Communication

947 relations: Abraham, Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw, Active State Councillor, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Adam Schaff, Adolf Hitler, Aesthetics, Age of Enlightenment, Air Force Research Laboratory, Alasdair Urquhart, Albert Einstein Institution, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, Aleksander Zawadzki, Aleksander Zelwerowicz, Alex Wilkie, Alexander I of Russia, Alexander Men, Alexei Kosygin, Alfred Tarski, Algebraic geometry, All Souls College, Oxford, Alliance of Democrats (Poland), Alonzo Church, Amsterdam, Analytic philosophy, Andrzej Ajnenkiel, Andrzej Białynicki-Birula, Andrzej Ehrenfeucht, Andrzej Mostowski, Andrzej Trybulec, Anna Brożek, Anti-authoritarianism, Anti-communism, Anti-Party Group, Anti-psychologism, Anti-Russian sentiment, Anti-war movement, Anti-Zionism, Antinomy, Antisemitism, Antoni Zdanowski, Apologetics, Appellate court, Arend Heyting, Aristotle, Arithmetic, Arithmetization of analysis, Armia Krajowa Cross, Army of Congress Poland, Aryan race, ..., Association for Symbolic Logic, Associative property, Atheism, Auschwitz concentration camp, Austria-Hungary, Axiology, Axiom, Łomża Department, Łukasz Kamiński, Śródmieście, Warsaw, Baltic states, Banach algebra, Basel, Basingstoke, Battalion Zośka, Battle of France, Battle of Leipzig, Będzin, Berkeley, California, Bertrand Russell, Białystok, Bibliography, Birkhäuser, Blaise Pascal University, Blasphemy, Bogdan Suchodolski, Bolesław Bierut, Bolsheviks, Boolean algebra (structure), Borgward IV, Boston, Bounded set, Bourgeois nationalism, Brezhnev Doctrine, Brigadeführer, British Empire, Bronisław Komorowski, Bronislav Kaminski, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bureau of Information and Propaganda, Burgundy, Bydgoszcz Department, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Camp of National Unity, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, Carl Posy, Catherine the Great, Catholic Church, Catholic Church in Poland, Censorship in the Polish People's Republic, Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party, Cham, Switzerland, Cheka, Christian existentialism, Christian ministry, Christian philosophy, Christian theology, Chronicle, Church Fathers, Cieśle, Gmina Bodzanów, Civil rights movement, Clarence Irving Lewis, Clericalism, Clermont-Ferrand, Closure (mathematics), Club of Rome, Cognitive linguistics, Cold War, Cold War (1953–1962), Cold War (1962–1979), Collaborationism, Collectivization in the Soviet Union, Colloquialism, Commander (order), Commander-in-chief, Commission of National Education, Communism, Communist International, Communist Party of Poland, Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Communist Party of Western Belorussia, Communist Party of Western Ukraine, Communist society, Commutative property, Completeness (logic), Compositio Mathematica, Computability, Computable analysis, Computable number, Computational complexity theory, Computer scientist, Concatenation (mathematics), Concatenation theory, Conformity, Congress of Vienna, Congress Poland, Conscientious objector, Conspiration, Constitution of 3 May 1791, Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw, Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, Constitution of the Polish People's Republic, Consumption (sociology), Contemporary philosophy, Continental philosophy, Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union, Council of People's Commissars, Council of State (Kingdom of Poland), Crimea, Crimean War, Criticisms of Marxism, Cross of Merit (Poland), Cross of Valour (Poland), Cross-cultural communication, Cultural conflict, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Czesław Białobrzeski, Czesław Ryll-Nardzewski, D. 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Abraham

Abraham (Arabic: إبراهيم Ibrahim), originally Abram, is the common patriarch of the three Abrahamic religions.

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Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw

Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw (Akademia Sztuk Pięknych w Warszawie) is a public university of visual arts and applied arts located in the Polish capital.

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Active State Councillor

Active State Councillor (действительный статский советник, deystvitelny statskiy sovetnik) was the civil position (class) in the Russian Empire, according to the Table of Ranks introduced by Peter the Great in 1722.

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Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań (Uniwersytet im., Polish abbreviation UAM) is one of the major Polish universities, located in the city of Poznań, Greater Poland, in the west of the country.

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Adam Schaff

Adam Schaff (10 March 1913, Lwów – 12 November 2006, Warsaw) was a Polish Marxist philosopher.

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Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was a German politician, demagogue, and revolutionary, who was the leader of the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and Führer ("Leader") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945.

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Aesthetics

Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty.

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Age of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason; in lit in Aufklärung, "Enlightenment", in L’Illuminismo, “Enlightenment” and in Spanish: La Ilustración, "Enlightenment") was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, "The Century of Philosophy".

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Air Force Research Laboratory

The Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) is a scientific research organization operated by the United States Air Force Materiel Command dedicated to leading the discovery, development, and integration of affordable aerospace warfighting technologies, planning and executing the Air Force science and technology program, and providing warfighting capabilities to United States air, space, and cyberspace forces.

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Alasdair Urquhart

Alasdair Ian Fenton Urquhart (born 20 December 1945) is an emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the University of Toronto.

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Albert Einstein Institution

The Albert Einstein Institution is a non-profit organization that specializes in the study of the methods of nonviolent resistance in conflicts and to explore its policy potential and communicate these findings through print and other media, translations, conferences, consultations, and workshops.

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Aleksander Kwaśniewski

Aleksander Kwaśniewski (born 15 November 1954) is a Polish politician and journalist.

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Aleksander Zawadzki

Aleksander Zawadzki (16 December 1899 – 7 August 1964) was a Polish Communist political figure and President of Poland from 1952 to 1964.

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Aleksander Zelwerowicz

Aleksander Zelwerowicz (14 August 1877 in Lublin – 18 June 1955 in Warsaw) was a Polish actor, director, theatre president and a teacher.

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Alex Wilkie

Alex James Wilkie FRS (born 1948 in Northampton) is a British mathematician known for his contributions to Model theory and logic.

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Alexander I of Russia

Alexander I (Александр Павлович, Aleksandr Pavlovich; –) reigned as Emperor of Russia between 1801 and 1825.

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Alexander Men

Alexander Vladimirovich Men (Александр Владимирович Мень; 22 January 1935 – 9 September 1990) was a Russian Orthodox priest, an outstanding theologian, Biblical scholar and writer on theology, Christian history, and other religions.

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Alexei Kosygin

Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin (p; – 18 December 1980) was a Soviet-Russian statesman during the Cold War.

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Alfred Tarski

Alfred Tarski (January 14, 1901 – October 26, 1983), born Alfred Teitelbaum,School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews,, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews.

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Algebraic geometry

Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying zeros of multivariate polynomials.

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All Souls College, Oxford

All Souls College (official name: College of the souls of all the faithful departed) is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England.

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Alliance of Democrats (Poland)

The Alliance of Democrats (Stronnictwo Demokratyczne, SD) is a Polish centrist party.

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Alonzo Church

Alonzo Church (June 14, 1903 – August 11, 1995) was an American mathematician and logician who made major contributions to mathematical logic and the foundations of theoretical computer science.

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Amsterdam

Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Netherlands.

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Analytic philosophy

Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a style of philosophy that became dominant in the Western world at the beginning of the 20th century.

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Andrzej Ajnenkiel

Andrzej Ajnenkiel (21 February 1931 – 10 April 2015) was a Polish historian.

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Andrzej Białynicki-Birula

Andrzej Białynicki-Birula (born December 26, 1935) is a Polish mathematician, best known for his work on algebraic geometry.

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Andrzej Ehrenfeucht

Andrzej Ehrenfeucht (born August 8, 1932) is a Polish American mathematician and computer scientist.

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Andrzej Mostowski

Andrzej Mostowski (1 November 1913 – 22 August 1975) was a Polish mathematician.

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Andrzej Trybulec

Andrzej Wojciech Trybulec, (January 29, 1941 – September 11, 2013) was a Polish mathematician and computer scientist, at the University of Białystok, in Białystok, Poland, noted for development of the Mizar system.

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Anna Brożek

Dr.

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Anti-authoritarianism

Anti-authoritarianism is opposition to authoritarianism, which is defined as "a form of social organisation characterised by submission to authority", "favoring complete obedience or subjection to authority as opposed to individual freedom" and to authoritarian government.

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Anti-communism

Anti-communism is opposition to communism.

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Anti-Party Group

The Anti-Party Group (r) was a group within the leadership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union that unsuccessfully attempted to depose Nikita Khrushchev as First Secretary of the Party in June 1957.

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Anti-psychologism

In logic, anti-psychologism (also logical objectivism or logical realism) is a theory about the nature of logical truth, that it does not depend upon the contents of human ideas but exists independent of human ideas.

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Anti-Russian sentiment

Anti-Russian sentiment or Russophobia is a diverse spectrum of negative feelings, dislikes, fears, aversion, derision and/or prejudice of Russia, Russians or Russian culture.

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Anti-war movement

An anti-war movement (also antiwar) is a social movement, usually in opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on an armed conflict, unconditional of a maybe-existing just cause.

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Anti-Zionism

Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism.

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Antinomy

Antinomy (Greek ἀντί, antí, "against, in opposition to", and νόμος, nómos, "law") refers to a real or apparent mutual incompatibility of two laws.

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Antisemitism

Antisemitism (also spelled anti-Semitism or anti-semitism) is hostility to, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews.

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Antoni Zdanowski

Antoni Zdanowski (1895–1948) was a Polish social and union activist, and also an editor of Robotniczy Przegląd Gospodarczy.

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Apologetics

Apologetics (from Greek ἀπολογία, "speaking in defense") is the religious discipline of defending religious doctrines through systematic argumentation and discourse.

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Appellate court

An appellate court, commonly called an appeals court, court of appeals (American English), appeal court (British English), court of second instance or second instance court, is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal.

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Arend Heyting

__notoc__ Arend Heyting (9 May 1898 – 9 July 1980) was a Dutch mathematician and logician.

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Aristotle

Aristotle (Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs,; 384–322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece.

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Arithmetic

Arithmetic (from the Greek ἀριθμός arithmos, "number") is a branch of mathematics that consists of the study of numbers, especially the properties of the traditional operations on them—addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

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Arithmetization of analysis

The arithmetization of analysis was a research program in the foundations of mathematics carried out in the second half of the 19th century.

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Armia Krajowa Cross

Armia Krajowa Cross (Home Army Cross; Krzyż Armii Krajowej) is a Polish military decoration that was introduced by General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski on 1 August 1966 to commemorate the efforts of the soldiers of the Polish Secret State between 1939 and 1945.

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Army of Congress Poland

Army of the Congress Poland refers to the military forces of the Kingdom of Poland that existed in the period 1815–1831.

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Aryan race

The Aryan race was a racial grouping used in the period of the late 19th century and mid-20th century to describe people of European and Western Asian heritage.

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Association for Symbolic Logic

The Association for Symbolic Logic (ASL) is an international organization of specialists in mathematical logic and philosophical logic.

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Associative property

In mathematics, the associative property is a property of some binary operations.

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Atheism

Atheism is, in the broadest sense, the absence of belief in the existence of deities.

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Auschwitz concentration camp

Auschwitz concentration camp was a network of concentration and extermination camps built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II.

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Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire or the Dual Monarchy in English-language sources, was a constitutional union of the Austrian Empire (the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, or Cisleithania) and the Kingdom of Hungary (Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen or Transleithania) that existed from 1867 to 1918, when it collapsed as a result of defeat in World War I. The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867.

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Axiology

Axiology (from Greek ἀξία, axia, "value, worth"; and -λογία, -logia) is the philosophical study of value.

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Axiom

An axiom or postulate is a statement that is taken to be true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further reasoning and arguments.

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Łomża Department

Łomża Department (Polish: Departament Łomzyński) was an administrative division and local government in the Polish Duchy of Warsaw in the years 1807–1815.

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Łukasz Kamiński

Łukasz Andrzej Kamiński (born 3 June 1973) is a Polish historian, specializing in the history of Poland after 1945, particularly the period of Soviet occupation and the Soviet-imposed "People's Republic of Poland." He is the President of the European Union's Platform of European Memory and Conscience and formerly served as President of the Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) from 2011 to 2016.

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Śródmieście, Warsaw

Śródmieście (meaning "city centre", "downtown") is the central borough (dzielnica) of the city of Warsaw.

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Baltic states

The Baltic states, also known as the Baltic countries, Baltic republics, Baltic nations or simply the Baltics (Balti riigid, Baltimaad, Baltijas valstis, Baltijos valstybės), is a geopolitical term used for grouping the three sovereign countries in Northern Europe on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.

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Banach algebra

In mathematics, especially functional analysis, a Banach algebra, named after Stefan Banach, is an associative algebra A over the real or complex numbers (or over a non-Archimedean complete normed field) that at the same time is also a Banach space, i.e. a normed space and complete in the metric induced by the norm.

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Basel

Basel (also Basle; Basel; Bâle; Basilea) is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine.

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Basingstoke

Basingstoke is the largest town in the modern county of Hampshire (Southampton and Portsmouth being cities.) It is situated in south central England, and lies across a valley at the source of the River Loddon.

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Battalion Zośka

Batalion Zośka (pronounced Zoshka; Sophie in Polish) was a Scouting battalion of the Polish resistance movement organisation - Home Army (Armia Krajowa or "AK") during World War II.

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Battle of France

The Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries during the Second World War.

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Battle of Leipzig

The Battle of Leipzig or Battle of the Nations (Битва народов, Bitva narodov; Völkerschlacht bei Leipzig; Bataille des Nations, Slaget vid Leipzig) was fought from 16 to 19 October 1813, at Leipzig, Saxony.

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Będzin

Będzin (also Bendzin; Bendzin, בענדין Bendin) is a city in Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, southern Poland.

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Berkeley, California

Berkeley is a city on the east shore of San Francisco Bay in northern Alameda County, California.

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Bertrand Russell

Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, social critic, political activist, and Nobel laureate.

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Białystok

Białystok (Bielastok, Balstogė, Belostok, Byalistok) is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship.

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Bibliography

Bibliography (from Greek βιβλίον biblion, "book" and -γραφία -graphia, "writing"), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from Greek -λογία, -logia).

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Birkhäuser

Birkhäuser is a former Swiss publisher founded in 1879 by Emil Birkhäuser.

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Blaise Pascal University

Blaise Pascal University (Université Blaise-Pascal), also known as Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand II or just Clermont-Ferrand II, is a public university with its main campus on in Clermont-Ferrand, France, with satellite locations in other parts of the region of Auvergne, including Vichy, Moulins, Montluçon, and Aubière.

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Blasphemy

Blasphemy is the act of insulting or showing contempt or lack of reverence to a deity, or sacred things, or toward something considered sacred or inviolable.

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Bogdan Suchodolski

Bogdan Suchodolski (27 December 1903 – 2 October 1992) was a Polish philosopher, historian of science and culture and teacher.

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Bolesław Bierut

Bolesław Bierut (18 April 1892 – 12 March 1956) was a Polish Communist leader, NKVD agent, and a hard-line Stalinist who became President of Poland after the defeat of the Nazi forces in.

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Bolsheviks

The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists or Bolsheviki (p; derived from bol'shinstvo (большинство), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority"), were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903.

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Boolean algebra (structure)

In abstract algebra, a Boolean algebra or Boolean lattice is a complemented distributive lattice.

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Borgward IV

The Borgward IV, officially designated Schwerer Ladungsträger Borgward B IV (heavy explosive carrier Borgward B IV), was a German remote-controlled demolition vehicle used in World War II.

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Boston

Boston is the capital city and most populous municipality of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States.

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Bounded set

In mathematical analysis and related areas of mathematics, a set is called bounded, if it is, in a certain sense, of finite size.

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Bourgeois nationalism

In Marxism, bourgeois nationalism is the practice by the ruling classes of deliberately dividing people by nationality, race, ethnicity, or religion, so as to distract them from initiating class warfare.

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Brezhnev Doctrine

The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet foreign policy, first and most clearly outlined by Sergei Kovalev in a September 26, 1968 Pravda article entitled Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries.

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Brigadeführer

Brigadeführer ("brigade leader") was a paramilitary rank of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) that was used between the years of 1932 to 1945.

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British Empire

The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states.

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Bronisław Komorowski

Bronisław Maria Komorowski (born 4 June 1952) is a Polish politician and historian who served as President of Poland from 2010 to 2015.

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Bronislav Kaminski

Bronislav Vladislavovich Kaminski (Бронисла́в Владисла́вович Ками́нский, 16'June 1899, Vitebsk Governorate – 28 August 1944, Litzmannstadt) was a Russian collaborationist and the commander of the S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A. (also known as Kaminski Brigade and earlier as the Russian National Liberation Army - Russkaya Osvoboditelnaya Narodnaya Armiya, RONA), an anti-partisan formation made up of people from the so-called Lokot Autonomy territory in the Nazi Germany occupied areas of Russia, which was later incorporated into the Waffen-SS as the S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A..

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Bulgarian Academy of Sciences

The Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (abbreviated BAS, in Bulgarian: Българска академия на науките, Balgarska akademiya na naukite, abbreviated БАН) is the National Academy of Bulgaria, established in 1869.

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Bureau of Information and Propaganda

The Bureau of Information and Propaganda of the Headquarters of Związek Walki Zbrojnej, later of Armia Krajowa (Biuro Informacji i Propagandy (Komendy Głównej Związku Walki Zbrojnej - Armii Krajowej) - in short: BIP) a conspiracy department created in spring 1940 during the German occupation of Poland, inside the Związek Walki Zbrojnej, then of the Supreme Command of Armia Krajowa (as 6th Department). Initially, its commander was Major Tadeusz Kruk-Strzelecki, then Colonel Jan Rzepecki pseudonym "Wolski" or "Prezes". Until the end of 1940 his deputy was Hipolit Niepokólczycki, while since 1944 until January 1945 Captain Kazimierz Moczarski. Tasks of BIP included informing of Polish community of activities of the Polish Government in London, documenting activities of the German occupant, psychological warfare against Nazi propaganda, consolidation of solidarity in the fight for independence of the Polish nation, collecting of information, reports and orders. BIP published underground press, like: Biuletyn Informacyjny (Information Bulletin), Wiadomości Polskie (Polish News) and Insurekcja (Insurrection); some of its departments carried secret trainings: Department A (film) in photoreport, direction, operation of megaphones. Among others, cameramen and cutters Antoni Bohdziewicz, Wacław Kaźmierczak, Leonard Zawisławski, Seweryn Kruszyński, film/stage directors Jerzy Gabryelski, Jerzy Zarzycki pseudonym "Pik", Andrzej Ancuta, photographers Sylwester Braun and Joachim Joachimczyk, historian Aleksander Gieysztor, philologist professor Kazimierz Feliks Kumaniecki worked for BIP. Among others, Krystyna Wyczańska and Hanna Bińkowska were its liaisons officers.

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Burgundy

Burgundy (Bourgogne) is a historical territory and a former administrative region of France.

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Bydgoszcz Department

Bydgoszcz Department (Polish: Departament bydgoski) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Polish Duchy of Warsaw in years 1806-1815.

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Cambridge

Cambridge is a university city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, on the River Cam approximately north of London.

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Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press (CUP) is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge.

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Cambridge, Massachusetts

Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and part of the Boston metropolitan area.

