the 19th century, a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to significant territorial losses. Popular unrest led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the country's first legislature. A 1953 coup instigated by the United Kingdom and the United States resulted in greater autocracy and growing anti-Western resentment. Subsequent unrest against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution and the establishment of an Islamic republic, a political system that includes elements of a parliamentary democracy vetted and supervised by a theocracy governed by an autocratic "Supreme Leader". During the 1980s, the country was engaged in a war with Iraq, which lasted for almost nine years and resulted in a high number of casualties and economic losses for both sides. According to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic, and has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader. Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate, and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world. Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, an agreement reached between Iran and the P5+1, was created on 14 July 2015, aimed to loosen the nuclear sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium. Iran is a founding member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC, and OPEC. It is a major regional and middle power, and its large reserves of fossil fuels – which include the world's largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves – exert considerable influence in international energy security and the world economy. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and eleventh-largest in the world. Iran is a multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, the largest being Persians (61%), Azeris (16%), Kurds (10%), and Lurs (6%).

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Isomer

An isomer (from Greek ἰσομερής, isomerès; isos.

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Jaggery

Jaggery is a traditional non-centrifugal cane sugar consumed in Asia, Africa and some countries in the Americas.

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Jakob Christof Rad

Jakob Christof Rad, born March 25, 1799 in Rheinfelden (present day Switzerland), died October 13, 1871 in Vienna (present day Austria), was a Swiss-born physician and industrial manager.

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Juice

Juice is a drink made from the extraction or pressing of the natural liquid contained in fruit and vegetables.

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Ketone

In chemistry, a ketone (alkanone) is an organic compound with the structure RC(.

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Khyber Pass

The Khyber Pass (د خیبر درہ, درۂ خیبر) (elevation) is a mountain pass in the north of Pakistan, close to the border with Afghanistan.

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La Gomera

La Gomera is one of Spain's Canary Islands, located in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa.

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Lactase

Lactase is an enzyme produced by many organisms.

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Lactose

Lactose is a disaccharide.

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Limewater

Limewater is the common name for a diluted solution of calcium hydroxide.

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Lincolnshire

Lincolnshire (abbreviated Lincs) is a county in east central England.

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Liquorice

Liquorice (British English) or licorice (American English) is the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra from which a sweet flavour can be extracted.

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List of unrefined sweeteners

This list of unrefined sweeteners includes all natural, unrefined, or low-processed sweeteners.

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Malt

Malt is germinated cereal grains that have been dried in a process known as "malting".

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Maltase

Maltase (alpha-glucosidase, glucoinvertase, glucosidosucrase, maltase-glucoamylase, alpha-glucopyranosidase, glucosidoinvertase, alpha-D-glucosidase, alpha-glucoside hydrolase, alpha-1,4-glucosidase, alpha-D-glucoside glucohydrolase) is an enzyme located in on the brush border of the small intestine that breaks down the disaccharide maltose.

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Maltodextrin

Maltodextrin is a polysaccharide that is used as a food additive.

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Maltose

Maltose, also known as maltobiose or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from two units of glucose joined with an α(1→4) bond. In the isomer isomaltose, the two glucose molecules are joined with an α(1→6) bond. Maltose is the two-unit member of the amylose homologous series, the key structural motif of starch. When beta-amylase breaks down starch, it removes two glucose units at a time, producing maltose. An example of this reaction is found in germinating seeds, which is why it was named after malt. Unlike sucrose, it is a reducing sugar.

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Marmalade

Marmalade generally refers to a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water.

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Medieval Latin

Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange, as the liturgical language of Chalcedonian Christianity and the Roman Catholic Church, and as a language of science, literature, law, and administration.

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Metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome, sometimes known by other names, is a clustering of at least three of the five following medical conditions: abdominal obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, high serum triglycerides and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels.

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Metabolism

Metabolism (from μεταβολή metabolē, "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of organisms.

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Molasses

Molasses, or black treacle (British, for human consumption; known as molasses otherwise), is a viscous product resulting from refining sugarcane or sugar beets into sugar.

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Monosaccharide

Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar), also called simple sugars, are the most basic units of carbohydrates.

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Moravia

Moravia (Morava;; Morawy; Moravia) is a historical country in the Czech Republic (forming its eastern part) and one of the historical Czech lands, together with Bohemia and Czech Silesia.

