Table of Contents
228 relations: A. J. Aitken, Abstand and ausbau languages, Afrikaans, Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language, Americanah, Ana Castillo, Arabic, Aramaic, Arawakan languages, Balkans, Bashkirs, Benelux, Bilingual sign, Blackmail, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza, Bosnian language, Brain asymmetry, Breakup of Yugoslavia, Calque, Catalan language, Chicano, Chicano literature, Child prodigy, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Chinese language, Chinese people, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Code-switching, Cognition, Cognitive flexibility, Communication accommodation theory, Connotation, Cormac McCarthy, Creole language, Critical period hypothesis, Croatian language, Cultural diversity, Culture of Latin America, Curaçao, Czech language, Czechoslovak language, Czechoslovakia, Danish language, Dementia, Diglossia, Digraphia, Diversity (business), Dravidian languages, Dreaming of Words, Dutch language, ... Expand index (178 more) »
- Neurolinguistics
- Sociology of language
A. J. Aitken
Adam Jack Aitken (19 June 1921 – 11 February 1998) was a Scottish lexicographer and leading scholar of the Scots language.
See Multilingualism and A. J. Aitken
Abstand and ausbau languages
In sociolinguistics, an abstand language is a language variety or cluster of varieties with significant linguistic distance from all others, while an ausbau language is a standard variety, possibly with related dependent varieties.
See Multilingualism and Abstand and ausbau languages
Afrikaans
Afrikaans is a West Germanic language, spoken in South Africa, Namibia and (to a lesser extent) Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
See Multilingualism and Afrikaans
Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language
Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language (ABSL) is a village sign language used by about 150 deaf and many hearing members of the al-Sayyid Bedouin tribe in the Negev desert of southern Israel.
See Multilingualism and Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language
Americanah
Americanah is a 2013 novel by the Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, for which Adichie won the 2013 U.S. National Book Critics Circle Award for fiction.
See Multilingualism and Americanah
Ana Castillo
Ana Castillo (born June 15, 1953) is a Chicana novelist, poet, short story writer, essayist, editor, playwright, translator and independent scholar.
See Multilingualism and Ana Castillo
Arabic
Arabic (اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ, or عَرَبِيّ, or) is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world.
See Multilingualism and Arabic
Aramaic
Aramaic (ˀərāmiṯ; arāmāˀiṯ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, southeastern Anatolia, Eastern Arabia and the Sinai Peninsula, where it has been continually written and spoken in different varieties for over three thousand years.
See Multilingualism and Aramaic
Arawakan languages
Arawakan (Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper), also known as Maipurean (also Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre), is a language family that developed among ancient indigenous peoples in South America.
See Multilingualism and Arawakan languages
Balkans
The Balkans, corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions.
See Multilingualism and Balkans
Bashkirs
The Bashkirs or Bashkurts (Başqorttar,; Башкиры) are a Kipchak-Bulgar Turkic ethnic group indigenous to Russia.
See Multilingualism and Bashkirs
Benelux
The Benelux Union (Benelux Unie; Union Benelux; Benelux-Unioun) or Benelux is a politico-economic union and formal international intergovernmental cooperation of three neighbouring states in Western Europe: Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
See Multilingualism and Benelux
Bilingual sign
A bilingual sign (or, by extension, a multilingual sign) is the representation on a panel (sign, usually a traffic sign, a safety sign, an informational sign) of texts in more than one language.
See Multilingualism and Bilingual sign
Blackmail
Blackmail is a criminal act of coercion using a threat.
See Multilingualism and Blackmail
Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza
Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza is a 1987 semi-autobiographical work by Gloria E. Anzaldúa that examines the Chicano and Latino experience through the lens of issues such as gender, identity, race, and colonialism.
See Multilingualism and Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza
Bosnian language
Bosnian (bosanski / босански), sometimes referred to as Bosniak language, is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian pluricentric language mainly used by ethnic Bosniaks.
See Multilingualism and Bosnian language
Brain asymmetry
In human neuroanatomy, brain asymmetry can refer to at least two quite distinct findings.
See Multilingualism and Brain asymmetry
Breakup of Yugoslavia
After a period of political and economic crisis in the 1980s, the constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia split apart, but the unresolved issues caused a series of inter-ethnic Yugoslav Wars.
See Multilingualism and Breakup of Yugoslavia
Calque
In linguistics, a calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation.
See Multilingualism and Calque
Catalan language
Catalan (or; autonym: català), known in the Valencian Community and Carche as Valencian (autonym: valencià), is a Western Romance language.
See Multilingualism and Catalan language
Chicano
Chicano (masculine form) or Chicana (feminine form) is an ethnic identity for Mexican Americans who have a non-Anglo self-image, embracing their Mexican Native ancestry.
See Multilingualism and Chicano
Chicano literature
Chicano literature is an aspect of Mexican-American literature that emerged from the cultural consciousness developed in the Chicano Movement.
