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244 relations: Abhira tribe, Abiria, Afghanistan, Ai-Khanoum, Alexandria Arachosia, Alexandria on the Caucasus, Amu Darya, Ancient Greek religion, Ancient history, Apollodotus II, Arachosia, Aramaic language, Ariaca, Ariadne, Arrian, Arsaces II of Parthia, Ashoka, Aspavarma, Azes I, Azes II, Azilises, Bactria, Bagram, Bahlikas, Bahram II, Bajaur Agency, Bajaur casket, Balochistan, Barbarian, Barbarikon, Bashlyk, Bhadayasa, Bhagavata, Bhartrdaman, Bhumaka, Billon (alloy), Bimaran casket, Book of Han, Brahmi script, British Museum, Buddhism, Buner reliefs, Butkara Stupa, Central Asia, Central Asians in Ancient Indian literature, Chandragupta II, Chandragupta Maurya, Chashtana, Chukhsa, Cleveland Museum of Art, ..., Community, Dahae, Damajadasri I, Damasena, Dayuan, Deer, Dharma, Dionysus, Domino effect, Drangiana, Dunhuang, Epigraphy, Fergana, Gandhara, Gautama Buddha, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Gedrosia, Gondophares, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, Gujarat, Gupta Empire, Hagamasha, Hagana (Satrap), Han dynasty, Harold Walter Bailey, Haryana, Herodotus, Hinduism, Hippostratos, History of India, Ili River, Indian subcontinent, Indo-Corinthian capital, Indo-Greek Kingdom, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, Indravarma, Indravasu, Indus River, Iran, Isidore of Charax, J. P. Mallory, Jalalabad, Jayadaman, János Harmatta, Jivadaman, John Marshall (archaeologist), Journal of World History, Kabul, Kafiristan, Kalinga (historical region), Kambojas, Kanishka, Karachi, Kashmir, Kathiawar, Kharahostes, Kharapallana, Kharosthi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, King, Kingdom of Khotan, Koine Greek, Kshatriya, Kujula Kadphises, Kurgan, Kushan Empire, Liaka Kusulaka, Mahabharata, Maharashtra, Malwa, Massagetae, Mathura, Mathura lion capital, Maues, Maurya Empire, Medes, Menander I, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Minnagara, Mithridates II of Parthia, Modu Chanyu, Monarchy, Mongolia, Mudra, Mujatria, Nadasi Kasa, Nahapana, National Museum, New Delhi, Nomad, Northern Satraps, Orda (organization), Pahlavas, Pakistan, Palacenti, Pali, Pamir Mountains, Parada Kingdom, Parama Kamboja Kingdom, Parthia, Parthian Empire, Pataliputra, Patika Kusulaka, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Phraates II, Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, Prakrit, Ptolemy, Ptolemy's world map, Punjab, Puranas, Qilian Mountains, R. C. Majumdar, Rajasthan, Rajula, Rajuvula, Ramayana, Records of the Grand Historian, Refuge (Buddhism), Rishikas, Rudradaman I, Rudrasena I (Saka king), Rudrasena II, Rudrasimha I, Rudrasimha II, Rudrasimha III, Sagala, Saka, Sakastan, Saket, Sangha, Sanskrit, Sarnath, Sasan (Apraca), Satavahana dynasty, Satrap, Saurashtra (region), Schoenus, Scythia, Scythian languages, Scythians, Shaka, Shaka era, Sigal, Sakastan, Sima Qian, Sindh, Sirkap, Sistan, Sodasa, Sogdia, South Asia, Spalagadames, Spalahores, Spalirisos, Stone palette, Strato II, Stupa, Surkh Kotal, Suzerainty, Swat (princely state), Swat District, Tabula Peutingeriana, Tadeusz Sulimirski, Tarim Basin, Taxila, Taxila city, Taxila copper plate, Tillya Tepe, Tocharians, Transoxiana, Triratna, Turin City Museum of Ancient Art, Ujjain, Uttar Pradesh, Valmiki, Vanaspara, Victor H. Mair, Vijayamitra, Vijayasena, Vikram Samvat, Vikramaditya, Vispavarma, Vonones of Indo-Scythia, Weer Rajendra Rishi, Western Satraps, Wusun, Xinjiang, Xiongnu, Yasodaman II, Yona, Yuezhi, Yuga Purana, Zeionises, Zeus, Zhang Qian. Expand index (194 more) »
Abhira tribe
The Abhira tribe were a people mentioned in ancient Indian epics and scriptures as early as the Vedas.
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Abiria
Abiria was a region in Sindh province of Pakistan described by the Classical authors, mainly Ptolemy.
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Afghanistan
Afghanistan (Pashto/Dari:, Pashto: Afġānistān, Dari: Afġānestān), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia.
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Ai-Khanoum
Ai-Khanoum (Aï Khānum, also Ay Khanum, lit. “Lady Moon” in Uzbek), possibly the historical Alexandria on the Oxus, also possibly later named اروکرتیه or Eucratidia) was one of the primary cities of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Previous scholars have argued that Ai Khanoum was founded in the late 4th century BC, following the conquests of Alexander the Great. Recent analysis now strongly suggests that the city was founded c. 280 BC by the Seleucid king Antiochus I. The city is located in Takhar Province, northern Afghanistan, at the confluence of the Panj river and the Kokcha river, both tributaries of the Amu Darya, historically known as the Oxus, and at the doorstep of the Indian subcontinent. Ai-Khanoum was one of the focal points of Hellenism in the East for nearly two centuries, until its annihilation by nomadic invaders around 145 BC about the time of the death of Eucratides. The site was excavated through archaeological work by a (DAFA) mission under between 1964 and 1978, as well as Russian scientists. The work had to be abandoned with the onset of the Soviet war in Afghanistan, during which the site was looted and used as a battleground, leaving very little of the original material.
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Alexandria Arachosia
Alexandria in Arachosia was a city in ancient times that is now called Kandahar in Afghanistan.