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Camp of National Unity

Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego (Camp of National Unity; abbreviated "OZN"; and often called "Ozon" (Polish for "ozone") was a Polish political party founded in 1937 by sections of the leadership in the Sanacja movement. A year after the 1935 death of Poland's Chief of State Marshal Józef Piłsudski, in mid-1936, one of his followers, Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły, attempted to unite the various government factions under his leadership. The attempt failed as another (opposing) Sanacja politician, President Ignacy Mościcki, likewise had a large following; nevertheless, substantial numbers of people did throw their lot in with Rydz-Śmigły. On February 21, 1937, diplomat and Colonel Adam Koc formally announced the formation of OZN. Its stated aims were to improve Poland's national defense and to safeguard the April 1935 Constitution. OZN was strongly pro-military, and its politicians sought to portray Marshal Rydz-Śmigły as Marshal Józef Piłsudski's heir, describing Rydz-Śmigły as the "second person in the country" after President Mościcki—a claim that had no foundation in the Polish Constitution. The OZN adopted 13 theses on the Jewish question. Modeled after the Nuremberg laws, they labelled Jews as a foreign element that should be deprived of all civil rights and ultimately expelled altogether. However, because the OZN was a political grouping without actual concrete political power, these laws remained theoretical and were never implemented or enforced in pre-war Poland. OZNs first official leader was Adam Koc, and its second was General Stanisław Skwarczyński. After the 1939 German invasion of Poland and the start of World War II, OZN leadership passed to Colonel Zygmunt Wenda. In 1937, OZN claimed some 40,000–50,000 members; in 1938, 100,000. During World War II and the German occupation of Poland, OZNs underground military arm, created in 1942, was known as Obóz Polski Walczącej (the Camp of Fighting Poland).

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Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw

Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw (Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie) is a state university in Warsaw.

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Carl Posy

Professor Carl J. Posy is an Israeli philosopher.

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Catherine the Great

Catherine II (Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна Yekaterina Alekseyevna; –), also known as Catherine the Great (Екатери́на Вели́кая, Yekaterina Velikaya), born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, was Empress of Russia from 1762 until 1796, the country's longest-ruling female leader.

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Catholic Church

The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.299 billion members worldwide.

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Catholic Church in Poland

There are 41 Catholic dioceses of the Latin Church and two of the Greek Churches in Poland.

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Censorship in the Polish People's Republic

Censorship in the Polish People's Republic was primarily performed by the Polish Main Office of Control of Press, Publications and Shows (Główny Urząd Kontroli Prasy, Publikacji i Widowisk), a governmental institution created in 1946 by the pro-Soviet Provisional Government of National Unity with Stalin's approval and backing, and renamed in 1981 as the Główny Urząd Kontroli Publikacji i Widowisk.

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Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was de jure the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) between Party Congresses.

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Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party

Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party (Komitet Centralny Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej, KC PZPR) was the central ruling body of the Polish United Workers' Party, the dominant political party in the People's Republic of Poland (1948-1990).

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Cham, Switzerland

Cham is a municipality in the canton of Zug in Switzerland.

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Cheka

All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (Всероссийская Чрезвычайная Комиссия), abbreviated as VChK (ВЧК, Ve-Che-Ka) and commonly known as Cheka, (from the initialism ChK) was the first of a succession of Soviet secret police organizations.

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Christian existentialism

Christian existentialism is a theo-philosophical movement which takes an existentialist approach to Christian theology.

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Christian ministry

In Christianity, ministry is an activity carried out by Christians to express or spread their faith, the prototype being the Great Commission.

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Christian philosophy

Christian philosophy is a development in philosophy that is characterised by coming from a Christian tradition.

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Christian theology

Christian theology is the theology of Christian belief and practice.

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Chronicle

A chronicle (chronica, from Greek χρονικά, from χρόνος, chronos, "time") is a historical account of facts and events ranged in chronological order, as in a time line.

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Church Fathers

The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers.

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Cieśle, Gmina Bodzanów

Cieśle is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Bodzanów, within Płock County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

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Civil rights movement

The civil rights movement (also known as the African-American civil rights movement, American civil rights movement and other terms) was a decades-long movement with the goal of securing legal rights for African Americans that other Americans already held.

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Clarence Irving Lewis

Clarence Irving Lewis (April 12, 1883 – February 3, 1964), usually cited as C. I. Lewis, was an American academic philosopher and the founder of conceptual pragmatism.

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Clericalism

Clericalism is the application of the formal, church-based, leadership or opinion of ordained clergy in matters of either the church or broader political and sociocultural import.

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Clermont-Ferrand

Clermont-Ferrand (Auvergnat Clharmou, Augustonemetum) is a city and commune of France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, with a population of 141,569 (2012).

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Closure (mathematics)

A set has closure under an operation if performance of that operation on members of the set always produces a member of the same set; in this case we also say that the set is closed under the operation.

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Club of Rome

The Club of Rome describes itself as "an organisation of individuals who share a common concern for the future of humanity and strive to make a difference.

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Cognitive linguistics

Cognitive linguistics (CL) is an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics, combining knowledge and research from both psychology and linguistics.

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Cold War

The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its satellite states) and powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others).

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Cold War (1953–1962)

The Cold War (1953–1962) discusses the period within the Cold War from the death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in 1953 to the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

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Cold War (1962–1979)

The Cold War (1962–1979) refers to the phase within the Cold War that spanned the period between the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis in late October 1962, through the détente period beginning in 1969, to the end of détente in the late 1970s.

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Collaborationism

Collaborationism is cooperation with the enemy against one's country in wartime.

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Collectivization in the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union enforced the collectivization (Коллективизация) of its agricultural sector between 1928 and 1940 (in West - between 1948 and 1952) during the ascendancy of Joseph Stalin.

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Colloquialism

Everyday language, everyday speech, common parlance, informal language, colloquial language, general parlance, or vernacular (but this has other meanings too), is the most used variety of a language, which is usually employed in conversation or other communication in informal situations.

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Commander (order)

Commander (Commendatore, Commandeur, Komtur, Comandante, Comendador), or Knight Commander, is a title of honor prevalent in chivalric order and fraternal orders.

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Commander-in-chief

A commander-in-chief, also sometimes called supreme commander, or chief commander, is the person or body that exercises supreme operational command and control of a nation's military forces.

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Commission of National Education

The Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, abbreviated KEN, Edukacinė komisija, Адукацыйная камісія) was the central educational authority in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created by the Sejm and the King Stanisław August Poniatowski on October 14, 1773.

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Communism

In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal") is the philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money and the state.

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Communist International

The Communist International (Comintern), known also as the Third International (1919–1943), was an international communist organization that advocated world communism.

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Communist Party of Poland

The Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski, KPP) was a communist party in Poland.

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Communist Party of the Soviet Union

The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the founding and ruling political party of the Soviet Union.

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Communist Party of Western Belorussia

The Communist Party of Western Belarus (Komunistyczna Partia Zachodniej Białorusi, KPZB; Камуністычная партыя Заходняй Беларусі, КПЗБ) was a banned political party in the Interwar Poland, infiltrated by Soviet special services (similar to German fifth column) operating in the territory of present-day West Belarus from 1923 until 1939; in Polesie (1932–1933) Słonim county (1934) and Vilnius.

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Communist Party of Western Ukraine

Communist Party of Western Ukraine (Комуністична партія Західної України) was a political party in eastern interwar Poland.

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Communist society

In Marxist thought, communist society or the communist system is the type of society and economic system postulated to emerge from technological advances in the productive forces, representing the ultimate goal of the political ideology of Communism.

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Commutative property

In mathematics, a binary operation is commutative if changing the order of the operands does not change the result.

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Completeness (logic)

In mathematical logic and metalogic, a formal system is called complete with respect to a particular property if every formula having the property can be derived using that system, i.e. is one of its theorems; otherwise the system is said to be incomplete.

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Compositio Mathematica

Compositio Mathematica is a bimonthly peer-reviewed mathematics journal established by L.E.J. Brouwer in 1935.

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Computability

Computability is the ability to solve a problem in an effective manner.

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Computable analysis

In mathematics and computer science, computable analysis is the study of mathematical analysis from the perspective of computability theory.

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Computable number

In mathematics, computable numbers are the real numbers that can be computed to within any desired precision by a finite, terminating algorithm.

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Computational complexity theory

Computational complexity theory is a branch of the theory of computation in theoretical computer science that focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating those classes to each other.

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Computer scientist

A computer scientist is a person who has acquired the knowledge of computer science, the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their application.

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Concatenation (mathematics)

In mathematics, concatenation is the joining of two numbers by their numerals.

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Concatenation theory

Concatenation theory, also called string theory, character-string theory, or theoretical syntax, studies character strings over finite alphabets of characters, signs, symbols, or marks.

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Conformity

Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.

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Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna (Wiener Kongress) also called Vienna Congress, was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814.

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Congress Poland

The Kingdom of Poland, informally known as Congress Poland or Russian Poland, was created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a sovereign state of the Russian part of Poland connected by personal union with the Russian Empire under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland until 1832.

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Conscientious objector

A conscientious objector is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, or religion.

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Conspiration

Conspiration is the second extended play by Swedish pop boy band The Fooo.

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Constitution of 3 May 1791

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 (Konstytucja 3 Maja, Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija) was adopted by the Great Sejm (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a dual monarchy comprising the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

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Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw

Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw was promulgated by Napoleon on 22 July 1807 in Dresden.

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Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland

The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland (Konstytucja Królestwa Polskiego) was granted to the 'Congress' Kingdom of Poland by the King of Poland, Alexander I of Russia, who was obliged to issue a constitution to the newly recreated Polish state under his domain as specified by the Congress of Vienna.

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Constitution of the Polish People's Republic

The Constitution of the Polish People's Republic (also known as July Constitution or Constitution of 1952) was passed on 22 July 1952.

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Consumption (sociology)

Theories of consumption have been a part of the field of sociology since its earliest days, dating back, at least implicitly, to the work of Karl Marx in the mid-to-late nineteenth century.

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Contemporary philosophy

Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the end of the 19th century with the professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy.

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Continental philosophy

Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe.

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Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union

The Council of Ministers of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (p; sometimes abbreviated to Sovmin or referred to as the Soviet of Ministers), was the de jure government comprising the highest executive and administrative body of the Soviet Union from 1946 until 1991.

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Council of People's Commissars

The Council of People's Commissars (Совет народных комиссаров or Совнарком, translit. Soviet narodnykh kommissarov or Sovnarkom, also as generic SNK) was a government institution formed shortly after the October Revolution in 1917.

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Council of State (Kingdom of Poland)

Council of State of Congress Kingdom of Poland was an important state institution of Poland that existed in the 19th century.

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Crimea

Crimea (Крым, Крим, Krym; Krym; translit;; translit) is a peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea in Eastern Europe that is almost completely surrounded by both the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov to the northeast.

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Crimean War

The Crimean War (or translation) was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to February 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain and Sardinia.

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Criticisms of Marxism

Criticisms of Marxism have come from various political ideologies and academic disciplines.

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Cross of Merit (Poland)

The Cross of Merit is a Polish civil state established on June 23, 1923, to recognize services to the state.

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Cross of Valour (Poland)

The Cross of Valor (Krzyż Walecznych) is a Polish military decoration.

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Cross-cultural communication

Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavour to communicate across cultures.

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Cultural conflict

Cultural conflict is a type of conflict that occurs when different cultural values and beliefs clash.

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Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences

The Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Czech: Československá akademie věd, Slovak: Česko-slovenská akadémia vied) was established in 1953 to be the scientific center for Czechoslovakia.

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Czesław Białobrzeski

Czesław Białobrzeski (31 August 1878 in Poshekhonye near Yaroslavl, Russia – 12 October 1953 in Warsaw) was a Polish physicist.

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Czesław Ryll-Nardzewski

Czesław Ryll-Nardzewski (7 October 1926 – 18 September 2015) was a Polish mathematician.

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D. Reidel

D.

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Dachau concentration camp

Dachau concentration camp (Konzentrationslager (KZ) Dachau) was the first of the Nazi concentration camps opened in Germany, intended to hold political prisoners.

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Dana Scott

Dana Stewart Scott (born October 11, 1932) is the emeritus Hillman University Professor of Computer Science, Philosophy, and Mathematical Logic at Carnegie Mellon University; he is now retired and lives in Berkeley, California.

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De Morgan's laws

In propositional logic and boolean algebra, De Morgan's laws are a pair of transformation rules that are both valid rules of inference.

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De-Stalinization

De-Stalinization (Russian: десталинизация, destalinizatsiya) consisted of a series of political reforms in the Soviet Union after the death of long-time leader Joseph Stalin in 1953, and the ascension of Nikita Khrushchev to power.

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Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin

On March 5, 1953, Joseph Stalin, the second leader of the Soviet Union, died aged 74 after suffering a stroke.

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Decidability (logic)

In logic, the term decidable refers to the decision problem, the question of the existence of an effective method for determining membership in a set of formulas, or, more precisely, an algorithm that can and will return a boolean true or false value that is correct (instead of looping indefinitely, crashing, returning "don't know" or returning a wrong answer).

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Democratic Left Alliance

Democratic Left Alliance (Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej, SLD) is a social-democratic political party in Poland.

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Demonic possession

Demonic possession is believed by some, to be the process by which individuals are possessed by malevolent preternatural beings, commonly referred to as demons or devils.

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Dialectical materialism

Dialectical materialism (sometimes abbreviated diamat) is a philosophy of science and nature developed in Europe and based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

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Differential algebra

In mathematics, differential rings, differential fields, and differential algebras are rings, fields, and algebras equipped with finitely many derivations, which are unary functions that are linear and satisfy the Leibniz product rule.

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Dissolution of the Soviet Union

The dissolution of the Soviet Union occurred on December 26, 1991, officially granting self-governing independence to the Republics of the Soviet Union.

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Distributive property

In abstract algebra and formal logic, the distributive property of binary operations generalizes the distributive law from boolean algebra and elementary algebra.

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Docent

Docent is a title at some European universities to denote a specific academic appointment within a set structure of academic ranks at or below the full professor rank.

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Doctor of the Church

Doctor of the Church (Latin doctor "teacher") is a title given by the Catholic Church to saints whom they recognize as having been of particular importance, particularly regarding their contribution to theology or doctrine.

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Dominican Order

The Order of Preachers (Ordo Praedicatorum, postnominal abbreviation OP), also known as the Dominican Order, is a mendicant Catholic religious order founded by the Spanish priest Dominic of Caleruega in France, approved by Pope Honorius III via the Papal bull Religiosam vitam on 22 December 1216.

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Dordrecht

Dordrecht, colloquially Dordt, historically in English named Dort, is a city and municipality in the Western Netherlands, located in the province of South Holland.

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Dov Gabbay

Dov M. Gabbay (born October 23, 1945) is a British logician.

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Duchy of Warsaw

The Duchy of Warsaw (Księstwo Warszawskie, Duché de Varsovie, Herzogtum Warschau) was a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit.

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East Prussia

East Prussia (Ostpreußen,; Prusy Wschodnie; Rytų Prūsija; Borussia orientalis; Восточная Пруссия) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and again from 1878 (with the Kingdom itself being part of the German Empire from 1871); following World War I it formed part of the Weimar Republic's Free State of Prussia, until 1945.

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East–West Schism

The East–West Schism, also called the Great Schism and the Schism of 1054, was the break of communion between what are now the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox churches, which has lasted since the 11th century.

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Eastern Bloc

The Eastern Bloc was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact.

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Ecumenism

Ecumenism refers to efforts by Christians of different Church traditions to develop closer relationships and better understandings.

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Editorial board

The editorial board is a group of experts, usually at a publication, who dictate the tone and direction the publication's editorial policy will take.

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Edmund Husserl

Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (or;; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938) was a German philosopher who established the school of phenomenology.

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Education in Poland during World War II

World War II saw the cultivation of underground education in Poland (Tajne szkolnictwo, or tajne komplety).

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Edward Gierek

Edward Gierek (6 January 1913 – 29 July 2001) was a Polish communist politician.

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Edward Ochab

Edward Ochab (16 August 1906 – 1 May 1989) was a Polish communist social activist and politician.

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Elsevier

Elsevier is an information and analytics company and one of the world's major providers of scientific, technical, and medical information.

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Emotion

Emotion is any conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a certain degree of pleasure or displeasure.

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Emperor of All Russia

The Emperor or Empress of All Russia ((pre 1918 orthography) Императоръ Всероссійскій, Императрица Всероссійская, (modern orthography) Император Всероссийский, Императрица всероссийская, Imperator Vserossiyskiy, Imperatritsa Vserossiyskaya) was the absolute and later the constitutional monarch of the Russian Empire.

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Emperor of Austria

The Emperor of Austria (German: Kaiser von Österreich) was the ruler of the Austrian Empire and later the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

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Emperor of the French

Emperor of the French (French: Empereur des Français) was the title used by the House of Bonaparte starting when Napoleon Bonaparte was given the title of Emperor on 18 May 1804 by the French Senate and was crowned emperor of the French on 2 December 1804 at the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris, in Paris, with the Crown of Napoleon.

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Encyclical

An encyclical was originally a circular letter sent to all the churches of a particular area in the ancient Roman Church.

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Episcopal Conference of Poland

Polish Episcopal Conference or Polish Bishop's Conference (Konferencja Episkopatu Polski) is the central organ of Catholic Church in Poland.

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Epistemological particularism

Epistemological particularism is the belief that one can know something without knowing how one knows that thing.

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Era of Stagnation

The Era of Stagnation (Период застоя, Stagnation Period, also called the Brezhnevian Stagnation) was the period in the history of the Soviet Union which began during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev (1964–1982) and continued under Yuri Andropov (1982–1984) and Konstantin Chernenko (1984–1985).

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Ethicist

An ethicist is one whose judgment on ethics and ethical codes has come to be trusted by a specific community, and (importantly) is expressed in some way that makes it possible for others to mimic or approximate that judgment.

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Ethnolinguistics

Ethnolinguistics (sometimes called cultural linguistics) is a field of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and culture and how different ethnic groups perceive the world.

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Eubulides

Eubulides (Εὑβουλίδης; fl. 4th century BCE) of Miletus was a philosopher of the Megarian school, and a pupil of Euclid of Megara.

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Eucharist

The Eucharist (also called Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper, among other names) is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches and an ordinance in others.

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European Review

The European Review is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering contemporary issues in Europe.

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European Union

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of EUnum member states that are located primarily in Europe.

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Evert Willem Beth

Evert Willem Beth (7 July 1908 – 12 April 1964) was a Dutch philosopher and logician, whose work principally concerned the foundations of mathematics.

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Execution by firing squad

Execution by firing squad, in the past sometimes called fusillading (from the French fusil, rifle), is a method of capital punishment, particularly common in the military and in times of war.

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Executive Committee of the Communist International

The Executive Committee of the Communist International, commonly known by its acronym, ECCI (Russian acronym ИККИ), was the governing authority of the Comintern between the World Congresses of that body.

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Existence of God

The existence of God is a subject of debate in the philosophy of religion and popular culture.

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Existential quantification

In predicate logic, an existential quantification is a type of quantifier, a logical constant which is interpreted as "there exists", "there is at least one", or "for some".

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Existentialism

Existentialism is a tradition of philosophical inquiry associated mainly with certain 19th and 20th-century European philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,Oxford Companion to Philosophy, ed.

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Experimental literature

Experimental literature refers to written work—usually fiction or poetry—that emphasizes innovation, most especially in technique.

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Extensionality

In logic, extensionality, or extensional equality, refers to principles that judge objects to be equal if they have the same external properties.

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False accusation

False accusations (or groundless accusations or unfounded accusations or false allegations or false claims) can be in any of the following contexts.

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False evidence

False evidence, fabricated evidence, forged evidence or tainted evidence is information created or obtained illegally, to sway the verdict in a court case.

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Farmworker

A farmworker is a hired agricultural worker on a farm that works for the farmers.

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February Revolution

The February Revolution (p), known in Soviet historiography as the February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution, was the first of two revolutions which took place in Russia in 1917.

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Feliks Kon

Feliks Yakovlevich Kon (May 18, 1864 – July 30, 1941) was a Polish communist activist.

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Felix Dzerzhinsky

Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky (Russian: Фе́ликс Эдму́ндович Дзержи́нский; Polish: Feliks Dzierżyński; 20 July 1926), nicknamed Iron Felix, was a Polish and Soviet Bolshevik revolutionary, leader and statesman.

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Festschrift

In academia, a Festschrift (plural, Festschriften) is a book honoring a respected person, especially an academic, and presented during their lifetime.