See Multilingualism and Chicano literature
Child prodigy
A child prodigy is a person under the age of ten who produces meaningful work in some domain at the level of an adult expert.
See Multilingualism and Child prodigy
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (born 15 September 1977) is a Nigerian author who is regarded as a central figure in postcolonial feminist literature.
See Multilingualism and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
Chinese language
Chinese is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China.
See Multilingualism and Chinese language
Chinese people
The Chinese people, or simply Chinese, are people or ethnic groups identified with China, usually through ethnicity, nationality, citizenship, or other affiliation.
See Multilingualism and Chinese people
Chinese University of Hong Kong
The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) is a public research university in Sha Tin, New Territories, Hong Kong.
See Multilingualism and Chinese University of Hong Kong
Code-switching
In linguistics, code-switching or language alternation occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation or situation. Multilingualism and code-switching are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and Code-switching
Cognition
Cognition is the "mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses".
See Multilingualism and Cognition
Cognitive flexibility
Cognitive flexibility is an intrinsic property of a cognitive system often associated with the mental ability to adjust its activity and content, switch between different task rules and corresponding behavioral responses, maintain multiple concepts simultaneously and shift internal attention between them.
See Multilingualism and Cognitive flexibility
Communication accommodation theory
Communication accommodation theory (CAT) is a theory of communication, developed by Howard Giles, concerning "(1) the behavioral changes that people make to attune their communication to their partner, (2) the extent to which people perceive their partner as appropriately attuning to them".
See Multilingualism and Communication accommodation theory
Connotation
A connotation is a commonly understood cultural or emotional association that any given word or phrase carries, in addition to its explicit or literal meaning, which is its denotation.
See Multilingualism and Connotation
Cormac McCarthy
Cormac McCarthy (born Charles Joseph McCarthy Jr.; July 20, 1933 – June 13, 2023) was an American writer who authored twelve novels, two plays, five screenplays, and three short stories, spanning the Western and postapocalyptic genres.
See Multilingualism and Cormac McCarthy
Creole language
A creole language, or simply creole, is a stable natural language that develops from the process of different languages simplifying and mixing into a new form (often a pidgin), and then that form expanding and elaborating into a full-fledged language with native speakers, all within a fairly brief period.
See Multilingualism and Creole language
Critical period hypothesis
The critical period hypothesis is a theory within the field of linguistics and second language acquisition that claims a person can only achieve native-like fluency in a language before a certain age. Multilingualism and critical period hypothesis are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and Critical period hypothesis
Croatian language
Croatian (hrvatski) is the standardised variety of the Serbo-Croatian pluricentric language mainly used by Croats.
See Multilingualism and Croatian language
Cultural diversity
Cultural diversity is the quality of diverse or different cultures, as opposed to monoculture.
See Multilingualism and Cultural diversity
Culture of Latin America
The Culture of Latin America is the formal or informal expression of the people of Latin America and includes both high culture (literature and high art) and popular culture (music, folk art, and dance), as well as religion and other customary practices.
See Multilingualism and Culture of Latin America
Curaçao
Curaçao (or, or, Papiamentu), officially the Country of Curaçao (Land Curaçao; Papiamentu: Pais Kòrsou), is a Lesser Antilles island in the southern Caribbean Sea, specifically the Dutch Caribbean region, about north of Venezuela.
See Multilingualism and Curaçao
Czech language
Czech (čeština), historically also known as Bohemian (lingua Bohemica), is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group, written in Latin script.
See Multilingualism and Czech language
Czechoslovak language
The Czechoslovak language (jazyk československý, Československý jazyk) was a political sociolinguistic concept used in Czechoslovakia in 1920–1938 for the definition of the state language of the country which proclaimed its independence as the republic of two nations, i.e. ethnic groups, Czechs and Slovaks.
See Multilingualism and Czechoslovak language
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia (Czech and Československo, Česko-Slovensko) was a landlocked state in Central Europe, created in 1918, when it declared its independence from Austria-Hungary.
See Multilingualism and Czechoslovakia
Danish language
Danish (dansk, dansk sprog) is a North Germanic language from the Indo-European language family spoken by about six million people, principally in and around Denmark.
See Multilingualism and Danish language
Dementia
Dementia is a syndrome associated with many neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by a general decline in cognitive abilities that affects a person's ability to perform everyday activities.
See Multilingualism and Dementia
Diglossia
In linguistics, diglossia is a situation in which two dialects or languages are used (in fairly strict compartmentalization) by a single language community.
See Multilingualism and Diglossia
Digraphia
In sociolinguistics, digraphia refers to the use of more than one writing system for the same language.
See Multilingualism and Digraphia
Diversity (business)
Diversity, in a business context, is hiring and promoting employees from a variety of different backgrounds and identities.
See Multilingualism and Diversity (business)
Dravidian languages
The Dravidian languages (sometimes called Dravidic) are a family of languages spoken by 250 million people, mainly in southern India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan, with pockets elsewhere in South Asia.