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Alexandria on the Caucasus
Alexandria in the Caucasus (medieval Kapisa, modern Bagram) was a colony of Alexander the Great (one of many colonies designated with the name Alexandria).
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Amu Darya
The Amu Darya, also called the Amu or Amo River, and historically known by its Latin name Oxus, is a major river in Central Asia.
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Ancient Greek religion
Ancient Greek religion encompasses the collection of beliefs, rituals, and mythology originating in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices.
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Ancient history
Ancient history is the aggregate of past events, "History" from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the post-classical history.
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Apollodotus II
Apollodotus II (Greek: Ἀπολλόδοτος Β΄) was an Indo-Greek king who ruled in the western and eastern parts of Punjab.
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Arachosia
Arachosia is the Hellenized name of an ancient satrapy in the eastern part of the Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Greco-Bactrian, and Indo-Scythian empires.
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Aramaic language
Aramaic (אַרָמָיָא Arāmāyā, ܐܪܡܝܐ, آرامية) is a language or group of languages belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the Afroasiatic language family.
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Ariaca
Obv: Bust of king Nahapana with a legend in Greek script "PANNIΩ IAHAPATAC NAHAΠANAC", transliteration of the Prakrit Raño Kshaharatasa Nahapanasa: "King Kshaharata Nahapana".
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Ariadne
Ariadne (Ἀριάδνη; Ariadne), in Greek mythology, was the daughter of Minos—the King of Crete and a son of Zeus—and Pasiphaë—Minos' queen and a daughter of Helios.
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Arrian
Arrian of Nicomedia (Greek: Ἀρριανός Arrianos; Lucius Flavius Arrianus) was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.
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Arsaces II of Parthia
Arsaces II, also Artabanus I (ارشک يکم), of the Arsacid dynasty was King of Parthia between 211 BC and 185 BC.
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Ashoka
Ashoka (died 232 BCE), or Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from to 232 BCE.
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Aspavarma
Aspavarma (or Aspa) was an Indo-Scythian ruler of the clan of the Apraca, who ruled from around 15 to 45 CE.
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Azes I
Azes I (Greek: Ἄζης; c. 48/47 BCE – 25 BCE) was an Indo-Scythian ruler who completed the domination of the Scythians in Gandhara.
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Azes II
Azes II (reigned c. 35–12 BCE) would have been the last Scythian king in Gandhara, western Pakistan.
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Azilises
Azilises (ruled circa 57-35 BCE) was an Indo-Scythian king who ruled in the area of Gandhara.
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Bactria
Bactria or Bactriana was the name of a historical region in Central Asia.
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Bagram
Bagram (بگرام) is a town and seat in Bagram District in Parwan Province of Afghanistan, about 60 kilometers north of the capital Kabul.
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Bahlikas
The Bahlikas (बाह्लिक; Bāhlika) were the inhabitants of Balikha, mentioned in Atharvaveda, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas, Vartikka of Katyayana, Brhatsamhita, Amarkosha etc.
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Bahram II
Bahram II (𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭, Wahrām, بهرام دوم, Bahrām) was the fifth Sasanian King of Persia in 274–293.
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Bajaur Agency
Bajaur, Bajur or Bajour (باجوړ) is a district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
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Bajaur casket
The Bajaur casket, also called the Indravarma reliquary, year 63, or sometimes referred to as the Avaca inscription, is an ancient reliquary from the area of Bajaur in ancient Gandhara, in the present-day Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan.
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Balochistan
Balōchistān (بلوچستان; also Balūchistān or Balūchestān, often interpreted as the Land of the Baloch) is an arid desert and mountainous region in south-western Asia.
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Barbarian
A barbarian is a human who is perceived to be either uncivilized or primitive.
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Barbarikon
Barbarikon (Βαρβαρικόν in Greek) was the name of a sea port near the modern-day city of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan, important in the Hellenistic era in Indian Ocean trade.
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Bashlyk
A bashlyk, also spelled Bashlik (Shkharkhon, Başlıq, Başlıq, Turkish: Başlık; "baş" - head, "-lıq" (Tatar) / "-lık" (Turkish) - derivative suffix), is a traditional Circassian, Turkic and Cossack cone-shaped headdress hood, usually of leather, felt or wool, an ancient round topped felt bonnet with lappets for wrapping around the neck.
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Bhadayasa
Bhadayasa (also Bhadrayasha) was a minor Indo-Scythian ruler in the areas of Eastern Punjab and Mathura in India, during the 1st century CE.
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Bhagavata
In Hinduism a Bhagavata (a vrddhi formation from Bhagavanta, meaning "devotee of Bhagavanta", the Lord, i.e. God), is a devotee, worshipper or follower of Bhagavanta namely God in his personal aspect.
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Bhartrdaman
Bhartrdaman was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas in northwestern India from around 278 to 295.
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Bhumaka
Bhumaka (?–119 CE) was a Western Kshatrapa ruler of the early 2nd century CE.
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Billon (alloy)
Billon is an alloy of a precious metal (most commonly silver, but also mercury) with a majority base metal content (such as copper).
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Bimaran casket
The Bimaran casket or Bimaran reliquary is a small gold reliquary for Buddhist relics that was found inside the stupa no.2 at Bimaran, near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan.
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Book of Han
The Book of Han or History of the Former Han is a history of China finished in 111, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE.
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Brahmi script
Brahmi (IAST) is the modern name given to one of the oldest writing systems used in Ancient India and present South and Central Asia from the 1st millennium BCE.
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British Museum
The British Museum, located in the Bloomsbury area of London, United Kingdom, is a public institution dedicated to human history, art and culture.
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Buddhism
Buddhism is the world's fourth-largest religion with over 520 million followers, or over 7% of the global population, known as Buddhists.
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Buner reliefs
The Buner reliefs are a series of frieze reliefs that lie in Buner District, from the area of the Peshawar valley in Pakistan.
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Butkara Stupa
The Butkara Stupa (بوتکاراستوپ) is an important Buddhist stupa near Mingora, in the area of Swat, Pakistan.