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Morocco

Morocco (officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco, is a unitary sovereign state located in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is one of the native homelands of the indigenous Berber people. Geographically, Morocco is characterised by a rugged mountainous interior, large tracts of desert and a lengthy coastline along the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million and an area of. Its capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. Other major cities include Marrakesh, Tangier, Salé, Fes, Meknes and Oujda. A historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours. Since the foundation of the first Moroccan state by Idris I in 788 AD, the country has been ruled by a series of independent dynasties, reaching its zenith under the Almoravid dynasty and Almohad dynasty, spanning parts of Iberia and northwestern Africa. The Marinid and Saadi dynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination, and Morocco remained the only North African country to avoid Ottoman occupation. The Alaouite dynasty, the current ruling dynasty, seized power in 1631. In 1912, Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates, with an international zone in Tangier, and regained its independence in 1956. Moroccan culture is a blend of Berber, Arab, West African and European influences. Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara, formerly Spanish Sahara, as its Southern Provinces. After Spain agreed to decolonise the territory to Morocco and Mauritania in 1975, a guerrilla war arose with local forces. Mauritania relinquished its claim in 1979, and the war lasted until a cease-fire in 1991. Morocco currently occupies two thirds of the territory, and peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock. Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy and religious affairs. Executive power is exercised by the government, while legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors. The king can issue decrees called dahirs, which have the force of law. He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister and the president of the constitutional court. Morocco's predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Berber, with Berber being the native language of Morocco before the Arab conquest in the 600s AD. The Moroccan dialect of Arabic, referred to as Darija, and French are also widely spoken. Morocco is a member of the Arab League, the Union for the Mediterranean and the African Union. It has the fifth largest economy of Africa.

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Muscovado

Muscovado, also Khandsari and Khand, is a type of partially refined to unrefined sugar with a strong molasses content and flavour.

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Must

Must (from the Latin vinum mustum, "young wine") is freshly crushed fruit juice (usually grape juice) that contains the skins, seeds, and stems of the fruit.

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Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom.

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Natural History (Pliny)

The Natural History (Naturalis Historia) is a book about the whole of the natural world in Latin by Pliny the Elder, a Roman author and naval commander who died in 79 AD.

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New Guinea

New Guinea (Nugini or, more commonly known, Papua, historically, Irian) is a large island off the continent of Australia.

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Nighantu

(निघण्टु) is a Sanskrit term for a traditional collection of words, grouped into thematic categories, often with brief annotations.

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North India

North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India.

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Nutrient

A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce.

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Obesity

Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have a negative effect on health.

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Old French

Old French (franceis, françois, romanz; Modern French: ancien français) was the language spoken in Northern France from the 8th century to the 14th century.

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Oligosaccharide

An oligosaccharide (from the Greek ὀλίγος olígos, "a few", and σάκχαρ sácchar, "sugar") is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to ten) of monosaccharides (simple sugars).

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Onion

The onion (Allium cepa L., from Latin cepa "onion"), also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is a vegetable that is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium.

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Open-chain compound

In chemistry, an open-chain compound (also spelled as open chain compound) or acyclic compound (Greek prefix "α", without and "κύκλος", cycle) is a compound with a linear structure, rather than a cyclic one.

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Orange (fruit)

The orange is the fruit of the citrus species ''Citrus'' × ''sinensis'' in the family Rutaceae.

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Osmophile

Osmophilic organisms are microorganisms adapted to environments with high osmotic pressures, such as high sugar concentrations.

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Peach

The peach (Prunus persica) is a deciduous tree native to the region of Northwest China between the Tarim Basin and the north slopes of the Kunlun Mountains, where it was first domesticated and cultivated.

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Pear

The pear is any of several tree and shrub species of genus Pyrus, in the family Rosaceae.

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Pectin

Pectin (from πηκτικός, "congealed, curdled") is a structural heteropolysaccharide contained in the primary cell walls of terrestrial plants.

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Pedanius Dioscorides

Pedanius Dioscorides (Πεδάνιος Διοσκουρίδης, Pedianos Dioskorides; 40 – 90 AD) was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of De Materia Medica (Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς, On Medical Material) —a 5-volume Greek encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances (a pharmacopeia), that was widely read for more than 1,500 years.

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Pentose

A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms.

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Per capita

Per capita is a Latin prepositional phrase: per (preposition, taking the accusative case, meaning "by means of") and capita (accusative plural of the noun caput, "head").

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Persian language

Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi (فارسی), is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family.

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Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities (energy transformation).

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Pineapple

The pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical plant with an edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries, also called pineapples, and the most economically significant plant in the family Bromeliaceae.

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Plantation

A plantation is a large-scale farm that specializes in cash crops.

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Pliny the Elder

Pliny the Elder (born Gaius Plinius Secundus, AD 23–79) was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, a naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and friend of emperor Vespasian.