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Fideism

Fideism is an epistemological theory which maintains that faith is independent of reason, or that reason and faith are hostile to each other and faith is superior at arriving at particular truths (see natural theology).

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Finance capitalism

Finance capitalism or financial capitalism is the subordination of processes of production to the accumulation of money profits in a financial system. Financial capitalism is thus a form of capitalism where the intermediation of saving to investment becomes a dominant function in the economy, with wider implications for the political process and social evolution. Since the late 20th century it has become the predominant force in the global economy, whether in neoliberal or other form.

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Finland

Finland (Suomi; Finland), officially the Republic of Finland is a country in Northern Europe bordering the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, and Gulf of Finland, between Norway to the north, Sweden to the northwest, and Russia to the east.

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First French Empire

The First French Empire (Empire Français) was the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte of France and the dominant power in much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century.

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First Polish Army (1944–1945)

The Polish First Army (Pierwsza Armia Wojska Polskiego, 1 AWP for short, also known as Berling's Army) was a Polish Army unit formed in the Soviet Union in 1944, from the previously existing Polish I Corps as part of the People's Army of Poland (LWP), a formation of the Polish Armed Forces in the East.

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First-order logic

First-order logic—also known as first-order predicate calculus and predicate logic—is a collection of formal systems used in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science.

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Flying University

Flying University (Uniwersytet Latający, less often translated as "Floating University") was an underground educationalBetty Jean Lifton, The King of Children: The Life and Death of Janusz Korczak,, St.

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Forced displacement

Forced displacement or forced immigration is the coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region and it often connotes violent coercion.

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Forced labour under German rule during World War II

The use of forced labour and slavery in Nazi Germany and throughout German-occupied Europe during World War II took place on an unprecedented scale.

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Foreign relations of the Soviet Union

At the time of the founding of the Soviet Union (the USSR) in 1922, most governments internationally regarded the Soviet state as a pariah because of its advocacy of communism, and thus most states did not give it diplomatic recognition.

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Foundations of geometry

Foundations of geometry is the study of geometries as axiomatic systems.

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Foundations of mathematics

Foundations of mathematics is the study of the philosophical and logical and/or algorithmic basis of mathematics, or, in a broader sense, the mathematical investigation of what underlies the philosophical theories concerning the nature of mathematics.

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Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor

Francis II (Franz; 12 February 1768 – 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until 6 August 1806, when he dissolved the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after the decisive defeat at the hands of the First French Empire led by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz.

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Frankfurt

Frankfurt, officially the City of Frankfurt am Main ("Frankfurt on the Main"), is a metropolis and the largest city in the German state of Hesse and the fifth-largest city in Germany.

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Franz Guenthner

Franz Guenthner is a professor of Computational Linguistics at the Center for Information and Language Processing (CIS) at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet (LMU) in Munich, Germany.

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Frederick Augustus I of Saxony

Frederick Augustus I (full name: Frederick Augustus Joseph Maria Anthony John Nepomuk Aloysius Xavier; Friedrich August Josef Maria Anton Johann Nepomuk Alois Xavier; Fryderyk August Józef Maria Antoni Jan Nepomucen Alojzy Ksawery Wettyn; 23 December 1750 – 5 May 1827) was a member of the House of Wettin who reigned as Elector of Saxony from 1763 to 1806 (as Frederick Augustus III) and as King of Saxony from 1806 to 1827.

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Frederick William II of Prussia

Frederick William II (Friedrich Wilhelm II.; 25 September 1744 – 16 November 1797) was King of Prussia from 1786 until his death.

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Free Trade Unions of the Coast

Free Trade Unions of the Coast (Wolne Związki Zawodowe Wybrzeża, WZZW, also translated as the Committee for Independent Trade Unions for the Coast) were a government-independent trade union in the People's Republic of Poland.

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Freedom of speech

Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or sanction.

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Freemasonry

Freemasonry or Masonry consists of fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local fraternities of stonemasons, which from the end of the fourteenth century regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities and clients.

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Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher, cultural critic, composer, poet, philologist and a Latin and Greek scholar whose work has exerted a profound influence on Western philosophy and modern intellectual history.

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Friedrich Stadler

Friedrich Stadler (born July 17, 1951 in Zeltweg, Styria) is an Austrian historian of science and philosopher of science, and professor for history and philosophy of science at the University of Vienna.

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Front of National Unity

Front of National Unity or National Unity Front (Front Jedności Narodu, FJN) was a popular front supervising elections in the Polish People's Republic and also acted as a coalition for the dominant communist Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) and its allies.

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Fryderyk Chopin University of Music

The Fryderyk Chopin University of Music (Uniwersytet Muzyczny Fryderyka Chopina, UMFC) is located at ulica Okólnik 2 in central Warsaw, Poland.

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Fundamenta Informaticae

Fundamenta Informaticae is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering computer science.

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Fundamenta Mathematicae

Fundamenta Mathematicae is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of mathematics with a special focus on the foundations of mathematics, concentrating on set theory, mathematical logic, topology and its interactions with algebra, and dynamical systems.

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Galicia (Eastern Europe)

Galicia (Ukrainian and Галичина, Halyčyna; Galicja; Czech and Halič; Galizien; Galícia/Kaliz/Gácsország/Halics; Galiția/Halici; Галиция, Galicija; גאַליציע Galitsiye) is a historical and geographic region in Central Europe once a small Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia and later a crown land of Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, that straddled the modern-day border between Poland and Ukraine.

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Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564Drake (1978, p. 1). The date of Galileo's birth is given according to the Julian calendar, which was then in force throughout Christendom. In 1582 it was replaced in Italy and several other Catholic countries with the Gregorian calendar. Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according to the Gregorian calendar. – 8 January 1642) was an Italian polymath.

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Gödel's incompleteness theorems

Gödel's incompleteness theorems are two theorems of mathematical logic that demonstrate the inherent limitations of every formal axiomatic system containing basic arithmetic.

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Gdańsk

Gdańsk (Danzig) is a Polish city on the Baltic coast.

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Gdańsk Agreement

The Gdańsk Agreement (or Gdańsk Social Accord(s) or August Agreement(s), Porozumienia sierpniowe) was an accord reached as a direct result of the strikes that took place in Gdańsk, Poland.

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Gdańsk Shipyard

Gdańsk Shipyard (Stocznia Gdańskа, formerly Lenin Shipyard) is a large Polish shipyard, located in the city of Gdańsk.

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Gene Sharp

Gene Sharp (January 21, 1928 – January 28, 2018) was the founder of the Albert Einstein Institution, a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing the study of nonviolent action, and a retired professor of political science at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth.

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General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was an office of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) that by the late 1920s had evolved into the most powerful of the Central Committee's various secretaries.

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Generalissimus of the Soviet Union

Generalissimus of the Soviet Union (Генералиссимус Советского Союза; Generalissimus Sovyétskogo Soyuza) was a proposed military rank created on 27 June 1945, following the tradition of the Imperial Russian Army (the rank in question only ever having been held by Count Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Suvorov who served during the reign of Catherine II the Great.). It was granted to Joseph Stalin following World War II; however, Stalin refused to officially approve the rank and died with the rank of Marshal of the Soviet Union.

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Generative grammar

Generative grammar is a linguistic theory that regards grammar as a system of rules that generates exactly those combinations of words that form grammatical sentences in a given language.

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George Boolos

George Stephen Boolos (September 4, 1940 – May 27, 1996) was an American philosopher and a mathematical logician who taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

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Georgi Dimitrov

Georgi Dimitrov Mikhaylov (Гео̀рги Димитро̀в Миха̀йлов), also known as Georgi Mikhaylovich Dimitrov (Гео́ргий Миха́йлович Дими́тров; 18 June 1882 – 2 July 1949), was a Bulgarian communist politician.

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Georgy Zhukov

Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov (– 18 June 1974) was a Soviet Red Army General who became Chief of General Staff, Deputy Commander-in-Chief, Minister of Defence and a member of the Politburo.

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German Academy of Sciences at Berlin

The German Academy of Sciences at Berlin (Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin) or AdW, later renamed the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic (Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR), was the most important research institution of East Germany.

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German idealism

German idealism (also known as post-Kantian idealism, post-Kantian philosophy, or simply post-Kantianism) was a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

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Giordano Bruno

Giordano Bruno (Iordanus Brunus Nolanus; 1548 – 17 February 1600), born Filippo Bruno, was an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, mathematician, poet, and cosmological theorist.

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Glasnost

In the Russian language the word glasnost (гла́сность) has several general and specific meanings.

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Gottlob Frege

Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege (8 November 1848 – 26 July 1925) was a German philosopher, logician, and mathematician.

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Governing Senate

The Governing Senate (Правительствующий сенат) was a legislative, judicial, and executive body of the Russian Emperors, instituted by Peter the Great to replace the Boyar Duma and lasted until the very end of the Russian Empire.

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Gozdawa coat of arms

Gozdawa is a Polish nobility Coat of Arms.

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Grammar

In linguistics, grammar (from Greek: γραμματική) is the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language.

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Grand Duchy of Posen

The Grand Duchy of Posen (Großherzogtum Posen; Wielkie Księstwo Poznańskie) was part of the Kingdom of Prussia, created from territories annexed by Prussia after the Partitions of Poland, and formally established following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815.

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Grande Armée

The Grande Armée (French for Great Army) was the army commanded by Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars.

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Gray Ranks

"Gray Ranks" (Szare Szeregi) was a codename for the underground paramilitary Polish Scouting Association (Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego) during World War II.

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Great Emigration

The Great Emigration (Wielka Emigracja) involved the emigration of thousands of Poles, particularly from the political and cultural elites, from 1831 to 1870, after the failure of the November Uprising and of other uprisings (1846, 1863).

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Great Purge

The Great Purge or the Great Terror (Большо́й терро́р) was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union which occurred from 1936 to 1938.

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Great Sejm

The Great Sejm, also known as the Four-Year Sejm (Polish: respectively, Sejm Wielki or Sejm Czteroletni; Lithuanian: Didysis seimas or Ketverių metų seimas) was a Sejm (parliament) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that was held in Warsaw between 1788 and 1792.

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Greater Poland uprising (1846)

The 1846 Wielkopolska uprising (powstanie wielkopolskie 1846 roku) was a planned military insurrection by Poles in the land of Greater Poland against the Prussian forces, designed to be part of a general Polish uprising in all three partitions of Poland, against the Russians, Austrians and Prussians.

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Greater Poland uprising (1848)

The Greater Poland uprising of 1848 or Poznań Uprising (powstanie wielkopolskie 1848 roku or powstanie poznańskie) was an unsuccessful military insurrection of Poles against Prussian forces, during the Spring of Nations period.

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Greco-Roman world

The Greco-Roman world, Greco-Roman culture, or the term Greco-Roman; spelled Graeco-Roman in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth), when used as an adjective, as understood by modern scholars and writers, refers to those geographical regions and countries that culturally (and so historically) were directly, long-term, and intimately influenced by the language, culture, government and religion of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It is also better known as the Classical Civilisation. In exact terms the area refers to the "Mediterranean world", the extensive tracts of land centered on the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, the "swimming-pool and spa" of the Greeks and Romans, i.e. one wherein the cultural perceptions, ideas and sensitivities of these peoples were dominant. This process was aided by the universal adoption of Greek as the language of intellectual culture and commerce in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, and of Latin as the tongue for public management and forensic advocacy, especially in the Western Mediterranean. Though the Greek and the Latin never became the native idioms of the rural peasants who composed the great majority of the empire's population, they were the languages of the urbanites and cosmopolitan elites, and the lingua franca, even if only as corrupt or multifarious dialects to those who lived within the large territories and populations outside the Macedonian settlements and the Roman colonies. All Roman citizens of note and accomplishment regardless of their ethnic extractions, spoke and wrote in Greek and/or Latin, such as the Roman jurist and Imperial chancellor Ulpian who was of Phoenician origin, the mathematician and geographer Claudius Ptolemy who was of Greco-Egyptian origin and the famous post-Constantinian thinkers John Chrysostom and Augustine who were of Syrian and Berber origins, respectively, and the historian Josephus Flavius who was of Jewish origin and spoke and wrote in Greek.

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Grigori Mints

Grigori Mints (June 7, 1939 – May 29, 2014) was a Russian philosopher and mathematician who worked in mathematical logic.

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Grzegorczyk hierarchy

The Grzegorczyk hierarchy (pronounced), named after the Polish logician Andrzej Grzegorczyk, is a hierarchy of functions used in computability theory (Wagner and Wechsung 1986:43).

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Gulag

The Gulag (ГУЛАГ, acronym of Главное управление лагерей и мест заключения, "Main Camps' Administration" or "Chief Administration of Camps") was the government agency in charge of the Soviet forced labor camp system that was created under Vladimir Lenin and reached its peak during Joseph Stalin's rule from the 1930s to the 1950s.

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György Lukács

György Lukács (also Georg Lukács; born György Bernát Löwinger; 13 April 1885 – 4 June 1971) was a Hungarian Marxist philosopher, aesthetician, literary historian, and critic.

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Gymnasium (school)

A gymnasium is a type of school with a strong emphasis on academic learning, and providing advanced secondary education in some parts of Europe comparable to British grammar schools, sixth form colleges and US preparatory high schools.

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Habilitation

Habilitation defines the qualification to conduct self-contained university teaching and is the key for access to a professorship in many European countries.

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Hans Freudenthal

Hans Freudenthal (17 September 1905 – 13 October 1990) was a Jewish-German-born Dutch mathematician.

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Harvard University

Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

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Heidelberg

Heidelberg is a college town in Baden-Württemberg situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany.

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Helena Rasiowa

Helena Rasiowa (20 June 1917 – 9 August 1994) was a Polish mathematician.

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Hero of the Soviet Union

The title Hero of the Soviet Union (translit) was the highest distinction in the Soviet Union, awarded personally or collectively for heroic feats in service to the Soviet state and society.

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Heyting arithmetic

In mathematical logic, Heyting arithmetic (sometimes abbreviated HA) is an axiomatization of arithmetic in accordance with the philosophy of intuitionism (Troelstra 1973:18).

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Hildegard Goss-Mayr

Hildegard Goss-Mayr (born 22 January 1930, Vienna) is an Austrian nonviolent activist and Christian theologian.

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Historical geography

Historical geography is the branch of geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time.

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Historical materialism

Historical materialism is the methodological approach of Marxist historiography that focuses on human societies and their development over time, claiming that they follow a number of observable tendencies.

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History of Amsterdam

Amsterdam has a long and eventful history.

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History of art

The history of art focuses on objects made by humans in visual form for aesthetic purposes.

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History of Christianity

The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, Christendom, and the Church with its various denominations, from the 1st century to the present.

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History of literature

The history of literature is the historical development of writings in prose or poetry that attempt to provide entertainment, enlightenment, or instruction to the reader/listener/observer, as well as the development of the literary techniques used in the communication of these pieces.

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History of Poland (1795–1918)

In 1795 the third and the last of the three 18th-century partitions of Poland ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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History of Poland (1945–1989)

The history of Poland from 1945 to 1989 spans the period of Soviet dominance and communist rule imposed after the end of World War II over Poland, as reestablished within new borders.

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History of the Jews in Poland

The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over 1,000 years.

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History of the world

The history of the world is the history of humanity (or human history), as determined from archaeology, anthropology, genetics, linguistics, and other disciplines; and, for periods since the invention of writing, from recorded history and from secondary sources and studies.

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Holy Roman Emperor

The Holy Roman Emperor (historically Romanorum Imperator, "Emperor of the Romans") was the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire (800-1806 AD, from Charlemagne to Francis II).

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Home Army

The Home Army (Armia Krajowa;, abbreviated AK) was the dominant Polish resistance movement in Poland, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, during World War II.

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Honorary degree

An honorary degree, in Latin a degree honoris causa ("for the sake of the honor") or ad honorem ("to the honor"), is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived the usual requirements, such as matriculation, residence, a dissertation and the passing of comprehensive examinations.

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Hospital

A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized medical and nursing staff and medical equipment.

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House of Wettin

The House of Wettin is a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors and kings that once ruled territories in the present-day German states of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia.

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Humanism

Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism and empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition.

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Hungarian Academy of Sciences

The Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (MTA)) is the most important and prestigious learned society of Hungary.

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Hungarian Revolution of 1848

The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 ("1848–49 Revolution and War") was one of the many European Revolutions of 1848 and closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas.

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Idempotence

Idempotence is the property of certain operations in mathematics and computer science that they can be applied multiple times without changing the result beyond the initial application.

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Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

The ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) was Marxism–Leninism, an ideology of a centralised, planned economy and a vanguardist one-party state, which was the dictatorship of the proletariat.

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Ignacy Jan Paderewski

Ignacy Jan Paderewski (– 29 June 1941) was a Polish pianist and composer, politician, statesman and spokesman for Polish independence.

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Ignacy Mościcki

Ignacy Mościcki (1 December 18672 October 1946) was a Polish chemist, politician, and President of Poland from 1926 to 1939.

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Imperial Council (Austria)

The Imperial Council (Reichsrat, Říšská rada, Rada Państwa, Consiglio Imperiale, Državni zbor) was the legislature of the Austrian Empire from 1861, and from 1867 the legislature of Cisleithania within Austria-Hungary.

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Imperial Russian Army

The Imperial Russian Army (Ру́сская импера́торская а́рмия) was the land armed force of the Russian Empire, active from around 1721 to the Russian Revolution of 1917.

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Indagationes Mathematicae

Indagationes Mathematicae (from Latin: inquiry, search, investigation of the mathematics) is a Netherlands mathematics journal.

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Insight

Insight is the understanding of a specific cause and effect within a specific context.

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Institute for the History of Science, Polish Academy of Sciences

The Institute for the History of Science was established in 1954 as an institution of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Poland.

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Institute of National Remembrance

The Institute of National Remembrance – Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation (Instytut Pamięci Narodowej – Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu; IPN) is a Polish government-affiliated research institute with lustration prerogatives, as well as prosecution powers.

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Institute of Philosophy and Sociology of the Polish Academy of Sciences

Institute of Philosophy and Sociology of the Polish Academy of Sciences (Instytut Filozofii i Socjologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk) is a scientific Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, based in the Palace of Technology in Warsaw.

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Insurgency

An insurgency is a rebellion against authority (for example, an authority recognized as such by the United Nations) when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents (lawful combatants).

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Internal Security Corps

The Internal Security Corps (Korpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego, KBW) was a special-purpose military formation in Poland under Stalinist government, established by the communist Council of Ministers on May 24, 1945.

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International Union of History and Philosophy of Science

The International Union of History and Philosophy of Science and Technology is one of the members of the International Council for Science (ICSU).

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Internment

Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges or intent to file charges, and thus no trial.

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Interwar period

In the context of the history of the 20th century, the interwar period was the period between the end of the First World War in November 1918 and the beginning of the Second World War in September 1939.

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Intuitionistic logic

Intuitionistic logic, sometimes more generally called constructive logic, refers to systems of symbolic logic that differ from the systems used for classical logic by more closely mirroring the notion of constructive proof.

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IOS Press

IOS Press is a publishing house headquartered in Amsterdam, specialising in the publication of journals and books related to fields of scientific, technical, and medical research.

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Iowa

Iowa is a U.S. state in the Midwestern United States, bordered by the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri and Big Sioux rivers to the west.

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Irkutsk

Irkutsk (p) is a city and the administrative center of Irkutsk Oblast, Russia, and one of the largest cities in Siberia.

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Italian literature

Italian literature is written in the Italian language, particularly within Italy.

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Ivan Konev

Ivan Stepanovich Konev (Ива́н Степа́нович Ко́нев; – 21 May 1973) was a Soviet military commander who led Red Army forces on the Eastern Front during World War II, retook much of Eastern Europe from occupation by the Axis Powers, and helped in the capture of Germany's capital, Berlin.

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Ivan Paskevich

Prince (1831) Ivan Fyodorovich Paskevich (Ива́н Фёдорович Паске́вич; &ndash) was an imperial Russian military leader.