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Central Asia
Central Asia stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east and from Afghanistan in the south to Russia in the north.
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Central Asians in Ancient Indian literature
Central Asia and Ancient India have long traditions of social-cultural, religious, political and economic contact since remote antiquity.
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Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II (also known as Chandragupta Vikramaditya) was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta Empire in India.
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Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya (reign: 321–297 BCE) was the founder of the Maurya Empire in ancient India.
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Chashtana
Chashtana (IAST:, or Chastana) was a ruler of the Saka Western Satraps in northwestern India during 78-130 CE.
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Chukhsa
Chukhsa was an ancient area of Pakistan, probably modern Chachh, west of the city of Taxila.
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Cleveland Museum of Art
The Cleveland Museum of Art (CMA) is an art museum in Cleveland, Ohio, located in the Wade Park District, in the University Circle neighborhood on the city's east side.
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Community
A community is a small or large social unit (a group of living things) that has something in common, such as norms, religion, values, or identity.
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Dahae
The Dahae, also known as the Daae, Dahas or Dahaeans --> (Dahae; Δάοι, Δάαι, Δαι, Δάσαι Dáoi, Dáai, Dai, Dasai; Sanskrit: Dasa; Chinese Dayi 大益)(p. 19. were a people of ancient Central Asia. A confederation of three tribes – the Parni, Xanthii and Pissuri – the Dahae lived in an area now comprising much of modern Turkmenistan. The area has consequently been known as Dahestan, Dahistan and Dihistan. Relatively little is known about their way of life. For example, according to the Iranologist A. D. H. Bivar, the capital of "the ancient Dahae (if indeed they possessed one) is quite unknown.". The Dahae dissolved, apparently, some time before the beginning of the 1st millennium. One of the three tribes of the Dahae confederation, the Parni, emigrated to Parthia (present-day north-eastern Iran), where they founded the Arsacid dynasty.
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Damajadasri I
Damajadasri I was a ruler of the Western Kshatrapas dynasty.
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Damasena
Damasena was a Western Kshatrapa ruler, who reigned from 223 to 232 CE.
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Dayuan
Dayuan (Ta-yuan; Old Chinese reconstructed pronunciation: /dhaːts ʔwan/; Middle Chinese reconstructed pronunciation according to Edwin G. Pulleyblank: /daj ʔuan/) was a country in Ferghana valley in Central Asia, described in the Chinese historical works of Records of the Grand Historian and the Book of Han.
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Deer
Deer (singular and plural) are the ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae.
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Dharma
Dharma (dharma,; dhamma, translit. dhamma) is a key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
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Dionysus
Dionysus (Διόνυσος Dionysos) is the god of the grape harvest, winemaking and wine, of ritual madness, fertility, theatre and religious ecstasy in ancient Greek religion and myth.
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Domino effect
A domino effect or chain reaction is the cumulative effect produced when one event sets off a chain of similar events.
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Drangiana
Drangiana or Zarangiana (Δραγγιανή, Drangianē; also attested in Old Western Iranian as Zranka was a historical region and administrative division of the Achaemenid Empire. This region comprises territory around Hamun Lake, wetlands in endorheic Sistan Basin on the Iran-Afghan border, and its primary watershed Helmand river in what is nowadays southwestern region of Afghanistan.
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Dunhuang
Dunhuang is a county-level city in northwestern Gansu Province, Western China.
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Epigraphy
Epigraphy (ἐπιγραφή, "inscription") is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the writing and the writers.
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Fergana
Fergana (Fargʻona/Фарғона, فەرغانە; Фарғона, Farğona/Farƣona; فرغانه Farġāna/Farqâna; Фергана́), or Ferghana, is the capital of Fergana Region in eastern Uzbekistan.
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Gandhara
Gandhāra was an ancient kingdom situated along the Kabul and Swat rivers of Afghanistan and Pakistan.
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Gautama Buddha
Gautama Buddha (c. 563/480 – c. 483/400 BCE), also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni Buddha, or simply the Buddha, after the title of Buddha, was an ascetic (śramaṇa) and sage, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.
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Gautamiputra Satakarni
Gautamiputra Satakarni (IAST) was a ruler of the Satavahana Empire in present-day Deccan region of India.
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Gedrosia
Gedrosia (Γεδρωσία) is the Hellenized name of the part of coastal Baluchistan that roughly corresponds to today's Makran.
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Gondophares
Gondophares I was the founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom in western Pakistan.
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Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was – along with the Indo-Greek Kingdom – the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world, covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 to 125 BC.
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Gujarat
Gujarat is a state in Western India and Northwest India with an area of, a coastline of – most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula – and a population in excess of 60 million.
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Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire, existing from approximately 240 to 590 CE.
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Hagamasha
Hagamasha was an Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap (ruled in Mathura in the 1st century BCE, probably after 60 BCE).
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Hagana (Satrap)
Hagana was an Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap (ruled in Mathura in the 1st century BCE, probably after 60 BCE).
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Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China (206 BC–220 AD), preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the "Han Chinese" and the Chinese script is referred to as "Han characters". It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BC–9 AD) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD). The emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States. From the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD. The Han dynasty saw an age of economic prosperity and witnessed a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalized the private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, but these government monopolies were repealed during the Eastern Han dynasty. Science and technology during the Han period saw significant advances, including the process of papermaking, the nautical steering ship rudder, the use of negative numbers in mathematics, the raised-relief map, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy, and a seismometer for measuring earthquakes employing an inverted pendulum. The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BC. After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empresses dowager, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty would eventually collapse and ceased to exist.
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Harold Walter Bailey
Sir Harold Walter Bailey, FBA (16 December 1899 – 11 January 1996), who published as H. W. Bailey, was an eminent English scholar of Khotanese, Sanskrit, and the comparative study of Iranian languages.
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Haryana
Haryana, carved out of the former state of East Punjab on 1November 1966 on linguistic basis, is one of the 29 states in India.