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Plum

A plum is a fruit of the subgenus Prunus of the genus Prunus. The subgenus is distinguished from other subgenera (peaches, cherries, bird cherries, etc.) in the shoots having terminal bud and solitary side buds (not clustered), the flowers in groups of one to five together on short stems, and the fruit having a groove running down one side and a smooth stone (or pit).

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Poaceae

Poaceae or Gramineae is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants known as grasses, commonly referred to collectively as grass.

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Policy

A policy is a deliberate system of principles to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes.

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Polyol

A polyol is an organic compound containing multiple hydroxyl groups.

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Polysaccharide

Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages, and on hydrolysis give the constituent monosaccharides or oligosaccharides.

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Portuguese language

Portuguese (português or, in full, língua portuguesa) is a Western Romance language originating from the regions of Galicia and northern Portugal in the 9th century.

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Potential energy

In physics, potential energy is the energy possessed by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors.

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Powdered sugar

Powdered sugar, also called confectioners' sugar, icing sugar, and icing cake, is a finely ground sugar produced by milling granulated sugar into a powdered state.

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Princeton University Press

Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University.

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Red blood cell

Red blood cells-- also known as RBCs, red cells, red blood corpuscles, haematids, erythroid cells or erythrocytes (from Greek erythros for "red" and kytos for "hollow vessel", with -cyte translated as "cell" in modern usage), are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system.

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Reference Daily Intake

The Reference Daily Intake (RDI) is the daily intake level of a nutrient that is considered to be sufficient to meet the requirements of 97–98% of healthy individuals in every demographic in the United States.

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Refining

Refining (also perhaps called by the mathematical term affining) is the process of purification of a (1) substance or a (2) form.

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Ribose

Ribose is a carbohydrate with the formula C5H10O5; specifically, it is a pentose monosaccharide (simple sugar) with linear form H−(C.

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RNA

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.

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Rum

Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses or honeys, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation.

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Ruminant

Ruminants are mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through microbial actions.

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Saccharin

Sodium saccharin (benzoic sulfimide) is an artificial sweetener with effectively no food energy that is about 300–400 times as sweet as sucrose but has a bitter or metallic aftertaste, especially at high concentrations.

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Saccharum

Saccharum is a genus of tall perennial plants of the broomsedge tribe within the grass family.

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Saccharum barberi

Saccharum barberi is a strong-growing species of grass in the genus Saccharum, the sugarcanes.

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Saccharum edule

Saccharum edule is a species of grass in the genus Saccharum, the sugarcanes.

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Saccharum officinarum

Saccharum officinarum, sugarcane, is a large, strong-growing species of grass in the genus Saccharum.

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Sanskrit

Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism; a philosophical language of Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism; and a former literary language and lingua franca for the educated of ancient and medieval India.

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Santa Catarina Island

Santa Catarina Island (Ilha de Santa Catarina) is an island in the Brazilian state of Santa Catarina, located off the southern coast.

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Saturated fat

A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all or predominantly single bonds.

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Slavery

Slavery is any system in which principles of property law are applied to people, allowing individuals to own, buy and sell other individuals, as a de jure form of property.

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Smoking (cooking)

Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood.

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Soft drink

A soft drink (see terminology for other names) typically contains carbonated water (although some lemonades are not carbonated), a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring.

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Starch

Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds.

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Stevia

Stevia is a sweetener and sugar substitute extracted from the leaves of the plant species Stevia rebaudiana.

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Strawberry

The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry; Fragaria × ananassa) is a widely grown hybrid species of the genus Fragaria, collectively known as the strawberries.

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Sucralose

Sucralose is an artificial sweetener and sugar substitute.

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Sucrase

Sucrase is a digestive enzyme secreted in the small intestine.

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Sucrose

Sucrose is common table sugar.

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Sugar alcohol

Sugar alcohols (also called polyhydric alcohols, polyalcohols, alditols or glycitols) are organic compounds, typically derived from sugars, that comprise a class of polyols.

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Sugar Association

The Sugar Association is a trade association for the sugar industry in the United States.

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Sugar beet

A sugar beet is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of sucrose and which is grown commercially for sugar production.

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Sugar nips

Sugar nips are a large pair of pincers with sharp blades, designed to cut sugar from a block.

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Sugar plantations in the Caribbean

Sugar was the main crop produced on plantations throughout the Caribbean through the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries.

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Sugar refinery

A sugar refinery is a refinery which processes raw sugar into white refined sugar or that processes sugar beet to refined sugar.

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Sugar substitute

A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy.

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Sugarcane

Sugarcane, or sugar cane, are several species of tall perennial true grasses of the genus Saccharum, tribe Andropogoneae, native to the warm temperate to tropical regions of South and Southeast Asia, Polynesia and Melanesia, and used for sugar production.