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J.C.C. McKinsey

John Charles Chenoweth McKinsey (30 April 1908 – 26 October 1953) (also known as J. C. C. McKinsey or Chen McKinsey) was an American mathematician known for his work on mathematical logic and game theory., Stanford Historical Society He also made significant contributions to modal logic.

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Jabłonna Palace

Jabłonna Palace (Pałac w Jabłonnie) is a palace, hotel and publicly accessible park-complex in Jabłonna near Warsaw in Poland whose uses include conferences and weddings.

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Jabłonna, Legionowo County

Jabłonna is a village in Legionowo County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

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Jacek Kuroń

Jacek Jan Kuroń (3 March 1934 – 17 June 2004) was one of the democratic leaders of opposition in the People's Republic of Poland.

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Jacek Malinowski

Jacek Malinowski (born May 20, 1959), is a Polish professor and mathematical logician, the editor-in-chief of Studia Logica, Head of the Department of Logic and Cognitive Science at the Polish Academy of Science, Warsaw, Poland, and Head of the Section of Logical Semiotics at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Poland.

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Jack Copeland

Brian Jack Copeland (born 1950) is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, and author of books on the computing pioneer Alan Turing.

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Jagiellonian University

The Jagiellonian University (Polish: Uniwersytet Jagielloński; Latin: Universitas Iagellonica Cracoviensis, also known as the University of Kraków) is a research university in Kraków, Poland.

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Jan Łukasiewicz

Jan Łukasiewicz (21 December 1878 – 13 February 1956) was a Polish logician and philosopher born in Lwów, a city in the Galician kingdom of Austria-Hungary.

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Jan Kiliński

Jan Kiliński (1760 in Trzemeszno - 28 January 1819 in Warsaw) was one of the commanders of the Kościuszko Uprising.

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Jan Parandowski

Jan Parandowski (11 May 1895 – 26 September 1978) was a Polish writer, essayist, and translator.

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Jan Woleński

Jan Hertrich-Woleński (also known as Jan Woleński; born 21 September 1940) is a Polish philosopher specializing in the history of the Lwów–Warsaw school of logic and in analytic philosophy.

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January Uprising

The January Uprising (Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m. sukilimas, Belarusian: Паўстанне 1863-1864 гадоў, Польське повстання) was an insurrection instigated principally in the Russian Partition of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against its occupation by the Russian Empire.

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Janusz Zabłocki

Janusz Zbigniew Zabłocki (18 February 1926 – 13 March 2014) was a Polish politician, journalist, Catholic activist, lawyer, soldier of Armia Krajowa.

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Józef Światło

Józef Światło, born Izaak Fleischfarb (1 January 1915 – 2 September 1994), was a high-ranking official in the Ministry of Public Security of Poland (MBP) who served as deputy director of the 10th Department run by Anatol Fejgin.

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Józef Cyrankiewicz

Józef Cyrankiewicz (April 23, 1911 – January 20, 1989) was a Polish Socialist (PPS) and after 1948 Communist politician.

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Józef Maria Bocheński

Józef Maria Bocheński (Czuszów, Congress Poland, Russian Empire, 30 August 1902 – 8 February 1995, Fribourg, Switzerland) was a Polish Dominican, logician and philosopher.

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Józef Oleksy

Józef Oleksy (22 June 1946 – 9 January 2015) was a Polish left-wing politician, former chairman of the Democratic Left Alliance (Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej, SLD).

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Józef Piłsudski

Józef Klemens Piłsudski (5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman; he was Chief of State (1918–22), "First Marshal of Poland" (from 1920), and de facto leader (1926–35) of the Second Polish Republic as the Minister of Military Affairs.

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Józef Zajączek

Prince Józef Zajączek (1 November 1752, Kamieniec Podolski — 28 August 1826, Warsaw) was a Polish general and politician.

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Jędrzej Moraczewski

Jędrzej Edward Moraczewski (13 January 1870 – 5 August 1944) was a Polish socialist politician who served as the first Prime Minister of the Second Polish Republic between November 1918 and January 1919.

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Jean Goss

Jean Goss (Caluire in France November 20, 1912 - Paris April 3, 1991) was a French nonviolent activist.

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Jean Vanier

Jean Vanier, CC, GOQ, born September 10, 1928, is a Canadian Catholic philosopher, theologian, and humanitarian.

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Jeff Paris (mathematician)

Jeffrey Bruce "Jeff" Paris, FBA (born 15 November 1944) is a British mathematician and Professor of Logic in the School of Mathematics at the University of Manchester.

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Jens Erik Fenstad

Jens Erik Fenstad (born 15 April 1935) is a Norwegian mathematician.

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Jeremy Avigad

Jeremy Avigad is a Professor of Philosophy at Carnegie Mellon University.

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Jerusalem Avenue

Jerusalem Avenue (Aleje Jerozolimskie) is one of the principal streets of the city of Warsaw in Poland.

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Jerzy Łoś

Jerzy Łoś (born March 22, 1920 in Lwów, Poland (now Lviv, Ukraine) – June 1, 1998 in Warsaw) was a Polish mathematician, logician, economist, and philosopher.

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Jerzy Eisler

Prof.

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Jesuit University of Philosophy and Education Ignatianum

Ignatianum University in Kraków (formerly Jesuit University of Philosophy and Education Ignatianum) is a Jesuit university officially recognized by the state of Poland.

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Jesus

Jesus, also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth and Jesus Christ, was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious leader.

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John Locke

John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism".

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John Maynard Keynes

John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes (5 June 1883 – 21 April 1946), was a British economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments.

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John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin

Catholic University of Lublin (in Polish Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II, or KUL) is located in Lublin, Poland.

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John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill, also known as J.S. Mill, (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) was a British philosopher, political economist, and civil servant.

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Johns Hopkins University

Johns Hopkins University is an American private research university in Baltimore, Maryland.

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Joseph Stalin

Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was a Soviet revolutionary and politician of Georgian nationality.

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Journal of Symbolic Logic

The Journal of Symbolic Logic is a peer-reviewed mathematics journal published quarterly by Association for Symbolic Logic.

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Judeo-Christian

Judeo-Christian is a term that groups Judaism and Christianity, either in reference to Christianity's derivation from Judaism, both religions common use of the Torah, or due to perceived parallels or commonalities shared values between those two religions, which has contained as part of Western culture.

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Julian Leszczyński

Julian Leszczyński (pseudonym: Leński; 8 January 1899 in Płock – 20 August 1939) was leader of the Stalinist faction in the Communist Party of Poland (KPP), led the party in the 1930s, and himself fell victim to Stalin's Great Purge.

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Julian Marchlewski

Julian Baltazar Marchlewski (17 May 1866 – 22 March 1925) was a Polish communist.

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Juliusz Słowacki

Juliusz Słowacki (23 August 1809 – 3 April 1849) was a Polish Romantic poet.

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Jurist

A jurist (from medieval Latin) is someone who researches and studies jurisprudence (theory of law).

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Justice of the peace

A justice of the peace (JP) is a judicial officer, of a lower or puisne court, elected or appointed by means of a commission (letters patent) to keep the peace.

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Kantian ethics

Kantian ethics refers to a deontological ethical theory ascribed to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant.

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Karl Marx

Karl MarxThe name "Karl Heinrich Marx", used in various lexicons, is based on an error.

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Karol Borsuk

Karol Borsuk (May 8, 1905 – January 24, 1982) was a Polish mathematician.

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Karol Modzelewski

Karol Modzelewski (born 23 November 1937 in Moscow) is a Polish historian, writer, politician and academic.

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Katorga

Katorga (p; from medieval and modern Greek: katergon, κάτεργον, "galley") was a system of penal labor in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union (see Katorga labor in the Soviet Union).

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Kazimierz Bartel

Kazimierz Władysław Bartel (Casimir Bartel; 3 March 1882 – 26 July 1941) was a Polish mathematician, scholar, diplomat and politician who served as 15th, 17th and 19th Prime Minister of Poland three times between 1926 and 1930 and the Senator of Poland from 1937 until the outbreak of World War II.

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Kazimierz Kuratowski

Kazimierz Kuratowski (Polish pronunciation:, 2 February 1896 – 18 June 1980) was a Polish mathematician and logician.

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Kazimierz Twardowski

Kazimierz Jerzy Skrzypna-Twardowski (20 October 1866 – 11 February 1938) was a Polish philosopher, logician, and rector of the Lviv University.

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Khrushchev Thaw

The Khrushchev Thaw (or Khrushchev's Thaw; p or simply ottepel)William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, London: Free Press, 2004 refers to the period from the early 1950s to the early 1960s when repression and censorship in the Soviet Union were relaxed, and millions of Soviet political prisoners were released from Gulag labor camps due to Nikita Khrushchev's policies of de-Stalinization and peaceful coexistence with other nations.

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Kingdom of Prussia

The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen) was a German kingdom that constituted the state of Prussia between 1701 and 1918.

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Kingdom of Romania

The Kingdom of Romania (Regatul României) was a constitutional monarchy in Southeastern Europe which existed from 1881, when prince Carol I of Romania was proclaimed King, until 1947, when King Michael I of Romania abdicated and the Parliament proclaimed Romania a republic.

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Kingdom of Sardinia

The Kingdom of SardiniaThe name of the state was originally Latin: Regnum Sardiniae, or Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae when the kingdom was still considered to include Corsica.

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Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej

Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej (KIK; Club of Catholic Intelligentsia) is a Polish organization grouping Catholic intellectuals.

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Kościuszko Uprising

The Kościuszko Uprising was an uprising against Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia led by Tadeusz Kościuszko in the Commonwealth of Poland and the Prussian partition in 1794.

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Konstantin Rokossovsky

Konstantin Konstantinovich (Xaverevich) Rokossovsky (December 21, 1896 – August 3, 1968) was a Soviet officer of Polish origin who became Marshal of the Soviet Union, Marshal of Poland and served as Poland's Defence Minister from 1949 until his removal in 1956 during the Polish October.

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Kraków

Kraków, also spelled Cracow or Krakow, is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland.

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Kripke semantics

Kripke semantics (also known as relational semantics or frame semantics, and often confused with possible world semantics) is a formal semantics for non-classical logic systems created in the late 1950s and early 1960s by Saul Kripke and André Joyal.

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Kultura

Kultura (Culture)—sometimes referred to as Kultura Paryska ("Paris Culture")—was a leading Polish-émigré literary-political magazine, published from 1947 to 2000 by Instytut Literacki (the Literary Institute), initially in Rome, then Paris.

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Kurt Gödel

Kurt Friedrich Gödel (April 28, 1906 – January 14, 1978) was an Austrian, and later American, logician, mathematician, and philosopher.

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Labour Party (Poland)

The Labour Party (Stronnictwo Pracy, SP) was a political party in Poland.

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Landed property

In real estate, a landed property or landed estate is a property that generates income for the owner without the owner having to do the actual work of the estate.

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Lavrentiy Beria

Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (p; tr,; 29 March 1899 – 23 December 1953) was a Soviet politician, Marshal of the Soviet Union and state security administrator, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus (NKVD) under Joseph Stalin during World War II, and promoted to deputy premier under Stalin from 1941.

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Law of noncontradiction

In classical logic, the law of non-contradiction (LNC) (also known as the law of contradiction, principle of non-contradiction (PNC), or the principle of contradiction) states that contradictory statements cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time, e.g. the two propositions "A is B" and "A is not B" are mutually exclusive.

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Leśni

Leśni ludzie ("forest people") is an informal name applied to some anti-German partisan groups that operated in occupied Poland during World War II, being a part of Polish resistance movement.

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Lech Wałęsa

Lech Wałęsa (born 29 September 1943) is a retired Polish politician and labour activist.

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Leeds

Leeds is a city in the metropolitan borough of Leeds, in the county of West Yorkshire, England.

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Legion of Honour

The Legion of Honour, with its full name National Order of the Legion of Honour (Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur), is the highest French order of merit for military and civil merits, established in 1802 by Napoléon Bonaparte and retained by all the divergent governments and regimes later holding power in France, up to the present.

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Legislative Sejm (Second Polish Republic)

Legislative Sejm (Sejm Ustawodawczy) of the Second Polish Republic was the first national parliament (Sejm) of the newly independent Second Polish Republic.

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Leninism

Leninism is the political theory for the organisation of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as political prelude to the establishment of socialism.

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Leo Tolstoy

Count Lyov (also Lev) Nikolayevich Tolstoy (also Лев) Николаевич ТолстойIn Tolstoy's day, his name was written Левъ Николаевичъ Толстой.

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Leon Henkin

Leon Albert Henkin (April 19, 1921, Brooklyn, New York – November 1, 2006, Oakland, California), Oroville Mercury-Register, November 24, 2006.

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Leonid Brezhnev

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (a; Леоні́д Іллі́ч Бре́жнєв, 19 December 1906 (O.S. 6 December) – 10 November 1982) was a Soviet politician who led the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982 as the General Secretary of the Central Committee (CC) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), presiding over the country until his death and funeral in 1982.

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Leopold Staff

Leopold Staff (November 14, 1878 – May 31, 1957) was a Polish poet; one of the greatest artists of European modernism twice granted the Degree of Doctor honoris causa by universities in Warsaw and in Kraków.

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Leszek Kołakowski

Leszek Kołakowski (23 October 1927 – 17 July 2009) was a Polish philosopher and historian of ideas.

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Leszek Miller

Leszek Cezary Miller (born 3 July 1946) is a Polish left-wing politician who served as Prime Minister of Poland from 2001 to 2004.

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Lexicalization

Lexicalization is the process of adding words, set phrases, or word patterns to a language – that is, of adding items to a language's lexicon.

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Liar paradox

In philosophy and logic, the classical liar paradox or liar's paradox is the statement of a liar who states that he or she is lying: for instance, declaring that "I am lying" or "everything I say is false".

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Liberalization

Liberalization (or liberalisation) is a general term for any process whereby a state lifts restrictions on some private individual activities.

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Liberation theology

Liberation theology is a synthesis of Christian theology and Marxist socio-economic analyses that emphasizes social concern for the poor and the political liberation for oppressed peoples.

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Lieutenant general

Lieutenant general, lieutenant-general and similar (abbrev Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries.

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Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra

In mathematical logic, the Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra (or Lindenbaum algebra) of a logical theory T consists of the equivalence classes of sentences of the theory (i.e., the quotient, under the equivalence relation ~ defined such that p ~ q exactly when p and q are provably equivalent in T).

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Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context.

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List of archbishops of Gniezno and primates of Poland

This is a list of Archbishops of the Archdiocese of Gniezno, who are simultaneously Primates of Poland since 1418.

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List of French client states

France had several client states between 1792–1815 (the French First Republic and the First French Empire) and 1852–1870 (the Second French Empire).

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List of heads of state of Poland

This list concerns the Polish heads of state since World War I. For a list of historical monarchs of Poland from the Middle Ages to 1795 and 19th and early 20th century claimants to the Polish throne see List of Polish monarchs.

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List of leaders of the Soviet Union

Under the 1977 Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the Chairman of the Council of Ministers was the head of government and the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet was the head of state.

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List of military units in the Warsaw Uprising

This is a list of military units taking part in the Warsaw Uprising, a Polish insurrection during the Second World War that began on August 1, 1944.

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List of monarchs of Prussia

The monarchs of Prussia were members of the House of Hohenzollern who were the hereditary rulers of the former German state of Prussia from its founding in 1525 as the Duchy of Prussia.

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List of Polish cardinals

This is a list of Polish cardinals.

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List of Polish monarchs

Poland was ruled at various times either by dukes (the 10th–14th century) or by kings (the 11th-18th century).

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List of Prime Ministers of Poland

This is a list of Prime Ministers of Poland.

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List of rulers of Lithuania

The following is a list of rulers over Lithuania—grand dukes, kings, and presidents—the heads of authority over historical Lithuanian territory.

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List of rulers of Partitioned Poland

No description.

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List of rulers of Saxony

This article lists dukes, electors, and kings ruling over different territories named Saxony from the beginning of the Saxon Duchy in the 9th century to the end of the Saxon Kingdom in 1918.

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List of Russian field marshals

The following sixty-four officers held the rank of field marshal during the Russian Empire.

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Literary criticism

Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature.

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Literary topos

Topos (from τόπος 'place' abbreviated from τόπος κοινός tópos koinós, 'common place'; pl. topoi), in Latin locus (from locus communis), referred in the context of classical Greek rhetoric to a standardised method of constructing or treating an argument.

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Lithuania

Lithuania (Lietuva), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika), is a country in the Baltic region of northern-eastern Europe.

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Locarno Treaties

The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, on 5–16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, and return normalizing relations with defeated Germany (the Weimar Republic).

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Logic

Logic (from the logikḗ), originally meaning "the word" or "what is spoken", but coming to mean "thought" or "reason", is a subject concerned with the most general laws of truth, and is now generally held to consist of the systematic study of the form of valid inference.

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Logical conjunction

In logic, mathematics and linguistics, And (∧) is the truth-functional operator of logical conjunction; the and of a set of operands is true if and only if all of its operands are true.

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Logical disjunction

In logic and mathematics, or is the truth-functional operator of (inclusive) disjunction, also known as alternation; the or of a set of operands is true if and only if one or more of its operands is true.

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Logical equivalence

In logic, statements p and q are logically equivalent if they have the same logical content.

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Logical Methods in Computer Science

Logical Methods in Computer Science is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal covering theoretical computer science and applied logic.

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Logical positivism

Logical positivism and logical empiricism, which together formed neopositivism, was a movement in Western philosophy whose central thesis was verificationism, a theory of knowledge which asserted that only statements verifiable through empirical observation are cognitively meaningful.

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Lublin

Lublin (Lublinum) is the ninth largest city in Poland and the second largest city of Lesser Poland.

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Ludwik Hass

Ludwik Hass (1918–2008) was a Polish historian who specialised in the history of Freemasonry in Poland.

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Lustration in Poland

Lustration in Poland refers to the policy of limiting the participation of former communists, and especially informants of the communist secret police (from the years 1944–90), in the successor governments or even in civil service positions.

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Lviv

Lviv (Львів; Львов; Lwów; Lemberg; Leopolis; see also other names) is the largest city in western Ukraine and the seventh-largest city in the country overall, with a population of around 728,350 as of 2016.

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Lwów Scientific Society

Lwów Scientific Society (Towarzystwo Naukowe we Lwowie) was a Polish learned society founded in 1901 in Lwów by Oswald Balzer as the Association of Support of Polish Sciences.

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Lwów–Warsaw school

The Lwów–Warsaw school (Szkoła lwowsko-warszawska) was a Polish school of thought founded by Kazimierz Twardowski in 1895 in Lwów.

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Maciej Rataj

Maciej Rataj (19 February 1884 – 21 June 1940) was a Polish politician and writer.

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Magdalena Borsuk-Białynicka

Maria Magdalena Borsuk-Białynicka is a Polish paleontologist and phylogeneticist born in 1940 in Warsaw, Poland.

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Magnate

Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus, 'great', designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities.

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Mahatma Gandhi

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was an Indian activist who was the leader of the Indian independence movement against British rule.

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Main Currents of Marxism

Main Currents of Marxism: Its Origins, Growth and Dissolution (Główne nurty marksizmu.) is a work about Marxism by the political philosopher Leszek Kołakowski.

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Marcel-Paul Schützenberger

Marcel-Paul "Marco" Schützenberger (October 24, 1920 – July 29, 1996) was a French mathematician and Doctor of Medicine.

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Marek Belka

Marek Marian Belka (b. 9 January 1952 in Łódź) is a Polish professor of Economics, a former Prime Minister and Finance Minister of Poland, former Director of the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) European Department and former Head of Narodowy Bank Polski (National Bank of Poland).

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Maria Curie-Skłodowska University

Maria Curie-Skłodowska University (Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, UMCS) was founded October 23, 1944 in Lublin.