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Herodotus
Herodotus (Ἡρόδοτος, Hêródotos) was a Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey) and lived in the fifth century BC (484– 425 BC), a contemporary of Thucydides, Socrates, and Euripides.
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Hinduism
Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or a way of life, widely practised in the Indian subcontinent.
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Hippostratos
Hippostratos (Greek: Ἱππόστρατος) was an Indo-Greek king who ruled central and north-western Punjab and Pushkalavati.
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History of India
The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the advancement of civilisation from the Indus Valley Civilisation to the eventual blending of the Indo-Aryan culture to form the Vedic Civilisation; the rise of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism;Sanderson, Alexis (2009), "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo, Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009.
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Ili River
Map of the Lake Balkhash drainage basin showing the Ili River and its tributaries The Ili River (Ile, ئله; Или;; Йили хә, Xiao'erjing: اِلِ حْ;, literally "Bareness") is a river situated in northwestern China and southeastern Kazakhstan.
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Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a southern region and peninsula of Asia, mostly situated on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas.
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Indo-Corinthian capital
Indo-Corinthian capitals are capitals crowning columns or pilasters, which can be found in the northwestern Indian subcontinent, and usually combine Hellenistic and Indian elements.
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Indo-Greek Kingdom
The Indo-Greek Kingdom or Graeco-Indian Kingdom was an Hellenistic kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwest regions of the Indian subcontinent (parts of modern Pakistan and northwestern India), during the last two centuries BC and was ruled by more than thirty kings, often conflicting with one another.
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Indo-Parthian Kingdom
The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty and other rulers who were a group of ancient kings from Central Asia that ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India, during or slightly before the 1st century AD.
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Indravarma
Indravarman or Indravarma (Itravasu on his coinage) was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas, who ruled in the area of Bajaur in modern northwestern Pakistan.
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Indravasu
Indravasu (ruled circa 15 CE) was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas in Bajaur, western Pakistan.
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Indus River
The Indus River (also called the Sindhū) is one of the longest rivers in Asia.
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Iran
Iran (ایران), also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ایران), is a sovereign state in Western Asia. With over 81 million inhabitants, Iran is the world's 18th-most-populous country. Comprising a land area of, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East and the 17th-largest in the world. Iran is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. The country's central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, give it geostrategic importance. Tehran is the country's capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BCE. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BCE, reaching its greatest territorial size in the sixth century BCE, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley, becoming one of the largest empires in history. The Iranian realm fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion culminated in the establishment of the Parthian Empire, which was succeeded in the third century CE by the Sasanian Empire, a leading world power for the next four centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century CE, displacing the indigenous faiths of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism with Islam. Iran made major contributions to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential figures in art and science. After two centuries, a period of various native Muslim dynasties began, which were later conquered by the Turks and the Mongols. The rise of the Safavids in the 15th century led to the reestablishment of a unified Iranian state and national identity, with the country's conversion to Shia Islam marking a turning point in Iranian and Muslim history. Under Nader Shah, Iran was one of the most powerful states in the 18th century, though by the 19th century, a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to significant territorial losses. Popular unrest led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the country's first legislature. A 1953 coup instigated by the United Kingdom and the United States resulted in greater autocracy and growing anti-Western resentment. Subsequent unrest against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution and the establishment of an Islamic republic, a political system that includes elements of a parliamentary democracy vetted and supervised by a theocracy governed by an autocratic "Supreme Leader". During the 1980s, the country was engaged in a war with Iraq, which lasted for almost nine years and resulted in a high number of casualties and economic losses for both sides. According to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic, and has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader. Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate, and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world. Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, an agreement reached between Iran and the P5+1, was created on 14 July 2015, aimed to loosen the nuclear sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium. Iran is a founding member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC, and OPEC. It is a major regional and middle power, and its large reserves of fossil fuels – which include the world's largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves – exert considerable influence in international energy security and the world economy. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and eleventh-largest in the world. Iran is a multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, the largest being Persians (61%), Azeris (16%), Kurds (10%), and Lurs (6%).
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Isidore of Charax
Isidore of Charax (Ἰσίδωρος ὁ Χαρακηνός, Isídōros o Haracēnós; Isidorus Characenus) was a Greco-Roman geographer of the 1st century and 1st century about whom nothing is known but his name and that he wrote at least one work.
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J. P. Mallory
James Patrick Mallory (born 1945) is an Irish-American archaeologist and Indo-Europeanist.
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Jalalabad
Jalālābād, or Dzalalabad, formerly called Ādīnapūr as documented by the 7th-century Xuanzang, is a city in eastern Afghanistan.
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Jayadaman
Jayadaman was a Western Kshatrapa ruler, although possibly only a Kshatrapa, rather than a Mahakshatrapa.
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János Harmatta
János Harmatta (2 October 1917 – 24 July 2004) was a Hungarian linguist.
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Jivadaman
Jivadaman was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas in northwestern India from during the 2nd century CE.
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John Marshall (archaeologist)
Sir John Hubert Marshall, CIE, FBA (19 March 1876, Chester, England – 17 August 1958, Guildford, England) was the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928.
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Journal of World History
The Journal of World History is a peer-reviewed academic journal that presents historical analysis from a global point of view, focusing especially on forces that cross the boundaries of cultures and civilizations, including large-scale population movements, economic fluctuations, transfers of technology, the spread of infectious diseases, long-distance trade, and the spread of religious faiths, ideas, and values.
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Kabul
Kabul (کابل) is the capital of Afghanistan and its largest city, located in the eastern section of the country.
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Kafiristan
Kāfiristān, or Kāfirstān (کافرستان), is a historical region that covered present-day Nuristan Province in Afghanistan and its surroundings.
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Kalinga (historical region)
Kalinga is a historical region of India.
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Kambojas
The Kambojas were a tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali literature.
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Kanishka
Kanishka I (कनिष्क), or Kanishka the Great, was the emperor of the Kushan dynasty in the second century (c. 127–150 CE).