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Sugarcane juice

Sugarcane juice is the syrup extracted from pressed sugarcane.

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Sugarcane mill

A sugar cane mill can refer to a factory that processes sugar cane to produce raw or white sugar.

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Sugarloaf

A sugarloaf was the usual form in which refined sugar was produced and sold until the late 19th century, when granulated and cube sugars were introduced.

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Sugars in wine

Sugars in wine are at the heart of what makes winemaking possible.

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Sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide (also sulphur dioxide in British English) is the chemical compound with the formula.

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Supersaturation

Supersaturation is a state of a solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances.

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Sweet corn

Sweet corn (Zea mays convar. saccharata var. rugosa; also called sugar corn and pole corn) is a cereal with a high sugar content.

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Sweet potato

The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the bindweed or morning glory family, Convolvulaceae.

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Sweetness

Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars.

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Sweetness of wine

The subjective sweetness of a wine is determined by the interaction of several factors, including the amount of sugar in the wine, but also the relative levels of alcohol, acids, and tannins.

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Symbiosis

Symbiosis (from Greek συμβίωσις "living together", from σύν "together" and βίωσις "living") is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic.

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Syrup

In cooking, a syrup or sirup (from شراب; sharāb, beverage, wine and sirupus) is a condiment that is a thick, viscous liquid consisting primarily of a solution of sugar in water, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars but showing little tendency to deposit crystals.

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Systematic review

Systematic reviews are a type of literature review that uses systematic methods to collect secondary data, critically appraise research studies, and synthesize studies.

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Tang dynasty

The Tang dynasty or the Tang Empire was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

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Tate & Lyle

Tate & Lyle plc is a British-based multinational agribusiness.

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The Sugar Girls

The Sugar Girls: Tales of Hardship, Love and Happiness in Tate & Lyle's East End is a bestselling work of narrative non-fiction based on interviews with women who worked in Tate & Lyle's East End factories in Silvertown from the mid-1940s onwards.

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Toffee

Toffee is a confection made by caramelizing sugar or molasses (creating inverted sugar) along with butter, and occasionally flour.

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Tonne

The tonne (Non-SI unit, symbol: t), commonly referred to as the metric ton in the United States, is a non-SI metric unit of mass equal to 1,000 kilograms;.

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Tooth decay

Tooth decay, also known as dental caries or cavities, is a breakdown of teeth due to acids made by bacteria.

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Trade route

A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo.

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Trapiche

A trapiche is a mill made of wooden rollers used to extract juice from fruit, originally olives, and since the Middle Ages, sugar cane as well.

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Treacle

Treacle is any uncrystallised syrup made during the refining of sugar.

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Tyre, Lebanon

Tyre (صور, Ṣūr; Phoenician:, Ṣūr; צוֹר, Ṣōr; Tiberian Hebrew, Ṣōr; Akkadian:, Ṣurru; Greek: Τύρος, Týros; Sur; Tyrus, Տիր, Tir), sometimes romanized as Sour, is a district capital in the South Governorate of Lebanon.

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United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international cooperation and to create and maintain international order.

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United States customary units

United States customary units are a system of measurements commonly used in the United States.

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Vacuum drying

Vacuum drying is the mass transfer operation in which the moisture present in a substance usually wet solid is removed by means of creating a vacuum.

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Venice

Venice (Venezia,; Venesia) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region.

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Volatility (chemistry)

In chemistry and physics, volatility is quantified by the tendency of a substance to vaporize.

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William of Tyre

William of Tyre (Willelmus Tyrensis; 1130 – 29 September 1186) was a medieval prelate and chronicler.

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Winemaking

Winemaking or vinification is the production of wine, starting with the selection of the fruit, its fermentation into alcohol, and the bottling of the finished liquid.

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World Health Organization

The World Health Organization (WHO; French: Organisation mondiale de la santé) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health.

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Yam (vegetable)

Yam is the common name for some plant species in the genus Dioscorea (family Dioscoreaceae) that form edible tubers.

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2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion

The 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion was an industrial disaster that occurred on February 7, 2008 in Port Wentworth, Georgia, United States.

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-Ose, Berry sugar, Cube sugar, Foreign matter in refined sugar, Health effects of sugar, Lump sugar, Molten sugar, Raw Sugar, Refined sugar, Shurger, Sugar (food), Sugar Crystals, Sugar buzz, Sugar crops, Sugar crystal, Sugar cube, Sugar engineering, Sugar lumps, Sugar refiner, Sugar trade, Sugars, Sugary, Suggar, Sweet salt, White refined sugar, White sugar.

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar

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