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Maria Ossowska

Maria Ossowska (née Maria Niedźwiecka, 16 January 1896, Warsaw – 13 August 1974, Warsaw) was a Polish sociologist and social philosopher.

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Marian Spychalski

Marian "Marek" Spychalski (6 December 1906 – 7 June 1980) was a Polish architect in pre-war Poland, and later, military commander and communist politician.

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Marshal of Poland

Marshal of Poland (Marszałek Polski) is the highest rank in the Polish Army.

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Marshal of the Sejm

Marshal of the Sejm also known as Sejm Marshal, Chairman of the Sejm or Speaker of the Sejm (Marszałek Sejmu) is the speaker (chair) of the Sejm, the lower house of the Polish parliament.

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Marshal of the Soviet Union

Marshal of the Soviet Union (Маршал Советского Союза) was the highest military rank of the Soviet Union, below Generalissimus of the Soviet Union.

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Marshal Stanisław Małachowski High School, Płock

Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Marszałka Stanisława Małachowskiego Liceum Ogólnokształcące im.

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Martial law in Poland

Martial law in Poland (Stan wojenny w Polsce) refers to the period of time from December 13, 1981 to July 22, 1983, when the authoritarian communist government of the Polish People's Republic drastically restricted normal life by introducing martial law in an attempt to crush political opposition.

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Martin Luther King Jr.

Martin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesperson and leader in the civil rights movement from 1954 until his death in 1968.

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Martinus Nijhoff Publishers

Martinus Nijhoff Publishers was an independent academic publishing company dating back to the nineteenth century, which is now an imprint of Brill Publishers.

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Marxism

Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that views class relations and social conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development and takes a dialectical view of social transformation.

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Marxism–Leninism

In political science, Marxism–Leninism is the ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, of the Communist International and of Stalinist political parties.

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Marxist philosophy

Marxist philosophy or Marxist theory are works in philosophy that are strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory, or works written by Marxists.

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Marxist sociology

Marxist sociology is the study of sociology from a Marxist perspective.

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Marxist–Leninist atheism

In the philosophy of Marxism, Marxist–Leninist atheism (also known as Marxist–Leninist scientific atheism) is the irreligious and anti-clerical element of Marxism–Leninism, the official state ideology of the Soviet Union.

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Mass graves from Soviet mass executions

Mass graves in the Soviet Union were used for the burial of mass numbers of citizens and foreigners executed by the government of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.

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Mass operations of the NKVD

Mass operations of the NKVD were carried out during the Great Purge and targeted specific categories of people.

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Material conditional

The material conditional (also known as material implication, material consequence, or simply implication, implies, or conditional) is a logical connective (or a binary operator) that is often symbolized by a forward arrow "→".

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Mathematical analysis

Mathematical analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with limits and related theories, such as differentiation, integration, measure, infinite series, and analytic functions.

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Mathematical logic

Mathematical logic is a subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of formal logic to mathematics.

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Mathematics

Mathematics (from Greek μάθημα máthēma, "knowledge, study, learning") is the study of such topics as quantity, structure, space, and change.

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Mathematics Genealogy Project

The Mathematics Genealogy Project is a web-based database for the academic genealogy of mathematicians.

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Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp complex

The Mauthausen–Gusen concentration camp complex consisted of the Mauthausen concentration camp on a hill above the market town of Mauthausen (roughly east of Linz, Upper Austria) plus a group of nearly 100 further subcamps located throughout Austria and southern Germany.

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May Coup (Poland)

The May Coup d'État (Przewrót majowy or zamach majowy) was a coup d'état carried out in Poland by Marshal Józef Piłsudski between 12 and 14 May 1926.

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Mazovia

Mazovia (Mazowsze) is a historical region (dzielnica) in mid-north-eastern Poland.

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McGill University

McGill University is a public research university in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

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Mereology

In philosophy and mathematical logic, mereology (from the Greek μέρος meros (root: μερε- mere-, "part") and the suffix -logy "study, discussion, science") is the study of parts and the wholes they form.

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Messiah

In Abrahamic religions, the messiah or messias is a saviour or liberator of a group of people.

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Metalogic

Metalogic is the study of the metatheory of logic.

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Metamathematics

Metamathematics is the study of mathematics itself using mathematical methods.

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Metaphysics

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of being, existence, and reality.

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Michał Heller

Michał Kazimierz Heller (born 12 March 1936 in Tarnów) is a Polish professor of philosophy at the Pontifical University of John Paul II in Kraków, Poland, and an adjunct member of the Vatican Observatory staff.

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Michał Rola-Żymierski

Michał Rola-Żymierski (September 4, 1890October 15, 1989) was a Polish high-ranking Communist Party leader, communist military commander, NKVD secret agent, and Marshal of Poland by Joseph Stalin's order from 1945 until his death.

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Michał Walicki

Michał Marian Walicki (August 8, 1904 in St. Petersburg – August 22, 1966 in Warsaw) was a Polish art historian and professor at the Warsaw University of Technology and School of Fine Arts (later Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw).

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Mieczysław Moczar

Mieczysław Moczar (original name Mikołaj Diomko, pseudonym Mietek, December 23, 1913 in Łódź – November 1, 1986 in Warsaw) was a Polish communist who played a prominent role in the history of the Polish People's Republic.

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Mieczysław Rakowski

Mieczysław Rakowski (1 December 1926 – 8 November 2008) was a Polish communist politician, historian and journalist who was Prime Minister of Poland from 1988 to 1989.

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Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev, GCL (born 2 March 1931) is a Russian and former Soviet politician.

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Ministry of Interior and Administration (Poland)

Ministry of the Interior and Administration (Ministerstwo Spraw Wewnętrznych i Administracji) is an administration structure controlling main administration and security branches of the Polish government.

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Ministry of National Defence (Poland)

Ministry of National Defense (Polish: Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej) is the office of government in Poland under the Minister of National Defense.

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Ministry of Public Security (Poland)

The Ministry of Public Security of Poland (Ministerstwo Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego or MBP) was a postwar communist, secret police, intelligence and counter-espionage service operating from 1945 to 1954 under minister for Public Security general (Generał brygady) Stanisław Radkiewicz, and supervised by Jakub Berman of the Politburo.

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MIT Press

The MIT Press is a university press affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts (United States).

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Mizar system

The Mizar system consists of a formal language for writing mathematical definitions and proofs, a proof assistant, which is able to mechanically check proofs written in this language, and a library of formalized mathematics, which can be used in the proof of new theorems.

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Modal logic

Modal logic is a type of formal logic primarily developed in the 1960s that extends classical propositional and predicate logic to include operators expressing modality.

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Model theory

In mathematics, model theory is the study of classes of mathematical structures (e.g. groups, fields, graphs, universes of set theory) from the perspective of mathematical logic.

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Modern philosophy

Modern philosophy is philosophy developed in the modern era and associated with modernity.

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Modernist poetry

Modernist poetry refers to poetry written, mainly in Europe and North America, between 1890 and 1950 in the tradition of modernist literature, but the dates of the term depend upon a number of factors, including the nation of origin, the particular school in question, and the biases of the critic setting the dates.

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Modernity

Modernity, a topic in the humanities and social sciences, is both a historical period (the modern era), as well as the ensemble of particular socio-cultural norms, attitudes and practices that arose in the wake of Renaissance, in the "Age of Reason" of 17th-century thought and the 18th-century "Enlightenment".

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Modlin (Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki)

Modlin was a village near Warsaw in Poland near the banks of rivers Narew and Vistula.

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Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact

The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, also known as the Nazi–Soviet Pact,Charles Peters (2005), Five Days in Philadelphia: The Amazing "We Want Willkie!" Convention of 1940 and How It Freed FDR to Save the Western World, New York: PublicAffairs, Ch.

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Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact negotiations

The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was an August 23, 1939, agreement between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany colloquially named after Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.

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Monasticism

Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from μόνος, monos, "alone") or monkhood is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work.

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Monotheism

Monotheism has been defined as the belief in the existence of only one god that created the world, is all-powerful and intervenes in the world.

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Monotonic function

In mathematics, a monotonic function (or monotone function) is a function between ordered sets that preserves or reverses the given order.

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Moscow

Moscow (a) is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.1 million within the urban area.

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Moscow Oblast

Moscow Oblast (p), or Podmoskovye (p, literally "around/near Moscow"), is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast).

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Moscow State University

Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU; Московский государственный университет имени М. В. Ломоносова, often abbreviated МГУ) is a coeducational and public research university located in Moscow, Russia.

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Moses

Mosesמֹשֶׁה, Modern Tiberian ISO 259-3; ܡܘܫܐ Mūše; موسى; Mωϋσῆς was a prophet in the Abrahamic religions.

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Munich

Munich (München; Minga) is the capital and the most populated city in the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of the River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps.

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Nałęcz coat of arms

Nałęcz is a Polish coat of arms.

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Naczelnik Państwa

Naczelnik Państwa (Chief of State) was the title of Poland's head of state in the early years of the Second Polish Republic.

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Naftali Botwin

Izaak Naftali Botwin, (Yiddish: יצחק נפתלי באָטווין) born 1907 in Kamianka-Buzka, Austrian Empire, died 6 August 1925 in Lviv, Poland, was a Polish Jewish communist and labor activist who was executed for the murder of a police informant.

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Namiestnik of Poland

The Namiestnik (or Viceroy) of the Kingdom of Poland (namiestnik Królestwa Polskiego, наместник Царства Польского) was the deputy of the King of Poland (Tsar of Poland)—i.e., the deputy of the Emperor of Russia who, under Congress Poland (1815–74), styled himself "King of Poland." Between 1874 and 1914, when the former Congress Poland was known as the Vistula Country, the title Namiestnik was replaced by that of Governor-General of Warsaw (Generał-gubernator warszawski).

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Napoleon

Napoléon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French statesman and military leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars.

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National academy

A national academy is an organizational body, usually operating with state financial support and approval, that co-ordinates scholarly research activities and standards for academic disciplines, most frequently in the sciences but also the humanities.

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National Armed Forces

Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (NSZ; English: National Armed Forces) was a Polish anti-Nazi and later anti-Soviet military organization which was part of Poland's World War II resistance movement.

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National Democracy

National Democracy (Narodowa Demokracja, also known from its abbreviation ND as "Endecja") was a Polish political movement active from the second half of the 19th century under the foreign partitions of the country until the end of the Second Polish Republic.

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National Independence Day (Poland)

National Independence Day (Narodowe Święto Niepodległości) is a national day in Poland celebrated on 11 November to commemorate the anniversary of the restoration of Poland's sovereignty as the Second Polish Republic in 1918 from the German, Austrian and Russian Empires.

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National Party (Poland)

The National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe, SN) was a Polish nationalist political party formed on 7 October 1928 after the transformation of Popular National Union.

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National Radical Camp (1934)

The National Radical Camp (Obóz Narodowo Radykalny, ONR) was an illegal Polish Third Positionist, anti-communist, WIEM Encyklopedia and nationalist political party, formed on 14 April 1934 mostly by the youth radicals who left the National Party of the National Democracy movement.

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NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO; Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord; OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries.

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Natural language

In neuropsychology, linguistics, and the philosophy of language, a natural language or ordinary language is any language that has evolved naturally in humans through use and repetition without conscious planning or premeditation.

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Natural science

Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.

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Nauka (publisher)

Nauka (Наука, lit. trans.: Science) is a Russian publisher of academic books and journals.

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Nazi concentration camps

Nazi Germany maintained concentration camps (Konzentrationslager, KZ or KL) throughout the territories it controlled before and during the Second World War.

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Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler through the Nazi Party (NSDAP).

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Nazism

National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus), more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practices associated with the Nazi Party – officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) – in Nazi Germany, and of other far-right groups with similar aims.

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Negation

In logic, negation, also called the logical complement, is an operation that takes a proposition P to another proposition "not P", written \neg P (¬P), which is interpreted intuitively as being true when P is false, and false when P is true.

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Neo-Kantianism

Neo-Kantianism (Neukantianismus) is a revival of the 18th century philosophy of Immanuel Kant.

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Neo-scholasticism

Neo-Scholasticism (also known as neo-scholastic Thomism or neo-Thomism because of the great influence of the writings of Thomas Aquinas on the movement), is a revival and development of medieval scholasticism in Roman Catholic theology and philosophy which began in the second half of the 19th century.

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Neopragmatism

Neopragmatism, sometimes called linguistic pragmatism, is the philosophical tradition that infers that the meaning of words is a function of how they are used, rather than the meaning of what people intend for them to describe.

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New East Prussia

New East Prussia (Neuostpreußen; Prusy Nowowschodnie; Naujieji Rytprūsiai) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1795 to 1807.

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Nicholas I of Russia

Nicholas I (r; –) was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855.

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Nicholas II of Russia

Nicholas II or Nikolai II (r; 1868 – 17 July 1918), known as Saint Nicholas II of Russia in the Russian Orthodox Church, was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 15 March 1917.

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Nikita Khrushchev

Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (15 April 1894 – 11 September 1971) was a Soviet statesman who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964.

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Nikolai Bulganin

Nikolai Alexandrovich Bulganin (– 24 February 1975) was a Soviet politician who served as Minister of Defense (1953–1955) and Premier of the Soviet Union (1955–1958) under Nikita Khrushchev, following service in the Red Army and as defense minister under Joseph Stalin.

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Nikolai Yezhov

Nikolai Ivanovich Yezhov,; May 1, 1895 – February 4, 1940) was a Soviet secret police official under Joseph Stalin who was head of the NKVD from 1936 to 1938, during the most active period of the Great Purge. Having presided over mass arrests and executions during the Great Purge, Yezhov eventually fell from Stalin's favour and power. He was arrested, confessed to a range of anti-Soviet activity, later claiming he was tortured into making these confessions, and was executed in 1940. By the beginning of World War II, his status within the Soviet Union had become that of enemy of the people.

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NKVD

The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (Народный комиссариат внутренних дел, Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del), abbreviated NKVD (НКВД), was the interior ministry of the Soviet Union.

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NKVD Order No. 00485

The Soviet NKVD Order № 00485 issued on August 11, 1937 laid the foundation for the systematic elimination of the Polish minority in the Soviet Union between 1937 and 1938.

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Noam Chomsky

Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic and political activist.

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Nobel Peace Prize

The Nobel Peace Prize (Swedish, Norwegian: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature.

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Nobel Prize in Literature

The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur) is a Swedish literature prize that has been awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: "den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning").

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Non-classical logic

Non-classical logics (and sometimes alternative logics) are formal systems that differ in a significant way from standard logical systems such as propositional and predicate logic.

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Nonlinear functional analysis

Nonlinear functional analysis is a branch of mathematical analysis that deals with nonlinear mappings.

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Nonviolence

Nonviolence is the personal practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition.

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Nonviolent resistance

Nonviolent resistance (NVR or nonviolent action) is the practice of achieving goals such as social change through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, satyagraha, or other methods, while being nonviolent.

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Normal modal logic

In logic, a normal modal logic is a set L of modal formulas such that L contains.

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Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic

The Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the foundations of mathematics and related fields of mathematical logic, as well as philosophy of mathematics.

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November Uprising

The November Uprising (1830–31), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire.

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Novosibirsk

Novosibirsk (p) is the third-most populous city in Russia after Moscow and St. Petersburg.

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Obscurantism

Obscurantism (and) is the practice of deliberately presenting information in an imprecise and recondite manner, often designed to forestall further inquiry and understanding.

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Occipital bone

The occipital bone is a cranial dermal bone, and is the main bone of the occiput (back and lower part of the skull).

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Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)

The occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during the Second World War (1939–1945) began with the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, and it was formally concluded with the defeat of Germany by the Allies in May 1945.

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Ochota massacre

The Ochota Massacre (in Polish: Rzeź Ochoty – "Ochota slaughter") was a wave of German-orchestrated mass murder, looting, arson, torture and rape, which swept through the Warsaw district of Ochota from 4–25 August 1944, during the Warsaw Uprising.

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October Revolution

The October Revolution (p), officially known in Soviet literature as the Great October Socialist Revolution (Вели́кая Октя́брьская социалисти́ческая револю́ция), and commonly referred to as Red October, the October Uprising, the Bolshevik Revolution, or the Bolshevik Coup, was a revolution in Russia led by the Bolsheviks and Vladimir Lenin that was instrumental in the larger Russian Revolution of 1917.

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Okhrana

The Department for Protecting the Public Security and Order (Отделение по Охранению Общественной Безопасности и Порядка), usually called "guard department" (tr) and commonly abbreviated in modern sources as Okhrana (t) was a secret police force of the Russian Empire and part of the police department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) in the late 19th century, aided by the Special Corps of Gendarmes.

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Old Testament

The Old Testament (abbreviated OT) is the first part of Christian Bibles, based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh), a collection of ancient religious writings by the Israelites believed by most Christians and religious Jews to be the sacred Word of God.

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On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences

"On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences" («О культе личности и его последствиях», «O kul'te lichnosti i yego posledstviyakh») was a report by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev made to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on 25 February 1956.

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Operation Barbarossa

Operation Barbarossa (German: Unternehmen Barbarossa) was the code name for the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, which started on Sunday, 22 June 1941, during World War II.

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Opposition (politics)

The political party that has the majority is called ruling party and all other parties or their members are called the Opposition.

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Order of Polonia Restituta

The Order of Polonia Restituta (Order Odrodzenia Polski, Order of the Rebirth of Poland) is a Polish state order established 4 February 1921.

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Order of Saint Stanislaus (House of Romanov)

The Order of Saint Stanislaus (Polish: Order św. Stanisława, Russian: Орденъ Св. Станислава), also spelled Stanislas, is a Russian dynastic order of knighthood founded as Order of the Knights of Saint Stanislaus, Bishop and Martyr in 1765 by King Stanisław II Augustus of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Order of Saint Vladimir

The Order of Saint Vladimir (Орден Святого Владимира) was an Imperial Russian Order established in 1782 by Empress Catherine II (r. 1762–1796) in memory of the deeds of Saint Vladimir, the Grand Prince and the Baptizer of the Kievan Rus'.

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Order of the Banner of Work

The Order of the Banner of Work (Order Sztandaru Pracy) was a governmental award in Poland during the 20th-century era of the communist People's Republic of Poland.

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Order of the Builders of People's Poland

Order of the Builders of People's Poland (Order Budowniczych Polski Ludowej) was the highest, Encyklopedia Internautica, retrieved on 20 November 2008, Encyklopedia PWN, retrieved on 20 November 2008 civil decoration of Poland in the times of the People's Republic of Poland.

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Organic Statute of the Kingdom of Poland

The Organic Statute of the Kingdom of Poland (Statut Organiczny dla Królestwa Polskiego) was a statute which replaced the Constitution of 1815 in the aftermath of the failed November Uprising in the Russian Partition of Poland.

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Oron Shagrir

Professor Oron Shagrir is an Israeli philosopher.

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Orthodox Judaism

Orthodox Judaism is a collective term for the traditionalist branches of Judaism, which seek to maximally maintain the received Jewish beliefs and observances and which coalesced in opposition to the various challenges of modernity and secularization.

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Ossolineum

The Ossolineum or the National Ossoliński Institute (Zakład Narodowy im., ZNiO) is a non-profit foundation located in Wrocław, Poland since 1947, and subsidized from the state budget.

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Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire (دولت عليه عثمانیه,, literally The Exalted Ottoman State; Modern Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti), also historically known in Western Europe as the Turkish Empire"The Ottoman Empire-also known in Europe as the Turkish Empire" or simply Turkey, was a state that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries.

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Oxford

Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire.

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Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press (OUP) is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press.

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Pacem in terris

Pacem in terris (Peace on Earth) was a papal encyclical issued by Pope John XXIII on 11 April 1963 on nuclear non-proliferation.

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Pacem in Terris Award

The Pacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Award is a Catholic peace award which has been given annually since 1964, in commemoration of the 1963 encyclical letter Pacem in terris (Peace on Earth) of Pope John XXIII.