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Karachi
Karachi (کراچی; ALA-LC:,; ڪراچي) is the capital of the Pakistani province of Sindh.
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Kashmir
Kashmir is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent.
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Kathiawar
Kathiawar (also written Kathiawad or Kattywar) is a peninsula in western India and part of the Saurashtra region.
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Kharahostes
Kharahostes or Kharaostasa was an Indo-Scythian ruler (probably a satrap) in the northern Indian subcontinent around 10 BCE – 10 CE.
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Kharapallana
Kharapallana (ruled circa 130 CE) was an Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap.
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Kharosthi
The Kharosthi script, also spelled Kharoshthi or Kharoṣṭhī, is an ancient script used in ancient Gandhara and ancient India (primarily modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan) to write the Gandhari Prakrit and Sanskrit.
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Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (abbreviated as KP; خیبر پختونخوا; خیبر پښتونخوا) is one of the four administrative provinces of Pakistan, located in the northwestern region of the country along the international border with Afghanistan.
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King
King, or King Regnant is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts.
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Kingdom of Khotan
The Kingdom of Khotan was an ancient Iranic Saka Buddhist kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road that ran along the southern edge of the Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China).
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Koine Greek
Koine Greek,.
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Kshatriya
Kshatriya (Devanagari: क्षत्रिय; from Sanskrit kṣatra, "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of the Hindu society.
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Kujula Kadphises
Kujula Kadphises (Kushan language: Κοζουλου Καδφιζου, also Κοζολα Καδαφες; Kharoṣṭhī: Kujula Kasasa; Ancient Chinese: 丘就卻, Qiujiuque; reigned 30–80 CE, or 40-90 CE according to BopearachchiOsmund Bopearachchi, 2007) was a Kushan prince who united the Yuezhi confederation during the 1st century CE, and became the first Kushan emperor.
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Kurgan
In English, the archaeological term kurgan is a loanword from East Slavic languages (and, indirectly, from Turkic languages), equivalent to the archaic English term barrow, also known by the Latin loanword tumulus and terms such as burial mound.
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Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire (Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; Κυϸανο, Kushano; कुषाण साम्राज्य Kuṣāṇa Samrajya; BHS:; Chinese: 貴霜帝國; Kušan-xšaθr) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century.
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Liaka Kusulaka
Liaka Kusulaka (Greek: Λιακο Κοζουλο, Liako Kozoulo, on his coins, Pali: Liaka Kusulaka or Liako Kusuluko) was an Indo-Scythian satrap of the area of Chukhsa in the northwestern South Asia during the 1st century BCE.
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Mahabharata
The Mahābhārata (महाभारतम्) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa.
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Maharashtra
Maharashtra (abbr. MH) is a state in the western region of India and is India's second-most populous state and third-largest state by area.
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Malwa
Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin.
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Massagetae
The Massagetae, or Massageteans, were an ancient Eastern Iranian nomadic confederation,Karasulas, Antony.
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Mathura
Mathura is a city in the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
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Mathura lion capital
The Mathura lion capital is an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital from Mathura in Northern India, dated to the first decade of the 1st century CE (1-10 CE).
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Maues
Maues (Greek: Μαύης; epigraphically ΜΑΥΟΥ Mauou; r. 85–60 BCE) was an Indo-Scythian king who invaded the Indo-Greek territories.
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Maurya Empire
The Maurya Empire was a geographically-extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between 322 BCE and 180 BCE.
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Medes
The Medes (Old Persian Māda-, Μῆδοι, מָדַי) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in an area known as Media (northwestern Iran) and who spoke the Median language. At around 1100 to 1000 BC, they inhabited the mountainous area of northwestern Iran and the northeastern and eastern region of Mesopotamia and located in the Hamadan (Ecbatana) region. Their emergence in Iran is thought to have occurred between 800 BC and 700 BC, and in the 7th century the whole of western Iran and some other territories were under Median rule. Its precise geographical extent remains unknown. A few archaeological sites (discovered in the "Median triangle" in western Iran) and textual sources (from contemporary Assyrians and also ancient Greeks in later centuries) provide a brief documentation of the history and culture of the Median state. Apart from a few personal names, the language of the Medes is unknown. The Medes had an ancient Iranian religion (a form of pre-Zoroastrian Mazdaism or Mithra worshipping) with a priesthood named as "Magi". Later during the reigns of the last Median kings, the reforms of Zoroaster spread into western Iran.
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Menander I
Menander I Soter (Μένανδρος Α΄ ὁ Σωτήρ, Ménandros A' ho Sōtḗr, "Menander I the Saviour"; known in Indian Pali sources as Milinda) was an Indo-Greek King of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (165Bopearachchi (1998) and (1991), respectively. The first date is estimated by Osmund Bopearachchi and R. C. Senior, the other Boperachchi/155 –130 BC) who administered a large empire in the Northwestern regions of the Indian Subcontinent from his capital at Sagala.
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Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the United States.
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Minnagara
Minnagara was an ancient port located in what is now the modern city of Karachi, in the Sindh province of Pakistan.
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Mithridates II of Parthia
Mithridates II (meaning "Gift of Mithra") was king of Parthian Empire from 121 to 91 BC.
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Modu Chanyu
Modu, Modun, or Maodun (Mongolian: Модунь, Modun; Баатар, Baatar; c. 234 – c. 174 BC) was the fourth known Xiongnu ruler and the founder of the Xiongnu Empire.
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Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a group, generally a family representing a dynasty (aristocracy), embodies the country's national identity and its head, the monarch, exercises the role of sovereignty.
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Mongolia
Mongolia (Monggol Ulus in Mongolian; in Mongolian Cyrillic) is a landlocked unitary sovereign state in East Asia.
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Mudra
A mudra (Sanskrit "seal", "mark", or "gesture") is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism.
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Mujatria
Mujatria, previously read Hajatria (ruled circa 10 CE, or 40-50 CE according to more recent research based on numismatics), is the name of an Indo-Scythian ruler, the son of Kharahostes as mentioned on his coins.