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Pacifism

Pacifism is opposition to war, militarism, or violence.

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Paleontology

Paleontology or palaeontology is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch (roughly 11,700 years before present).

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Palgrave Macmillan

Palgrave Macmillan is an international academic and trade publishing company.

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Partially ordered set

In mathematics, especially order theory, a partially ordered set (also poset) formalizes and generalizes the intuitive concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set.

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Partitions of Poland

The Partitions of Poland were three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 123 years.

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Patriotic Movement for National Rebirth

Patriotyczny Ruch Odrodzenia Narodowego (PRON, Patriotic Movement for National Rebirth or National Renaissance Patriotic Movement) was a Polish political organization.

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Paul Cohen

Paul Joseph Cohen (April 2, 1934 – March 23, 2007) was an American mathematician.

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Paul I of Russia

Paul I (Па́вел I Петро́вич; Pavel Petrovich) (–) reigned as Emperor of Russia between 1796 and 1801.

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Pawiak

Pawiak was a prison built in 1835 in Warsaw, Poland.

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PAX Association

The PAX Association was a pro-communist secular Catholic organization created in 1947 in the People's Republic of Poland at the onset of the Stalinist period.

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Pax Christi

Pax Christi International is an international Catholic peace movement.

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Płock

Płock (pronounced) is a city on the Vistula river in central Poland.

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Płock Department

Płock Department (Polish: Departament płocki) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Polish Duchy of Warsaw from 1806 to 1815.

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Płock Governorate

Płock Governorate (Плоцкая губернияя Gubernia Płocka) was an administrative unit (governorate) of the Congress Poland.

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Peace

Peace is the concept of harmony and the absence of hostility.

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Peace of Riga

The Peace of Riga, also known as the Treaty of Riga (Traktat Ryski), was signed in Riga on 18 March 1921, between Poland, Soviet Russia (acting also on behalf of Soviet Belarus) and Soviet Ukraine.

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Peaceful coexistence

Peaceful coexistence (translit) was a theory developed and applied by the Soviet Union at various points during the Cold War in the context of primarily Marxist–Leninist foreign policy and was adopted by Soviet-allied socialist states that they could peacefully coexist with the capitalist bloc (i.e., U.S.-allied states).

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Pedagogy

Pedagogy is the discipline that deals with the theory and practice of teaching and how these influence student learning.

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PEN International

PEN International (known as International PEN until 2010) is a worldwide association of writers, founded in London in 1921 to promote friendship and intellectual co-operation among writers everywhere.

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Penelope Maddy

Penelope Maddy (born 4 July 1950 in Tulsa, Oklahoma) is a UCI Distinguished Professor of Logic and Philosophy of Science and of Mathematics at the University of California, Irvine.

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People Power Revolution

The People Power Revolution (also known as the EDSA Revolution and the Philippine Revolution of 1986 or simply EDSA 1986) was a series of popular demonstrations in the Philippines, mostly in the capital city of Manila from February 22–25, 1986.

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People's Commissariat for Nationalities

The People's Commissariat of Nationalities (abbreviation transliterated as Narkomnats), an organisation functioning from 1917 to 1924 in the early Soviet period of Russian and Soviet history, dealt with non-Russian nationalities.

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Perestroika

Perestroika (a) was a political movement for reformation within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the 1980s until 1991 and is widely associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost (meaning "openness") policy reform.

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Persona non grata

In diplomacy, a persona non grata (Latin: "person not appreciated", plural: personae non gratae) is a foreign person whose entering or remaining in a particular country is prohibited by that country's government.

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Personal union

A personal union is the combination of two or more states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct.

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Peter Geach

Peter Thomas Geach, FBA (29 March 1916 – 21 December 2013) was a British philosopher and professor of logic at the University of Leeds.

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Peter Lang (publisher)

Peter Lang is an academic publisher specializing in the humanities and social sciences.

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Peterhof Palace

The Peterhof Palace (p, Dutch for Peter's Court) is a series of palaces and gardens located in Petergof, Saint Petersburg, Russia, laid out on the orders of Peter the Great.

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Philadelphia

Philadelphia is the largest city in the U.S. state and Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and the sixth-most populous U.S. city, with a 2017 census-estimated population of 1,580,863.

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Philippe Meirieu

Philippe Meirieu (born 29 November 1949 in Alès, Gard) is a French researcher, writer and politician.

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Philosophical anthropology

Philosophical anthropology, sometimes called anthropological philosophy, is a discipline dealing with questions of metaphysics and phenomenology of the human person, and interpersonal relationships.

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Philosophical logic

Philosophical logic refers to those areas of philosophy in which recognized methods of logic have traditionally been used to solve or advance the discussion of philosophical problems.

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Philosophy

Philosophy (from Greek φιλοσοφία, philosophia, literally "love of wisdom") is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.

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Philosophy of culture

Philosophy of culture is a branch of philosophy that examines the essence and meaning of culture.

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Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Nietzsche developed his philosophy during the late 19th century.

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Philosophy of history

Philosophy of history is the philosophical study of history and the past.

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Philosophy of science

Philosophy of science is a sub-field of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science.

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Philosophy of technology

The philosophy of technology is a sub-field of philosophy that studies the nature of technology and its social effects.

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Phraseology

In linguistics, phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as phrasemes), in which the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when used independently.

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Phylogenetics

In biology, phylogenetics (Greek: φυλή, φῦλον – phylé, phylon.

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Physician

A physician, medical practitioner, medical doctor, or simply doctor is a professional who practises medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining, or restoring health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury, and other physical and mental impairments.

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Piotr Jaroszewicz

Gen. Piotr Jaroszewicz (8 October 1909 – 1 September 1992) was a post World War II Polish political figure.

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Piotrków Trybunalski

Piotrków Trybunalski (also known by alternative names) is a city in central Poland with 74,694 inhabitants (2016).

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Platonism

Platonism, rendered as a proper noun, is the philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it.

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Point (geometry)

In modern mathematics, a point refers usually to an element of some set called a space.

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Poland

Poland (Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country located in Central Europe.

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Poles

The Poles (Polacy,; singular masculine: Polak, singular feminine: Polka), commonly referred to as the Polish people, are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Poland in Central Europe who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Polish language.

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Polish Academy of Learning

The Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences or Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejętności), headquartered in Kraków, is one of two institutions in contemporary Poland having the nature of an academy of sciences.

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Polish Academy of Sciences

The Polish Academy of Sciences (Polska Akademia Nauk, PAN) is a Polish state-sponsored institution of higher learning.

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Polish Armed Forces

The Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland (Polish:Siły Zbrojne Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, abbreviated SZ RP; popularly called Wojsko Polskie in Poland, abbreviated WP—roughly, the "Polish Military") are the national armed forces of the Republic of Poland.

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Polish Armed Forces rank insignia

This article presents the military ranks of the entire Polish Armed Forces as well as the rank insignia used today.

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Polish Council of State

The Council of State of the Republic of Poland was introduced by the Small Constitution of 1947.

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Polish government-in-exile

The Polish government-in-exile, formally known as the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile (Rząd Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na uchodźstwie), was the government in exile of Poland formed in the aftermath of the Invasion of Poland of September 1939, and the subsequent occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, which brought to an end the Second Polish Republic.

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Polish landed gentry

Polish landed gentry (ziemiaństwo, ziemianie, from ziemia, "land") was a social group or class of hereditary landowners who held manorial estates.

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Polish language

Polish (język polski or simply polski) is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles.

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Polish Legions in World War I

The Polish Legions (Legiony Polskie) was a name of the Polish military force (the first active Polish army in generations) established in August 1914 in Galicia soon after World War I erupted between the opposing alliances of the Triple Entente on one side (including the British Empire, the French Republic and the Russian Empire); and the Central Powers on the other side, including the German Empire and Austria-Hungary.

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Polish literature

Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland.

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Polish Mathematical Society

The Polish Mathematical Society (Polskie Towarzystwo Matematyczne) began in Kraków, Poland in 1917.

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Polish Military Organisation

Polish Military Organisation, PMO ('Polska Organizacja Wojskowa', POW) was a secret military organization created by Józef Piłsudski in August 1914, and officially named in November 1914, during World War I. Its tasks were to gather intelligence and sabotage the enemies of the Polish people.

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Polish October

Polish October, also known as October 1956, Polish thaw, or Gomułka's thaw, marked a change in the politics of Poland in the second half of 1956.

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Polish Operation of the NKVD

The Polish Operation of the Soviet security service in 1937–1938 was a mass operation of the NKVD carried out in the Soviet Union against Poles (labeled by the Soviets as "agents") during the period of the Great Purge.

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Polish People's Army

The Polish People's Army (Ludowe Wojsko Polskie, LWP) constituted the second formation of the Polish Armed Forces in the East (1943–1945) and later the armed forces (1945–1989) of the Polish communist government of Poland (from 1952, the Polish People's Republic) along with the ruling Polish United Workers' Party.

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Polish People's Republic

The Polish People's Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, PRL) covers the history of contemporary Poland between 1952 and 1990 under the Soviet-backed socialist government established after the Red Army's release of its territory from German occupation in World War II.

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Polish presidential election, 1990

Presidential elections were held in Poland on 25 November 1990, with a second round on 9 December.

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Polish presidential election, 1995

Presidential elections were held in Poland on 5 November 1995, with a second round on 19 November.

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Polish resistance movement in World War II

The Polish resistance movement in World War II, with the Polish Home Army at its forefront, was the largest underground resistance movement in all of occupied Europe, covering both German and Soviet zones of occupation.

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Polish Scientific Publishers PWN

Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN; until 1991 Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe - National Scientific Publishers PWN, PWN) is a Polish book publisher, founded in 1951.

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Polish Scouting and Guiding Association

The Polish Scouting and Guiding Association (Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego, ZHP) is the coeducational Polish Scouting organization recognized by the World Organization of the Scout Movement and the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts.

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Polish Socialist Party

The Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna, PPS) was a left-wing Polish political party.

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Polish Socialist Party – Left

Polish Socialist Party – Left (Polska Partia Socjalistyczna – Lewica, PPS–L), also known as the Young Faction (Młodzi), was one of two factions into which Polish Socialist Party divided itself in 1906.

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Polish studies

Polish studies, or Polonistics (filologia polska, or polonistyka) is the field of humanities that researches, documents and disseminates the Polish language and Polish literature in both historic and present-day forms.

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Polish Underground State

The Polish Underground State (Polskie Państwo Podziemne, also known as the Polish Secret State) is a collective term for the underground resistance organizations in Poland during World War II, both military and civilian, that were loyal to the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile in London.

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Polish United Workers' Party

The Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP; Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza, PZPR) was the Communist party which governed the Polish People's Republic from 1948 to 1989.

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Polish Workers' Party

The Polish Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza, PPR) was a communist party in Poland from 1942 to 1948.

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Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, after 1791 the Commonwealth of Poland, was a dualistic state, a bi-confederation of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch, who was both the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania.

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Polish–Russian War of 1792

The Polish–Russian War of 1792 (also, War of the Second Partition, and in Polish sources, War in Defence of the Constitution (wojna w obronie Konstytucji 3 maja)) was fought between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth on one side, and the Targowica Confederation (conservative nobility of the Commonwealth opposed to the new Constitution of 3 May 1791) and the Russian Empire under Catherine the Great on the other.

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Polish–Soviet War

The Polish–Soviet War (February 1919 – March 1921) was fought by the Second Polish Republic, Ukrainian People's Republic and the proto-Soviet Union (Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine) for control of an area equivalent to today's western Ukraine and parts of modern Belarus.

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Political freedom

Political freedom (also known as political autonomy or political agency) is a central concept in history and political thought and one of the most important features of democratic societies.

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Political spectrum

A political spectrum is a system of classifying different political positions upon one or more geometric axes that symbolize independent political dimensions.

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Polyglotism

Polyglotism or polyglottism is the ability to master, or the state of having mastered, multiple languages.

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Pope John XXIII

Pope John XXIII (Ioannes; Giovanni; born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli,; 25 November 18813 June 1963) was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 28 October 1958 to his death in 1963 and was canonized on 27 April 2014.

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Pope Paul VI

Pope Paul VI (Paulus VI; Paolo VI; born Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini; 26 September 1897 – 6 August 1978) reigned from 21 June 1963 to his death in 1978.

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Pope Paul VI Teacher of Peace Award

The Pope Paul VI Teacher of Peace Award is given out annually by the organization Pax Christi USA, a Catholic peace organization, to an individual who has exemplified Pope Paul VI's World Day for Peace message: "To reach peace, teach peace." Recipients of the Award.

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Popular National Union

Związek Ludowo-Narodowy (ZLN; Popular National Union) was a Polish political party aligned with the National Democracy political movement during the Second Polish Republic, gathering together right-wing politicians with conservative and nationalist opinions.

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Post-communism

Post-communism is the period of political and economic transformation or "transition" in former communist states located in parts of Europe and Asia, in which new governments aimed to create free market-oriented capitalist economies.

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Postmodernity

Postmodernity (post-modernity or the postmodern condition) is the economic or cultural state or condition of society which is said to exist after modernity.

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Poznań

Poznań (Posen; known also by other historical names) is a city on the Warta River in west-central Poland, in the Greater Poland region.

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Poznań 1956 protests

The Poznań 1956 protests, also known as the Poznań 1956 uprising, Poznań June or Polish Revolution of 1956 (Poznański Czerwiec), were the first of several massive protests against the communist government of the Polish People's Republic.

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Pragmatics

Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning.

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Prague

Prague (Praha, Prag) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, the 14th largest city in the European Union and also the historical capital of Bohemia.

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Prague Spring

The Prague Spring (Pražské jaro, Pražská jar) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II.

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Premier of the Soviet Union

The Premier of the Soviet Union (Глава Правительства СССР) was the head of government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

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Prime Minister of Poland

The President of the Council of Ministers (Polish: Prezes Rady Ministrów), colloquially referred to as the Prime Minister of Poland (Polish: Premier Polski), is the leader of the cabinet and the head of government of Poland.

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Primitive recursive function

In computability theory, primitive recursive functions are a class of functions that are defined using primitive recursion and composition as central operations and are a strict subset of the total µ-recursive functions (µ-recursive functions are also called partial recursive).

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Prisoner-of-war camp

A prisoner-of-war camp is a site for the containment of enemy combatants captured by a belligerent power in time of war.

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Profintern

The Red International of Labor Unions (RILU) (Russian: Красный интернационал профсоюзов — Krasnyi internatsional profsoyuzov), commonly known as the Profintern, was an international body established by the Communist International with the aim of coordinating Communist activities within trade unions.

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Proof theory

Proof theory is a major branchAccording to Wang (1981), pp.

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Propaganda

Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented.

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Propaganda in the Soviet Union

Communist propaganda in the Soviet Union was extensively based on the Marxism-Leninism ideology to promote the Communist Party line.

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Propositional calculus

Propositional calculus is a branch of logic.

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Proto-language

A proto-language, in the tree model of historical linguistics, is a language, usually hypothetical or reconstructed, and usually unattested, from which a number of attested known languages are believed to have descended by evolution, forming a language family.

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Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland

The Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland (Tymczasowy Rząd Ludowy Republiki Polskiej), also known as the Government of Ignacy Daszyński, was established on 7 November 1918 in Lublin, Austrian Galicia, as one of the precursors of Poland's sovereignty following World War I. It proclaimed the creation of a constitutional republic with the right to parliamentary elections, nationalization of key industries, as well as social, labour, and land reforms.

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Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee

Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee (Tymczasowy Komitet Rewolucyjny Polski, Polrewkom; Польревком) (July–August 1920) was a revolutionary committee created under the patronage of Soviet Russia with the goal to establish a Soviet Polish Socialist Republic of Councils (Sowiecka Polska Socjalistyczna Republika Rad).

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Prussian Army

The Royal Prussian Army (Königlich Preußische Armee) served as the army of the Kingdom of Prussia.

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Pruszków

Pruszków (English: Pruscow) is a city in central Poland, situated in the Masovian Voivodeship since 1999.

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Psychologism

Psychologism is a philosophical position, according to which psychology plays a central role in grounding or explaining some other, non-psychological type of fact or law.

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Psychology

Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, including conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought.

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Puławy

Puławy is a city in eastern Poland, in Lublin Province of northern Lesser Poland, located at the confluence of the Wisła and Kurówka rivers.

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Public Prosecutor General (Poland)

The Public Prosecutor General (Prokurator Generalny) is the top prosecuting officer in Poland.

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Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) is a broadcasting organization that broadcasts and reports news, information, and analysis to countries in Eastern Europe, Central Asia and the Middle East where it says that "the free flow of information is either banned by government authorities or not fully developed".

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Radosław Group

Radosław Group (Zgrupowanie Radosław) was the codename of a group of Kedyw, a Polish World War II Armia Krajowa organization, units during World War II created shortly before the outbreak of the Warsaw Uprising.

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Ranks in Polish Scouting

Ranks in Polish Scouting are common to the majority of Scouting organisations in Poland, including the two most popular organisations.

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Rationalism

In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".

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Rüdiger Valk

Rüdiger Valk (born 5 August 1945) is a German mathematician.

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Recession

In economics, a recession is a business cycle contraction which results in a general slowdown in economic activity.

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Recursion (computer science)

Recursion in computer science is a method of solving a problem where the solution depends on solutions to smaller instances of the same problem (as opposed to iteration).

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Red Army

The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (Рабоче-крестьянская Красная армия (РККА), Raboche-krest'yanskaya Krasnaya armiya (RKKA), frequently shortened in Russian to Красная aрмия (КА), Krasnaya armiya (KA), in English: Red Army, also in critical literature and folklore of that epoch – Red Horde, Army of Work) was the army and the air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and, after 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

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Regency Council (Poland)

Regency Council: Ostrowski, Kakowski, Lubomirski The Regency Council of the Kingdom of Poland was a semi-independent and temporarily appointed highest authority (head of state) in the Partitioned Poland during World War I. It was formed by Imperial Germany and Austria-Hungary within the war-torn, and historically Polish lands around September 1917.

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Reism

Reism or concretism is a philosophical theory of Tadeusz Kotarbiński, based on the ontology of Stanislaw Lesniewski, specifically, his "calculus of names".

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Religious communism

Religious communism is a form of communism that incorporates religious principles.

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Religious studies

Religious studies, alternately known as the study of religion, is an academic field devoted to research into religious beliefs, behaviors, and institutions.

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Remorse

Remorse is a distressing emotion experienced by a person who regrets actions which they deem to be shameful, hurtful, or violent.

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Republics of the Soviet Union

The Republics of the Soviet Union or the Union Republics (r) of the Soviet Union were ethnically based proto-states that were subordinated directly to the Government of the Soviet Union.

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Revisionism (Marxism)

Within the Marxist movement, the word revisionism is used to refer to various ideas, principles and theories that are based on a significant revision of fundamental Marxist premises.

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Revolutions of 1848

The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, People's Spring, Springtime of the Peoples, or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848.

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Revolutions of 1989

The Revolutions of 1989 formed part of a revolutionary wave in the late 1980s and early 1990s that resulted in the end of communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe and beyond.

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Rod Downey

Rodney Graham Downey (born 20 September 1957) is an Australian and New Zealand mathematician and computer scientist,.

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Rodopi (publisher)

Rodopi, founded in 1966 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, is an academic publishing company with offices in the Netherlands and the United States.

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Roman Catholic Diocese of Davenport

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Davenport (Dioecesis Davenportensis) is a diocese of the Catholic Church for the southeastern quarter of the U.S. state of Iowa.

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Roman Sikorski

Roman Sikorski (July 11, 1920 – September 12, 1983) was a Polish mathematician.

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Romanian Academy

The Romanian Academy (Academia Română) is a cultural forum founded in Bucharest, Romania, in 1866.

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Romantic poetry

Romantic poetry is the poetry of the Romantic era, an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century.

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Romuald Traugutt

Romuald Traugutt (16 January 1826 – 5 August 1864) was a Polish general and war hero best known for commanding the January Uprising of 1863.

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Royal city in Poland

In the history of Poland, a royal city or royal town (miasto królewskie) was an urban settlement within the crown lands (królewszczyzna).

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Russian Academy of Sciences

The Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS; Росси́йская акаде́мия нау́к (РАН) Rossíiskaya akadémiya naúk) consists of the national academy of Russia; a network of scientific research institutes from across the Russian Federation; and additional scientific and social units such as libraries, publishing units, and hospitals.

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Russian Civil War

The Russian Civil War (Grazhdanskaya voyna v Rossiyi; November 1917 – October 1922) was a multi-party war in the former Russian Empire immediately after the Russian Revolutions of 1917, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future.

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Russian Empire

The Russian Empire (Российская Империя) or Russia was an empire that existed across Eurasia and North America from 1721, following the end of the Great Northern War, until the Republic was proclaimed by the Provisional Government that took power after the February Revolution of 1917.

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Russian Orthodox Church

The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC; Rússkaya pravoslávnaya tsérkov), alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate (Moskóvskiy patriarkhát), is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox patriarchates.

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Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution was a pair of revolutions in Russia in 1917 which dismantled the Tsarist autocracy and led to the rise of the Soviet Union.

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Russian Social Democratic Labour Party

The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP;, Rossiyskaya sotsial-demokraticheskaya rabochaya partiya (RSDRP)), also known as the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party or the Russian Social Democratic Party, was a revolutionary socialist political party in Minsk, Belarus.

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Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR or RSFSR; Ru-Российская Советская Федеративная Социалистическая Республика.ogg), also unofficially known as the Russian Federation, Soviet Russia,Declaration of Rights of the laboring and exploited people, article I or Russia (rɐˈsʲijə; from the Ρωσία Rōsía — Rus'), was an independent state from 1917 to 1922, and afterwards the largest, most populous, and most economically developed union republic of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1991 and then a sovereign part of the Soviet Union with priority of Russian laws over Union-level legislation in 1990 and 1991.

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Russians

Russians (русские, russkiye) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. The majority of Russians inhabit the nation state of Russia, while notable minorities exist in other former Soviet states such as Belarus, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Ukraine and the Baltic states. A large Russian diaspora also exists all over the world, with notable numbers in the United States, Germany, Israel, and Canada. Russians are the most numerous ethnic group in Europe. The Russians share many cultural traits with their fellow East Slavic counterparts, specifically Belarusians and Ukrainians. They are predominantly Orthodox Christians by religion. The Russian language is official in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, and also spoken as a secondary language in many former Soviet states.

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Russification of Poles during the Partitions

The Russification of Poland (Polish: Rusyfikacja na ziemiach polskich) was an intense process, especially under Partitioned Poland, when the Russian state aimed to denationalise Poles via incremental enforcement of language, culture, the arts, the Orthodox religion and Russian practices.

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S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A.

S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A. (also known as the Kaminski Brigade) was a collaborationist military formation composed of Soviet nationals from the territory of Lokot Autonomy during World War II, the German-occupied areas of Russia.

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Sachsenhausen concentration camp

Sachsenhausen ("Saxon's Houses") or Sachsenhausen-Oranienburg was a Nazi concentration camp in Oranienburg, Germany, used primarily for political prisoners from 1936 to the end of the Third Reich in May 1945.

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Saint

A saint (also historically known as a hallow) is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness or likeness or closeness to God.

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Saint Petersburg

Saint Petersburg (p) is Russia's second-largest city after Moscow, with 5 million inhabitants in 2012, part of the Saint Petersburg agglomeration with a population of 6.2 million (2015).

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Saint Petersburg State University

Saint Petersburg State University (SPbU, Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет, СПбГУ) is a Russian federal state-owned higher education institution based in Saint Petersburg.

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Salesians of Don Bosco

The Salesians of Don Bosco (SDB; also known as the Salesian Society; officially named the Society of St. Francis de Sales) is a Roman Catholic Latin Rite religious institute founded in the late nineteenth century by Italian priest Saint John Bosco to help poor children during the Industrial Revolution.

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Samuel Orgelbrand

Samuel Orgelbrand (1810–1868) was one of the most prominent Polish-Jewish printers, booksellers, and publishers of the 19th century.

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Sanation

Sanation (Sanacja) was a Polish political movement that was created in the interwar period, prior to Józef Piłsudski's May 1926 ''Coup d'État'', and came to power in the wake of that coup.

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Sapienza University of Rome

The Sapienza University of Rome (Italian: Sapienza – Università di Roma), also called simply Sapienza or the University of Rome, is a collegiate research university located in Rome, Italy.

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Satanic ritual abuse

Satanic ritual abuse (SRA, sometimes known as ritual abuse, ritualistic abuse, organised abuse, sadistic ritual abuse, and other variants) was the subject of a moral panic (often referred to as the Satanic Panic) that originated in the United States in the 1980s, spreading throughout many parts of the world by the late 1990s.

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Saul Kripke

Saul Aaron Kripke (born November 13, 1940) is an American philosopher and logician.

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Schutzstaffel

The Schutzstaffel (SS; also stylized as with Armanen runes;; literally "Protection Squadron") was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Nazi Germany, and later throughout German-occupied Europe during World War II.

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Scientific method

Scientific method is an empirical method of knowledge acquisition, which has characterized the development of natural science since at least the 17th century, involving careful observation, which includes rigorous skepticism about what one observes, given that cognitive assumptions about how the world works influence how one interprets a percept; formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations; experimental testing and measurement of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings.

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Scottish Rite

The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (the Northern Masonic Jurisdiction in the United States often omits the and, while the English Constitution in the United Kingdom omits the Scottish), commonly known as simply the Scottish Rite (or, in England and Australia, as the Rose Croix although this is only one of its degrees), is one of several Rites of Freemasonry.

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Second Department of Polish General Staff

The Second Department of Polish General Staff (Polish: Oddział II Sztabu Generalnego Wojska Polskiego, also called Dwojka) was a department of the Polish General Staff in the Second Polish Republic.

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Second French Empire

The French Second Empire (Second Empire) was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.

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Second Partition of Poland

The 1793 Second Partition of Poland was the second of three partitions (or partial annexations) that ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795.

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Second Polish Republic

The Second Polish Republic, commonly known as interwar Poland, refers to the country of Poland between the First and Second World Wars (1918–1939).

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Second Vatican Council

The Second Vatican Council, fully the Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican and informally known as addressed relations between the Catholic Church and the modern world.

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Second-order arithmetic

In mathematical logic, second-order arithmetic is a collection of axiomatic systems that formalize the natural numbers and their subsets.

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Secret society

A secret society is a club or an organization whose activities, events, inner functioning, or membership are concealed from non-members.

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Secularity

Secularity (adjective form secular, from Latin saeculum meaning "worldly", "of a generation", "temporal", or a span of about 100 years) is the state of being separate from religion, or of not being exclusively allied with or against any particular religion.

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Sejm

The Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej) is the lower house of the Polish parliament.

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Sejm of Congress Poland

The Sejm of Congress Poland (Sejm Królestwa Polskiego) was the parliament in the 19th century Kingdom of Poland, colloquially known as Congress Poland.

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Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw

Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw (Sejm Księstwa Warszawskiego) was the parliament of the Duchy of Warsaw.

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Semantics

Semantics (from σημαντικός sēmantikós, "significant") is the linguistic and philosophical study of meaning, in language, programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics.

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Senior Marshal

The Senior Marshal (Marszałek senior) is an honorary post in Sejm given to one of the oldest (in age) members of the body.

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Sequence

In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed.

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Set (mathematics)

In mathematics, a set is a collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right.

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Shlisselburg

Shlisselburg (p; Schlüsselburg; Nöteborg) is a town in Kirovsky District of Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located at the head of the Neva River on Lake Ladoga, east of St. Petersburg.

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Shofar (journal)

Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Purdue University Press on behalf of the University's Jewish Studies Program.

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Siberia

Siberia (a) is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia.

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Siberian Mathematical Journal

The Siberian Mathematical Journal (abbreviated as Sib. Math. J.) is a cover-to-cover English translation of the Russian peer-reviewed mathematics journal ''Sibirskii Matematicheskii Zhurnal'', a publication of the Sobolev Institute of Mathematics of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Novosibirsk).

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Siege of Leningrad

The Siege of Leningrad (also known as the Leningrad Blockade (Блокада Ленинграда, transliteration: Blokada Leningrada) and the 900-Day Siege) was a prolonged military blockade undertaken from the south by the Army Group North of Nazi Germany and the Finnish Army in the north, against Leningrad, historically and currently known as Saint Petersburg, in the Eastern Front theatre of World War II.

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Silesian Uprisings

The Silesian Uprisings (Aufstände in Oberschlesien; Powstania śląskie) were a series of three armed uprisings of the Poles and Polish Silesians of Upper Silesia, from 1919 to 1921, against German rule; the resistance hoped to break away from Germany in order to join the Second Polish Republic, which had been established in the wake of World War I. In the latter-day history of Poland after World War II, the insurrections were celebrated as centrepieces of national pride.

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Silesian Voivodeship

Silesian Voivodeship, or Silesia Province (województwo śląskie), Woiwodschaft Schlesien) is a voivodeship, or province, in southern Poland, centered on the historic region known as Upper Silesia (Górny Śląsk), with Katowice serving as its capital. Despite the Silesian Voivodeship's name, most of the historic Silesia region lies outside the present Silesian Voivodeship — divided among Lubusz, Lower Silesian, and Opole Voivodeships — while the eastern half of Silesian Voivodeship (and, notably, Częstochowa in the north) was historically part of Lesser Poland. The Voivodeship was created on 1 January 1999 out of the former Katowice, Częstochowa and Bielsko-Biała Voivodeships, pursuant to the Polish local government reforms adopted in 1998. It is the most densely populated voivodeship in Poland and within the area of 12,300 squared kilometres, there are almost 5 million inhabitants. It is also the largest urbanised area in Central and Eastern Europe. In relation to economy, over 13% of Poland’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is generated here, making the Silesian Voivodeship one of the wealthiest provinces in the country.

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Sin

In a religious context, sin is the act of transgression against divine law.

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Six-Day War

The Six-Day War (Hebrew: מלחמת ששת הימים, Milhemet Sheshet Ha Yamim; Arabic: النكسة, an-Naksah, "The Setback" or حرب ۱۹٦۷, Ḥarb 1967, "War of 1967"), also known as the June War, 1967 Arab–Israeli War, or Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between 5 and 10 June 1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt (known at the time as the United Arab Republic), Jordan, and Syria.

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Skamander

Skamander was a Polish group of experimental poets founded in 1918 by Julian Tuwim, Antoni Słonimski, Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz, Kazimierz Wierzyński and Jan Lechoń.

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Slavic languages

The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) are the Indo-European languages spoken by the Slavic peoples.

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Slavic studies

Slavic studies (North America), Slavonic studies (Britain and Ireland) or Slavistics (borrowed from Russian славистика or Polish slawistyka) is the academic field of area studies concerned with Slavic areas, Slavic languages, literature, history, and culture.

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Slow-growing hierarchy

In computability theory, computational complexity theory and proof theory, the slow-growing hierarchy is an ordinal-indexed family of slowly increasing functions gα: N → N (where N is the set of natural numbers). It contrasts with the fast-growing hierarchy.

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Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania

The Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (Socjaldemokracja Królestwa Polskiego i Litwy, SDKPiL), originally the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland (SDKP), was a Marxist political party founded in 1893.

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Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland

Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland (SdRP) (Socjaldemokracja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, SdRP) was a social-democratic political party in Poland created in 1990, shortly after the Revolutions of 1989.

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Social issue

A social issue is a problem that influences a considerable number of the individuals within a society.

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Socialist realism

Socialist realism is a style of idealized realistic art that was developed in the Soviet Union and was imposed as the official style in that country between 1932 and 1988, as well as in other socialist countries after World War II.

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Socialist state

A socialist state, socialist republic or socialist country (sometimes workers' state or workers' republic) is a sovereign state constitutionally dedicated to the establishment of socialism.

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Solid geometry

In mathematics, solid geometry is the traditional name for the geometry of three-dimensional Euclidean space.

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Solidarity (Polish trade union)

Solidarity (Solidarność, pronounced; full name: Independent Self-governing Labour Union "Solidarity"—Niezależny Samorządny Związek Zawodowy „Solidarność”) is a Polish labour union that was founded on 17 September 1980 at the Lenin Shipyard under the leadership of Lech Wałęsa.

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Solomon Feferman

Solomon Feferman (December 13, 1928 – July 26, 2016) was an American philosopher and mathematician with works in mathematical logic.

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Solomon Lozovsky

Solomon Lozovsky (Соломон Абрамович Лозовский, family birth name: Dridzo Дридзо, 1878–1952) was a prominent Communist and Bolshevik revolutionary, a high ranking official in the Soviet government, including as a Presidium member of the All-Union Central Council of Soviet Trade Unions, a Central Committee member of the Communist Party, a member of the Supreme Soviet, a deputy people's commissar for foreign affairs and the head of the Soviet Information Bureau (Sovinformburo).

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Sonderaktion Krakau

Sonderaktion Krakau was the codename for a Nazi German operation against professors and academics of the Jagiellonian University and other universities in German occupied Kraków, Poland, at the beginning of World War II.

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Soviet invasion of Poland

The Soviet invasion of Poland was a Soviet Union military operation that started without a formal declaration of war on 17 September 1939.

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Soviet Union

The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991.

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Speech act

A speech act in linguistics and the philosophy of language is an utterance that has performative function in language and communication.

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Spiritualism

Spiritualism is a new religious movement based on the belief that the spirits of the dead exist and have both the ability and the inclination to communicate with the living.

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Springer Nature

Springer Nature is an academic publishing company created by the May 2015 merger of Springer Science+Business Media and Holtzbrinck Publishing Group's Nature Publishing Group, Palgrave Macmillan, and Macmillan Education.

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Springer Science+Business Media

Springer Science+Business Media or Springer, part of Springer Nature since 2015, is a global publishing company that publishes books, e-books and peer-reviewed journals in science, humanities, technical and medical (STM) publishing.

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Stalinism

Stalinism is the means of governing and related policies implemented from the 1920s to 1953 by Joseph Stalin (1878–1953).

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Stanford University

Stanford University (officially Leland Stanford Junior University, colloquially the Farm) is a private research university in Stanford, California.

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Stanisław August Poniatowski

Stanisław II Augustus (also Stanisław August Poniatowski; born Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski; 17 January 1732 – 12 February 1798), who reigned as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1764 to 1795, was the last monarch of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz

Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (24 February 188518 September 1939), commonly known as Witkacy, was a Polish writer, painter, philosopher, playwright, novelist, and photographer active in the interwar period.

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Stanisław Jaśkowski

Stanisław Jaśkowski (22 April 1906, Warsaw – 16 November 1965, Warsaw) was a Polish logician who made important contributions to proof theory and formal semantics.

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Stanisław Kostka Potocki

Count Stanisław Kostka Potocki (November 1755 – 14 September 1821) was a Polish noble, politician, writer, publicist, collector and patron of art.

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Stanisław Krajewski

Stanisław Krajewski (born 1950) is a Polish Jewish philosopher, mathematician and writer, activist of the Jewish minority in Poland.

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Stanisław Leśniewski

Stanisław Leśniewski (March 30, 1886 – May 13, 1939) was a Polish mathematician, philosopher and logician.

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Stanisław Małachowski

Count Stanisław Małachowski, of the Nałęcz coat-of-arms (1736–1809) was the first Prime Minister of Poland, a member of the Polish government's Permanent Council (Rada Nieustająca) (1776–1780), Marshal of the Crown Courts of Justice from 1774, Crown Grand Referendary (1780–1792) and Marshal of the Four-Year Sejm (1788–1792).

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Stanisław Mazur

Stanisław Mazur (1 January 1905, Lwów – 5 November 1981, Warsaw) was a Polish mathematician and a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences.

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Stanisław Wojciechowski

Stanisław Wojciechowski (15 March 1869 – 9 April 1953) was a Polish politician, scholar, and activist in the cooperative movement.

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State Historical Museum

The State Historical Museum (Russian: Государственный исторический музей, Gosudarstvenny istoricheskiy muzyey) of Russia is a museum of Russian history wedged between Red Square and Manege Square in Moscow.

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State of affairs (philosophy)

In philosophy, a state of affairs (Sachverhalt), also known as a situation, is a way the actual world must be in order to make some given proposition about the actual world true; in other words, a state of affairs (situation) is a truth-maker, whereas a proposition is a truth-bearer.

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State Publishing Institute PIW

The State Publishing Institute PIW (Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, PIW) is a Polish publishing house founded in Warsaw by the Polish state after World War II, in 1946.

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Stefan Banach

Stefan Banach (30 March 1892 – 31 August 1945) was a Polish mathematician who is generally considered one of the world's most important and influential 20th-century mathematicians.

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Stefan Wyszyński

Stefan Wyszyński (3 August 1901 – 28 May 1981) was a Polish prelate of the Roman Catholic Church.

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Stoic logic

Stoic logic is the system of propositional logic developed by the Stoic philosophers in ancient Greece.

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Structural linguistics

Structural linguistics is an approach to linguistics originating from the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and is part of the overall approach of structuralism.

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Studia Logica

Studia Logica is an international journal of mathematics and logic.

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Sub-district IV of Ochota (of Armia Krajowa)

The Sub-district I of Ochota (of Armia Krajowa) (Polish: Obwód IV Ochota) – one of territorial organisational units of the Warsaw District (Armia Krajowa) (Pol.: Okręg Warszawa Armii Krajowej), which operated during the German occupation of Poland 1939-1945.

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Sverdlovsk Oblast

Sverdlovsk Oblast (Свердло́вская о́бласть, Sverdlovskaya oblast) is a federal subject (an oblast) of Russia located in the Ural Federal District.

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Syntax

In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, usually including word order.

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Synthese

Synthese is a scholarly periodical edited by Otávio Bueno, Wiebe van der Hoek, Gila Sher, and Catarina Dutilh Novaes specializing in papers in epistemology, methodology, and philosophy of science.

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Szlachta

The szlachta (exonym: Nobility) was a legally privileged noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Samogitia (both after Union of Lublin became a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and the Zaporozhian Host.

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Sztandar Socjalizmu

Sztandar Socjalizmu ('The Banner of Socialism') was a Polish newspaper, founded in December 1918 as the main press organ of the Communist Workers Party of Poland.

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Table of Ranks

The Table of Ranks (Табель о рангах; tabel' o rangakh) was a formal list of positions and ranks in the military, government, and court of Imperial Russia.

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Tadeusz Czeżowski

Tadeusz Czeżowski (July 26, 1889 – March 28, 1981) was a Polish philosopher and logician.

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Tadeusz Kotarbiński

Tadeusz Kotarbiński (31 March 1886 – 3 October 1981), was a Polish philosopher, logician and ethicist.

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Tadeusz Mazowiecki

Tadeusz Mazowiecki; (18 April 1927 – 28 October 2013) was a Polish author, journalist, philanthropist and Christian-democratic politician, formerly one of the leaders of the Solidarity movement, and the first non-communist Polish prime minister since 1946.

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Taizé Community

The Taizé Community is an ecumenical Christian monastic community in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, Burgundy, France.

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Taizé, Saône-et-Loire

Taizé is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in eastern France.

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Targowica Confederation

The Targowica Confederation (konfederacja targowicka,, Targovicos konfederacija) was a confederation established by Polish and Lithuanian magnates on 27 April 1792, in Saint Petersburg, with the backing of the Russian Empress Catherine II.

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Tautology (logic)

In logic, a tautology (from the Greek word ταυτολογία) is a formula or assertion that is true in every possible interpretation.

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Telewizja Polska

Telewizja Polska S.A. (TVP S.A., or Polish Television) is a public broadcasting corporation, the only public TV broadcaster in the territory of the Republic of Poland.