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Nadasi Kasa
Nadasi Kasa (also Nadasi Akasa, Nadadi Akasa, or Nada Diaka) was a queen of the Saka Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula, daughter of Aiyasi Kamuia.
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Nahapana
Nahapana (r. 1st or 2nd century CE) was an important ruler of the Western Kshatrapas, descendant of the Indo-Scythians, in northwestern India.
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National Museum, New Delhi
The National Museum in New Delhi, also known as the National Museum of India, is one of the largest museums in India.
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Nomad
A nomad (νομάς, nomas, plural tribe) is a member of a community of people who live in different locations, moving from one place to another in search of grasslands for their animals.
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Northern Satraps
The Northern Satraps are a dynasty of Indo-Scythian rulers who held sway over the area of Mathura and Eastern Punjab from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE.
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Orda (organization)
An orda (also orda, ordu, ordo, or ordon) or horde was a historical sociopolitical and military structure found on the Eurasian Steppe, usually associated with the Turkic people and Mongols.
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Pahlavas
The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Manu Smriti, various Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (پاکِستان), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (اِسلامی جمہوریہ پاکِستان), is a country in South Asia.
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Palacenti
Palacenti was an ancient town of Drangiana in southwest Afghanistan.
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Pali
Pali, or Magadhan, is a Middle Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian subcontinent.
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Pamir Mountains
The Pamir Mountains, or the Pamirs, are a mountain range in Central Asia at the junction of the Himalayas with the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush, Suleman and Hindu Raj ranges.
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Parada Kingdom
Pāradas (alternatively Varadas, Parita) was an Iron Age kingdom described in various ancient and classical Indian texts.
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Parama Kamboja Kingdom
Parama Kamboja Kingdom was mentioned in the epic Mahabharata to be on the far north west along with the Bahlika, Uttara Madra and Uttara Kuru countries.
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Parthia
Parthia (𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 Parθava; 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 Parθaw; 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 Pahlaw) is a historical region located in north-eastern Iran.
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Parthian Empire
The Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD), also known as the Arsacid Empire, was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran and Iraq.
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Pataliputra
Pataliputra (IAST), adjacent to modern-day Patna, was a city in ancient India, originally built by Magadha ruler Udayin in 490 BCE as a small fort near the Ganges river.
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Patika Kusulaka
Patika Kusulaka was an Indo-Scythian satrap in the northwestern South Asia during the 1st century BCE.
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Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea or Periplus of the Red Sea (Περίπλους τῆς Ἐρυθράς Θαλάσσης, Periplus Maris Erythraei) is a Greco-Roman periplus, written in Greek, describing navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along Northeast Africa and the Sindh and South western India.
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Phraates II
Phraates II was king of the Parthian Empire from 132 BC to 126 BC.
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Prabodh Chandra Bagchi
Prabodh Chandra Bagchi (প্রবোধচন্দ্র-বাগচী) (18 November 1898 – 19 January 1956) or P. C. Bagchi was one of the most notable Sino -Indologists of the 20th century.
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Prakrit
The Prakrits (प्राकृत; pāuda; pāua) are any of several Middle Indo-Aryan languages formerly spoken in India.
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Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy (Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; Claudius Ptolemaeus) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology.
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Ptolemy's world map
The Ptolemy world map is a map of the world known to Hellenistic society in the 2nd century.
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Punjab
The Punjab, also spelled Panjab (land of "five rivers"; Punjabi: پنجاب (Shahmukhi); ਪੰਜਾਬ (Gurumukhi); Πενταποταμία, Pentapotamia) is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India.
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Puranas
The Puranas (singular: पुराण), are ancient Hindu texts eulogizing various deities, primarily the divine Trimurti God in Hinduism through divine stories.
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Qilian Mountains
The Qilian Mountains also known as Richthofen Range, (Tsilien Mountains;; Mongghul: Chileb), together with the Altyn-Tagh (Altun Shan) also known as Nan Shan (literally "Southern Mountains"), as it is to the south of Hexi Corridor, is a northern outlier of the Kunlun Mountains, forming the border between Qinghai and the Gansu provinces of northern China.
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R. C. Majumdar
Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (known as R. C. Majumdar; 4 December 1884 – 11 February 1980) was a historian and professor of Indian history.
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Rajasthan
Rajasthan (literally, "Land of Kings") is India's largest state by area (or 10.4% of India's total area).
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Rajula
Rajula is a city and municipality in Amreli district in the Indian state of Gujarat.
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Rajuvula
Rajuvula was an Indo-Scythian Great Satrap (Mahakshatrapa), one of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura in the northern Indian Subcontinent in the years around 10 CE.
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Ramayana
Ramayana (रामायणम्) is an ancient Indian epic poem which narrates the struggle of the divine prince Rama to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana.
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Records of the Grand Historian
The Records of the Grand Historian, also known by its Chinese name Shiji, is a monumental history of ancient China and the world finished around 94 BC by the Han dynasty official Sima Qian after having been started by his father, Sima Tan, Grand Astrologer to the imperial court.
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Refuge (Buddhism)
Buddhists take refuge in the Three Jewels or Triple Gem (also known as the "Three Refuges").
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Rishikas
The Rishikas (also Rshika and Ṛṣika) are a possibly-mythical tribe of Central Asia and South Asia, who are mentioned in Hindu and Sanskrit literary texts, including the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Brhat-Samhita, the Markendeya Purana and Patanjali's Mahabhasya.
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Rudradaman I
Rudradaman I (r. 130–150) was a Saka ruler from the Western Kshatrapas dynasty.
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Rudrasena I (Saka king)
Rudrasena I was a Saka ruler of the Western Satrap dynasty in the area of Malwa in ancient India.
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Rudrasena II
Rudrasena II was a king of the Pravarapura-Nandivardhana branch of the Vakataka dynasty.
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Rudrasimha I
Rudrasimha I was a Western Kshatrapa ruler, who reigned from 178 to 197 CE.