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Templeton Prize

The Templeton Prize is an annual award presented by the Templeton Foundation.

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Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments (עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדִּבְּרוֹת, Aseret ha'Dibrot), also known as the Decalogue, are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship, which play a fundamental role in Judaism and Christianity.

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The Hague

The Hague (Den Haag,, short for 's-Gravenhage) is a city on the western coast of the Netherlands and the capital of the province of South Holland.

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The Holocaust

The Holocaust, also referred to as the Shoah, was a genocide during World War II in which Nazi Germany, aided by its collaborators, systematically murdered approximately 6 million European Jews, around two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe, between 1941 and 1945.

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The Limits to Growth

The Limits to Growth (LTG) is a 1972 report on the computer simulation of exponential economic and population growth with a finite supply of resources.

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The New York Review of Books

The New York Review of Books (or NYREV or NYRB) is a semi-monthly magazine with articles on literature, culture, economics, science and current affairs.

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Theoretical computer science

Theoretical computer science, or TCS, is a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing and includes the theory of computation.

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Theoretical physics

Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena.

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Third Partition of Poland

The Third Partition of Poland (1795) was the last in a series of the Partitions of Poland and the land of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth among Prussia, the Austrian Empire, and the Russian Empire which effectively ended Polish–Lithuanian national sovereignty until 1918.

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Thomas Aquinas

Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church.

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Thomism

Thomism is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), philosopher, theologian, and Doctor of the Church.

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Timeline of Polish science and technology

Education has been of prime interest to Poland's rulers since the early 12th century.

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Topological space

In topology and related branches of mathematics, a topological space may be defined as a set of points, along with a set of neighbourhoods for each point, satisfying a set of axioms relating points and neighbourhoods.

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Toruń

Toruń (Thorn) is a city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River.

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Totalitarianism

Benito Mussolini Totalitarianism is a political concept where the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to control every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible.

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Traditionalist School

The Traditionalist School is a group of 20th- and 21st-century thinkers concerned with what they consider to be the demise of traditional forms of knowledge, both aesthetic and spiritual, within Western society.

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Transcaucasian Military District

The Transcaucasian Military District, a military district of the Soviet Armed Forces, traces its history to May 1921 and the incorporation of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia into the Soviet Union.

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Transcendence (video game)

Transcendence is a sci-fi themed freeware adventure PC game for Windows designed and created by George Moromisato.

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Transcendentalism

Transcendentalism is a philosophical movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the eastern United States.

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Treason

In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against one's nation or sovereign.

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Treaties of Tilsit

The Treaties of Tilsit were two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the town of Tilsit in July 1807 in the aftermath of his victory at Friedland.

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Treaty of Berlin (1926)

Treaty of Berlin (German-Soviet Neutrality and Nonaggression Pact) is a treaty of 24 April 1926 under which Germany and the Soviet Union pledged neutrality in the event of an attack on the other by a third party for the next five years.

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Treaty on the Creation of the USSR

The Treaty on the Creation of the USSR officially created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union.

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Trybuna Ludu

Trybuna Ludu (People's Tribune) was one of the largest newspapers in communist Poland.

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Tsarist autocracy

Tsarist autocracy (царское самодержавие, transcr. tsarskoye samoderzhaviye) is a form of autocracy (later absolute monarchy) specific to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which later became Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire.

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Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic

The Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Түркменистан Совет Социалистик Республикасы, Türkmenistan Sowet Sotsialistik Respublikasy; Туркменская Советская Социалистическая Республика, Turkmenskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika), also commonly known as Turkmenistan or Turkmenia, was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union located in Central Asia existed as a republic from 1925 to 1991.

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Turning the other cheek

Turning the other cheek is a phrase in Christian doctrine that refers to responding to injury without revenge.

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Tygodnik Powszechny

Tygodnik Powszechny (The Catholic Weekly) is a Polish Roman Catholic weekly magazine, published in Kraków, which focuses on social and cultural issues.

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Ukase

An ukase, or ukaz (указ, formally "imposition"), in Imperial Russia, was a proclamation of the tsar, government, or a religious leader (patriarch) that had the force of law.

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Ukrainian Insurgent Army

The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (Українська повстанська армія, УПА, Ukrayins’ka Povstans’ka Armiya, UPA) was a Ukrainian nationalist paramilitary and later partisan army that engaged in a series of guerrilla conflicts during World War II against Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and both Underground and Communist Poland.

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Ulrich Kohlenbach

Ulrich Wilhelm Kohlenbach (born July 27, 1962 in Frankfurt am Main) is a German professor of mathematics and a researcher in logic.

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Undecidable problem

In computability theory and computational complexity theory, an undecidable problem is a decision problem for which it is known to be impossible to construct a single algorithm that always leads to a correct yes-or-no answer.

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Union of Armed Struggle

Związek Walki Zbrojnej (abbreviation: ZWZ; Union of Armed Struggle; also translated as Union for Armed Struggle, Association of Armed Struggle or Association for Armed Struggle) was an underground army formed in Poland following its invasion in September 1939 by Germany and the Soviet Union that opened World War II.

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United States

The United States of America (USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a federal republic composed of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, and various possessions.

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Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session on 10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France.

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University of Amsterdam

The University of Amsterdam (abbreviated as UvA, Universiteit van Amsterdam) is a public university located in Amsterdam, Netherlands.

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University of Łódź

The University of Łódź (Polish: Uniwersytet Łódzki, Latin: Universitas Lodziensis) is a public research university founded in 1945 in Łódź, Poland, as a continuation of educational institutions functioning in Łódź in the interwar period — the Teacher Training Institute (1921–1928), the Higher School of Social and Economic Sciences (1924–1928) and a division of the Free Polish University (1928–1939).

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University of Białystok

The University of Bialystok is the largest university in the north-eastern region of Poland, educating in various fields of study, including humanities, social and natural sciences and mathematics.

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University of California, Berkeley

The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California) is a public research university in Berkeley, California.

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University of Fribourg

The University of Fribourg (Université de Fribourg; Universität Freiburg) is a university in the city of Fribourg, Switzerland.

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University of Hanover

The University of Hanover, officially the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover, short Leibniz University Hannover, is a public university located in Hannover, Germany.

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University of Königsberg

The University of Königsberg (Albertus-Universität Königsberg) was the university of Königsberg in East Prussia.

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University of Leeds

The University of Leeds is a Russell Group university in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England.

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University of Lviv

The University of Lviv (Львівський університет, Uniwersytet Lwowski, Universität Lemberg, briefly known as the Theresianum in the early 19th-century), presently the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv (Львівський національний університет імені Івана Франка) is the oldest university foundation in Ukraine, dating from 1661 when the Polish King, John II Casimir, granted it its first royal charter.

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University of Münster

The University of Münster (Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, WWU) is a public university located in the city of Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany.

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University of Opole

The University of Opole (Uniwersytet Opolski) is a public university in the city of Opole.

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University of Oxford

The University of Oxford (formally The Chancellor Masters and Scholars of the University of Oxford) is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England.

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University of Paris

The University of Paris (Université de Paris), metonymically known as the Sorbonne (one of its buildings), was a university in Paris, France, from around 1150 to 1793, and from 1806 to 1970.

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University of Pennsylvania

The University of Pennsylvania (commonly known as Penn or UPenn) is a private Ivy League research university located in University City section of West Philadelphia.

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University of the Western Lands

University of the Western Lands (Uniwersytet Ziem Zachodnich, UZZ, also translated as the University of the Western Area or University of the Western Territories) was an underground Polish university in occupied Poland during World War II.

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University of Warsaw

The University of Warsaw (Uniwersytet Warszawski, Universitas Varsoviensis), established in 1816, is the largest university in Poland.

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University of Wrocław

The University of Wrocław (UWr; Uniwersytet Wrocławski; Universität Breslau; Universitas Wratislaviensis) is a public research university located in Wrocław, Poland.

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Uppsala

Uppsala (older spelling Upsala) is the capital of Uppsala County and the fourth largest city of Sweden, after Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö.

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Uppsala University

Uppsala University (Uppsala universitet) is a research university in Uppsala, Sweden, and is the oldest university in Sweden and all of the Nordic countries still in operation, founded in 1477.

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Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes utility.

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Utopia

A utopia is an imagined community or society that possesses highly desirable or nearly perfect qualities for its citizens.

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Utrecht

Utrecht is a city and municipality in the Netherlands, capital and most populous city of the province of Utrecht.

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V. Frederick Rickey

Vincent Frederick Rickey (born 17 December 1941) is an American logician and historian of mathematics.

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Vasily Lanskoy

Vasily Sergeyevich Lanskoy (1754–1831) was a Russian statesman, politician, and Minister of the Interior from August 29 of 1823 to April 19 of 1828.

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Vice president

A vice president (in British English: vice-president for governments and director for businesses) is an officer in government or business who is below a president (managing director) in rank.

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Victor W. Marek

Victor Witold Marek, formerly Wiktor Witold Marek known as Witek Marek (born 22 March 1943) is a Polish mathematician and computer scientist working in the field of theoretical computer science and mathematical logic.

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Vienna

Vienna (Wien) is the federal capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria.

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Vienna Circle

The Vienna Circle (Wiener Kreis) of Logical Empiricism was a group of philosophers and scientists drawn from the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics who met regularly from 1924 to 1936 at the University of Vienna, chaired by Moritz Schlick.

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Vincent F. Hendricks

Vincent Fella Rune Møller Hendricks (born 6 March 1970), is a Danish philosopher and logician.

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Vistula–Oder Offensive

The Vistula–Oder Offensive was a successful Red Army operation on the Eastern Front in the European Theatre of World War II in January 1945.

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Vladimir Lenin

Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the alias Lenin (22 April 1870According to the new style calendar (modern Gregorian), Lenin was born on 22 April 1870. According to the old style (Old Julian) calendar used in the Russian Empire at the time, it was 10 April 1870. Russia converted from the old to the new style calendar in 1918, under Lenin's administration. – 21 January 1924), was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician and political theorist.

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Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)

Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov (Влади́мир Серге́евич Соловьёв; –) was a Russian philosopher, theologian, poet, pamphleteer, and literary critic.

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Vocational education

Vocational education is education that prepares people to work in various jobs, such as a trade, a craft, or as a technician.

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Walerian Łukasiński

Walerian Łukasiński (15 April 1786 in Warsaw – 27 January 1868 in Shlisselburg) was a Polish officer and political activist.

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Wanda Szmielew

Wanda Montlak Szmielew (1918–1976) was a Polish mathematical logician (of Jewish descent) who first proved the decidability of the first-order theory of abelian groups.

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War of the Sixth Coalition

In the War of the Sixth Coalition (March 1813 – May 1814), sometimes known in Germany as the War of Liberation, a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of German states finally defeated France and drove Napoleon into exile on Elba.

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Warsaw

Warsaw (Warszawa; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland.

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Warsaw Citadel

Warsaw Citadel (Polish: Cytadela Warszawska) is a 19th-century fortress in Warsaw, Poland.

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Warsaw Old Town

The Warsaw Old Town (italic and collectively with the New Town, known colloquially as: Starówka) is the oldest part of Warsaw, the capital city of Poland.

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Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact, formally known as the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defence treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland among the Soviet Union and seven Soviet satellite states of Central and Eastern Europe during the Cold War.

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Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia

The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, officially known as Operation Danube, was a joint invasion of Czechoslovakia by five Warsaw Pact nations – the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany and Poland – on the night of 20–21 August 1968.

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Warsaw School of Economics

The Warsaw School of Economics (Szkoła Główna Handlowa, SGH Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie.) is the oldest business school in Poland.

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Warsaw Scientific Society

Warsaw Scientific Society (Polish: Towarzystwo Naukowe Warszawskie; TNW) is a Polish scientific society based in Warsaw.

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Warsaw University of Technology

No description.

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Warsaw Uprising

The Warsaw Uprising (powstanie warszawskie; Warschauer Aufstand) was a major World War II operation, in the summer of 1944, by the Polish underground resistance, led by the Home Army (Armia Krajowa), to liberate Warsaw from German occupation.

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Waste

Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials.

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Władysław Bartoszewski

Władysław Bartoszewski (19 February 1922 – 24 April 2015) was a Polish politician, social activist, journalist, writer and historian.

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Władysław Gomułka

Władysław Gomułka (6 February 1905 – 1 September 1982) was a Polish communist politician.

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Władysław Ludwik Anczyc

Władysław Ludwik Anczyc (12 December 1823, Vilnius – 28 July 1883) was a Polish poet, playwright, publisher, translator and folk activist.

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Władysław Tatarkiewicz

Władysław Tatarkiewicz (3 April 1886, Warsaw – 4 April 1980, Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher, historian of philosophy, historian of art, esthetician, and ethicist.

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Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz

Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz (born 13 September 1950 in Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish politician.

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Weimar Republic

The Weimar Republic (Weimarer Republik) is an unofficial, historical designation for the German state during the years 1919 to 1933.

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Well-being

Well-being, wellbeing, or wellness is a general term for the condition of an individual or group.

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West Berlin

West Berlin (Berlin (West) or colloquially West-Berlin) was a political enclave which comprised the western part of Berlin during the years of the Cold War.

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Western Marxism

Western Marxism is Marxist theory arising from Western and Central Europe in the aftermath of the 1917 October Revolution in Russia and the ascent of Leninism.

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Wiesław Chrzanowski

Wiesław Marian Chrzanowski (20 December 1923 – 29 April 2012) was a Polish politician and lawyer; from 1991 to 1993 he was Sejm Marshal.

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Willard Van Orman Quine

Willard Van Orman Quine (known to intimates as "Van"; June 25, 1908 – December 25, 2000) was an American philosopher and logician in the analytic tradition, recognized as "one of the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century." From 1930 until his death 70 years later, Quine was continually affiliated with Harvard University in one way or another, first as a student, then as a professor of philosophy and a teacher of logic and set theory, and finally as a professor emeritus who published or revised several books in retirement.

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Wilno Voivodeship (1926–1939)

The Wilno Voivodeship (województwo wileńskie) was one of 16 Voivodeships in the Second Polish Republic, with the capital in Wilno (now Vilnius, Lithuania).

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Wincenty Witos

Wincenty Witos (22 January 1874 – 31 October 1945) was a prominent member of the Polish People's Party (PSL) from 1895, and leader of its "Piast" faction from 1913.

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Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939)

Wołyń Voivodeship or Volhynian Voivodeship (Województwo Wołyńskie, Palatinatus Volhynensis) was an administrative region of interwar Poland (1918–1939) with an area of 35,754 km², 22 cities, and provincial capital in Łuck.

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Wojciech Bogusławski

Wojciech Bogusławski (9 April 1757 – 23 July 1829) was a Polish actor, theater director and playwright of the Polish Enlightenment.

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Wojciech Jaruzelski

Wojciech Witold Jaruzelski (6 July 1923 – 25 May 2014) was a Polish military officer and politician.

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Wolf ticket (Russia)

Wolf ticket is a literal translation of the Russian language phrase волчий билет (volchiy bilyet), a colloquial expression to denote a version of a document with restrictive clauses in comparison to the full document.

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Word formation

In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word.

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Workers' council

A workers' council is a form of political and economic organization in which a single local administrative division, such as a municipality or a county, is governed by a council made up of temporary and instantly revocable delegates elected in the region's workplaces.

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Workers' Defence Committee

The Workers' Defense Committee (Komitet Obrony Robotników, KOR) was a Polish civil society group that was founded by Antoni Macierewicz to give aid to prisoners and their families after the June 1976 protests and ensuing government crackdown.

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World Congress of Philosophy

The World Congress of Philosophy (originally known as the International Conference of Philosophy) is a global meeting of philosophers held every five years under the auspices of the International Federation of Philosophical Societies (FISP).

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World view

A world view or worldview is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the whole of the individual's or society's knowledge and point of view.

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World War I

World War I (often abbreviated as WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918.

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World War II

World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although conflicts reflecting the ideological clash between what would become the Allied and Axis blocs began earlier.

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Wrocław

Wrocław (Breslau; Vratislav; Vratislavia) is the largest city in western Poland.

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Wronki Prison

Wronki Prison (Zakład Karny Wronki) is the largest Anna Frankowska,, 2008-08-05, Money.pl Jacek Deptuła,, Gazeta Pomorska, 27 września 2008 prison in Poland, holding over 1400 prisoners.

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Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika

Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika (Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK, Wydawnictwo UMK) is a university press affiliated with the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń in Poland.

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Yevgeni Preobrazhensky

Yevgeni Alekseyevich Preobrazhensky (p; 1886–1937) was a Russian revolutionary and economist.

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Yiddish

Yiddish (ייִדיש, יידיש or אידיש, yidish/idish, "Jewish",; in older sources ייִדיש-טײַטש Yidish-Taitsh, Judaeo-German) is the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews.

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Young Communist League of Poland

The Young Communist League of Poland (Związek Młodzieży Komunistycznej w Polsce, abbreviated ZMKwP), in February 1930 renamed as the Communist League of Youth in Poland Komunistyczny Związek Młodzieży Polski, abbreviated KZMP), was the youth wing of the interbellum Communist Party of Poland between 1922 and 1938.Cimek, Henryk. ZMKwP/KZMP was a section of the Young Communist International.

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Young Poland

Young Poland (Młoda Polska) was a modernist period in Polish visual arts, literature and music, covering roughly the years between 1890 and 1918.

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Zagłoba coat of arms

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Zakopane

Zakopane is a town in the extreme south of Poland.

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Zbigniew Jaworowski

Zbigniew Jaworowski (October 17, 1927 – November 12, 2011) was a Polish physician, and alpinist.

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Zdziar Wielki

Zdziar Wielki is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Staroźreby, within Płock County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

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Znak (publisher)

Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy „Znak” is one of the largest Polish book publishing companies.

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Zofia Gomułkowa

Zofia Gomułkowa or Zofia Gomułka, born Liwa Szoken (12 May 1902 – 27 November 1986), was a wife of First Secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party, Władysław Gomułka, leader of communist Poland from 21 October 1956 until 20 December 1970.

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Zofia Wasilkowska

Zofia Wasilkowska (9 December 1910 in Kalisz – 1 December 1996 in Warsaw), was a Polish communist politician.

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Zygmunt Żuławski

Zygmunt Żuławski (31 July 1880 in Młynne, Limanowa County, Austria-Hungary – 4 September 1949 in Kraków) was a Polish politician, association activist, and socialist.

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Zygmunt Bauman

Zygmunt Bauman (19 November 1925 – 9 January 2017) was a Polish sociologist and philosopher.

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Zygmunt Janiszewski

Zygmunt Janiszewski (June 12, 1888 – January 3, 1920) was a Polish mathematician.

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Zygmunt Zawirski

Zygmunt Zawirski (29 September 1882 – 2 April 1948) was a Polish philosopher and logician.

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1968 Polish political crisis

The Polish 1968 political crisis, also known in Poland as March 1968 or March events (Marzec 1968; wydarzenia marcowe), pertains to a series of major student, intellectual and other protests against the government of the Polish People's Republic.

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1st Belorussian Front

The 1st Belorussian Front (Першы Беларускі фронт, alternative spellings are 1st Byelorussian Front and 1st Belarusian Front) was a major formation of the Soviet Army during World War II, being equivalent to a Western army group.

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1st Ukrainian Front

The 1st Ukrainian Front (Russian: Пéрвый Укрáинский фронт; Пе́рший Украї́нський фронт Péršyj Ukraḯns’kyj front) was a front—a force the size of a Western Army group—of the Soviet Union's Red Army during the Second World War.

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20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

The 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was held during the period 14–25 February 1956.

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4th Infantry Division (Poland)

The Polish 4th Infantry Division (Polish: 4. Dywizja Piechoty) was created following Polish independence after the end of World War I. The division participated in the Polish-Ukrainian War in 1919.

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4th Regiment of Line Infantry

The 4th Regiment of Line Infantry (4.) was a military unit of the Kingdom of Poland.

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References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrzej_Grzegorczyk