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Rudrasimha II
Rudrasimha II (304–348) was a ruler of the Western Satraps He declared on his coins to be the son of a Lord (Svami) Jivadaman.
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Rudrasimha III
Rudrasimha III was the last ruler of the Western Satraps in India, in the 4th century.
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Sagala
Sagala (Σάγγαλα), Sangala or Sakala was the name of the ancient predecessor of Sialkot, in Pakistan's northern Punjab province.
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Saka
Saka, Śaka, Shaka or Saca mod. ساکا; Śaka; Σάκαι, Sákai; Sacae;, old *Sək, mod. Sāi) is the name used in Middle Persian and Sanskrit sources for the Scythians, a large group of Eurasian nomads on the Eurasian Steppe speaking Eastern Iranian languages.
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Sakastan
Sakastan (also known as Sagestān, Sagistan, Seyanish, Segistan, Sistan, and Sijistan) was a Sasanian province in Late Antiquity, that lay within the kust of Nemroz.
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Saket
Saketa in Sanskrit, or Saket in Hindi, means Heaven, thus a place where God resides.
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Sangha
Sangha (saṅgha; saṃgha; සංඝයා; พระสงฆ์; Tamil: சங்கம்) is a word in Pali and Sanskrit meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community" and most commonly refers in Buddhism to the monastic community of bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis (nuns).
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Sanskrit
Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism; a philosophical language of Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism; and a former literary language and lingua franca for the educated of ancient and medieval India.
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Sarnath
Sarnath is a place located 10 kilometres north-east of Varanasi near the confluence of the Ganges and the Varuna rivers in Uttar Pradesh, India.
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Sasan (Apraca)
Sasan (45-50 CE) was an Indo-Scythian king, and the nephew of Aspavarma, whom he succeeded.
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Satavahana dynasty
The Satavahanas (IAST), also referred to as the Andhras in the Puranas, were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region.
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Satrap
Satraps were the governors of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires.
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Saurashtra (region)
Saurashtra, also known as Sorath or Kathiawar, is a peninsular region of Gujarat, India, located on the Arabian Sea coast.
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Schoenus
Schoenus (schœnus; σχοίνος, schoinos, "rush rope"; i͗trw, "river-measure") was an ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman unit of length and area based on the knotted cords first used in Egyptian surveying.
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Scythia
Scythia (Ancient Greek: Σκυθική, Skythikē) was a region of Central Eurasia in classical antiquity, occupied by the Eastern Iranian Scythians, encompassing Central Asia and parts of Eastern Europe east of the Vistula River, with the eastern edges of the region vaguely defined by the Greeks.
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Scythian languages
The Scythian languages are a group of Eastern Iranian languages of the classical and late antiquity (Middle Iranian) period, spoken in a vast region of Eurasia named Scythia.
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Scythians
or Scyths (from Greek Σκύθαι, in Indo-Persian context also Saka), were a group of Iranian people, known as the Eurasian nomads, who inhabited the western and central Eurasian steppes from about the 9th century BC until about the 1st century BC.
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Shaka
Shaka kaSenzangakhona (c. 1787 – 22 September 1828), also known as Shaka Zulu, was one of the most influential monarchs of the Zulu Kingdom.
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Shaka era
The Shaka era (IAST: Śaka era) is a historical calendar era, corresponding to Julian year 78.
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Sigal, Sakastan
Sigal was a city of the Helmund valley in south-west Afghanistan (ancient Sacastene).
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Sima Qian
Sima Qian was a Chinese historian of the early Han dynasty (206AD220).
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Sindh
Sindh (سنڌ; سِندھ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, in the southeast of the country.
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Sirkap
Sirkap (Urdu and سر کپ) is the name of an archaeological site on the bank opposite to the city of Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan.
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Sistan
Sīstān (Persian/Baloch/Pashto: سیستان), known in ancient times as Sakastan (Persian/Baloch/Pashto: ساكاستان; "the land of the Saka"), is a historical and geographical region in present-day eastern Iran (Sistan and Baluchestan Province), southern Afghanistan (Nimruz, Kandahar) and the Nok Kundi region of Balochistan (western Pakistan).
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Sodasa
Sodasa was an Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap and ruler of Mathura during the later part of the 1st century BCE or the early part of 1st century CE.
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Sogdia
Sogdia or Sogdiana was an ancient Iranian civilization that at different times included territory located in present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan such as: Samarkand, Bukhara, Khujand, Panjikent and Shahrisabz.
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South Asia
South Asia or Southern Asia (also known as the Indian subcontinent) is a term used to represent the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan SAARC countries and, for some authorities, adjoining countries to the west and east.
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Spalagadames
Spalagadames was an Indo-Scythian ruler, son of Spalahores, himself brother of king Vonones.
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Spalahores
Spalahores or Spalahora was an Indo-Scythian ruler, brother of king Vonones.
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Spalirisos
Spalirises or Spalirisos (50–47 BCE) was an Indo-Scythian "Great king" of the 1st century BCE.
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Stone palette
Stone palettes, also called toilet trays, are round trays commonly found in the areas of Bactria and Gandhara, which usually represent Greek mythological scenes.
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Strato II
Strato II "Soter" (Στράτων B΄ ὁ Σωτήρ, Strátōn B΄ ho Sotḗr; epithet means "the Saviour") was an Indo-Greek king.
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Stupa
A stupa (Sanskrit: "heap") is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (śarīra - typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation.
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Surkh Kotal
Surkh Kotal (سرخکوتل; سور کوتل), also called Chashma-i Shir or Sar-i Chashma, is an ancient archaeological site located in the southern part of the region of Bactria, about 18 km north of the city of Puli Khumri, the capital of Baghlan Province of Afghanistan.
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Suzerainty
Suzerainty (and) is a back-formation from the late 18th-century word suzerain, meaning upper-sovereign, derived from the French sus (meaning above) + -erain (from souverain, meaning sovereign).
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Swat (princely state)
The State of Swat (Pashto: د يوسفزو رياست سوات) was a province ruled by local rulers known as the Akhunds, then until 1947 a princely state of the British Indian Empire, which was dissolved in 1969, when the Akhwand acceded to Pakistan.
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Swat District
Swāt (Pashto, Urdu: سوات) is a valley and an administrative district in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
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Tabula Peutingeriana
Tabula Peutingeriana (Latin for "The Peutinger Map"), also referred to as Peutinger's Tabula or Peutinger Table, is an illustrated itinerarium (ancient Roman road map) showing the layout of the cursus publicus, the road network of the Roman Empire.
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Tadeusz Sulimirski
Tadeusz Sulimirski (1 April 1898 – 20 June 1983) was a Polish historian and archaeologist, who emigrated to the United Kingdom soon after the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
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Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in northwest China occupying an area of about.
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Taxila
Taxila (from Pāli: Takkasilā, Sanskrit: तक्षशिला,, meaning "City of Cut Stone" or " Rock") is a town and an important archaeological site in the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab, Pakistan, situated about north-west of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, just off the famous Grand Trunk Road.
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Taxila city
Taxila (ٹيکسلا), is a city in Rawalpindi District of the Punjab, Pakistan.
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Taxila copper plate
The Taxila copper-plate, also called the Moga inscription or the Patika copper-plate is a notable archaeological artifact found in the area of Taxila, Gandhara, in modern Pakistan.
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Tillya Tepe
Tillya tepe, Tillia tepe or Tillā tapa (طلا تپه) or (literally "Golden Hill" or "Golden Mound") is an archaeological site in the northern Afghanistan province of Jowzjan near Sheberghan, excavated in 1978 by a Soviet-Afghan team led by the Greek-Russian archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi, a year before the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
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Tocharians
The Tocharians or Tokharians were Indo-European peoples who inhabited the medieval oasis city-states on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China) in ancient times.
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Transoxiana
Transoxiana (also spelled Transoxania), known in Arabic sources as (– 'what beyond the river') and in Persian as (فرارود, —'beyond the river'), is the ancient name used for the portion of Central Asia corresponding approximately with modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan.
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Triratna
The Triratna (Pāḷi: tiratana) is a Buddhist symbol, thought to visually represent the Three Jewels of Buddhism (the Buddha, the Dharma, the Sangha).
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Turin City Museum of Ancient Art
The Turin City Museum of Ancient Art (Italian: Museo civico d'arte antica) is a museum located in the Palazzo Madama palace, in Turin, Italy.
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Ujjain
Ujjain is the largest city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.
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Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (IAST: Uttar Pradeś) is a state in northern India.
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Valmiki
Valmiki (Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि, Vālmīki) is celebrated as the harbinger-poet in Sanskrit literature.
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Vanaspara
Vanaspara (ruled circa 130 CE) was an Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap (kshtrapa).
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Victor H. Mair
Victor Henry Mair (born March 25, 1943) is an American Sinologist and professor of Chinese at the University of Pennsylvania.
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Vijayamitra
Vijayamitra (ruled 12 BCE - 20 CE) was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas in Bajaur, western Pakistan.
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Vijayasena
Vijayasena (reigned 238-250) was a Saka ruler of the Western Satraps in India during the 2nd century CE He was one of 4 sons of Damasena that ascended to the throne.
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Vikram Samvat
Vikram Samvat (विक्रम सम्वत्, विक्रम सम्वत्) (abbreviated as V.S. (or VS) or B.S. (or BS))) (also called the Bikrami calendar or sometimes just Hindu calendar) is the historical Hindu calendar of India and Nepal. It uses lunar months and solar sidereal years. It is used as the official calendar in Nepal.
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Vikramaditya
Vikramaditya (IAST) was a legendary emperor of ancient India.
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Vispavarma
Vispavarma or Visnuvarma (ruled circa 0-20 CE) was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas, who ruled in the area of Bajaur in modern northwestern Pakistan.
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Vonones of Indo-Scythia
Vonones was an Indo-Scythian king who ruled in Sakastan and Arachosia from ca.
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Weer Rajendra Rishi
Weer Rajendra Rishi (1917 – 2002, Rishi Roma) was an Indian linguist, diplomatic translator, and Romani studies scholar.
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Western Satraps
The Western Satraps, Western Kshatrapas, or Kshaharatas (35–405 CE) were Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India (Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states).
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Wusun
The Wusun were an Indo-European semi-nomadic steppe people mentioned in Chinese records from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.
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Xinjiang
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى; SASM/GNC: Xinjang Uyĝur Aptonom Rayoni; p) is a provincial-level autonomous region of China in the northwest of the country.
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Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were a confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Asian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD.
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Yasodaman II
Yasodhaman II (317–332) was a son and probably sub-king of king Rudrasimha II of the Western Satraps He declared on his coins to be the son of Rudrasimha II.
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Yona
The word Yona in Pali and the Prakrits, and the analogue "Yavana" in Sanskrit, are words used in Ancient India to designate Greek speakers.
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Yuezhi
The Yuezhi or Rouzhi were an ancient people first reported in Chinese histories as nomadic pastoralists living in an arid grassland area in the western part of the modern Chinese province of Gansu, during the 1st millennium BC.
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Yuga Purana
The Yuga Purana is a Sanskrit text and the last chapter of a Jyotisha (astrology) text Vriddhagargiya Samhita.
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Zeionises
Zeionises was an Indo-Scythian satrap of the area of southern Chach (Kashmir) for king Azes II.
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Zeus
Zeus (Ζεύς, Zeús) is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion, who rules as king of the gods of Mount Olympus.
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Zhang Qian
Zhang Qian (d. 113) was a Chinese official and diplomat who served as an imperial envoy to the world outside of China in the 2nd century BC, during the time of the Han dynasty.
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Redirects here:
Indian Invasion of Scythian Tribes, Indo-Scythian, Indo-scythians, Invasion of India by Scythian Tribes, Ksaharatas, Kshaharatas, Shaka invasion of India.
References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Scythians