See Multilingualism and Dravidian languages
Dreaming of Words
Dreaming of Words is a 2021 Indian documentary film directed and produced by Nandan.
See Multilingualism and Dreaming of Words
Dutch language
Dutch (Nederlands.) is a West Germanic language, spoken by about 25 million people as a first language and 5 million as a second language and is the third most spoken Germanic language.
See Multilingualism and Dutch language
Dutch people
The Dutch (Dutch) are an ethnic group native to the Netherlands.
See Multilingualism and Dutch people
Eastern Herzegovinian dialect
The Eastern Herzegovinian dialect (Serbo-Croatian: istočnohercegovački / источнохерцеговачки) is the most widespread subdialect of the Shtokavian dialect of Serbo-Croatian, both by territory and the number of speakers.
See Multilingualism and Eastern Herzegovinian dialect
Ecclesiastical Latin
Ecclesiastical Latin, also called Church Latin or Liturgical Latin, is a form of Latin developed to discuss Christian thought in Late antiquity and used in Christian liturgy, theology, and church administration to the present day, especially in the Catholic Church.
See Multilingualism and Ecclesiastical Latin
Economics of language
The economics of language is an emerging field of study concerning a range of topics such as the effect of language skills on income and trade, the costs and benefits of language planning options, the preservation of minority languages, etc.
See Multilingualism and Economics of language
EF English Proficiency Index
The EF English Proficiency Index (EF EPI) attempts to rank countries by the equity of English language skills amongst those adults who took the EF test.
See Multilingualism and EF English Proficiency Index
Empathy
Empathy is generally described as the ability to take on another's perspective, to understand, feel, and possibly share and respond to their experience.
See Multilingualism and Empathy
Ems Ukaz
The Ems Ukaz or Ems Ukase (Emsskiy ukaz; Ems'kyy ukaz), was an internal decree (ukaz) of Emperor Alexander II of Russia issued on banning the use of the Ukrainian language in print except for reprinting old documents.
See Multilingualism and Ems Ukaz
English in computing
The English language is sometimes described as the lingua franca of computing.
See Multilingualism and English in computing
English language
English is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, whose speakers, called Anglophones, originated in early medieval England on the island of Great Britain.
See Multilingualism and English language
English-only movement
The English-only movement, also known as the Official English movement, is a political movement that advocates for the exclusive use of the English language in official United States government communication through the establishment of English as the only official language in the United States.
See Multilingualism and English-only movement
Eponym
An eponym is a person, a place, or a thing after whom or for which someone or something is, or is believed to be, named.
See Multilingualism and Eponym
Ethnic groups in Europe
Europeans are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the states of Europe.
See Multilingualism and Ethnic groups in Europe
Europe
Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere.
See Multilingualism and Europe
European Day of Languages
The European Day of Languages is observed on 26 September, as proclaimed by the Council of Europe on 6 December 2001, at the end of the European Year of Languages (2001), which had been jointly organised by the Council of Europe and the European Union. Multilingualism and European Day of Languages are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and European Day of Languages
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe.
See Multilingualism and European Union
Executive functions
In cognitive science and neuropsychology, executive functions (collectively referred to as executive function and cognitive control) are a set of cognitive processes that are necessary for the cognitive control of behavior: selecting and successfully monitoring behaviors that facilitate the attainment of chosen goals.
See Multilingualism and Executive functions
Farrar, Straus and Giroux
Farrar, Straus and Giroux (FSG) is an American book publishing company, founded in 1946 by Roger Williams Straus Jr. and John C. Farrar.
See Multilingualism and Farrar, Straus and Giroux
Finland
Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe.
See Multilingualism and Finland
Finnish language
Finnish (endonym: suomi or suomen kieli) is a Finnic language of the Uralic language family, spoken by the majority of the population in Finland and by ethnic Finns outside of Finland.
See Multilingualism and Finnish language
First language
A first language (L1), native language, native tongue, or mother tongue is the first language a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. Multilingualism and first language are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and First language
Framing effect (psychology)
The framing effect is a cognitive bias in which people decide between options based on whether the options are presented with positive or negative connotations.
See Multilingualism and Framing effect (psychology)
François Grosjean
François Grosjean is a Professor Emeritus and former Director of the Language and Speech Processing Laboratory at the University of Neuchâtel (Switzerland).
See Multilingualism and François Grosjean
Frisia
Frisia is a cross-border cultural region in Northwestern Europe.
See Multilingualism and Frisia
Frisian languages
The Frisian languages are a closely related group of West Germanic languages, spoken by about 400,000 Frisian people, who live on the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany.
See Multilingualism and Frisian languages
German language
German (Standard High German: Deutsch) is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official or co-official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and the Italian province of South Tyrol.
See Multilingualism and German language
Giannina Braschi
Giannina Braschi (born February 5, 1953) is a Puerto Rican poet, novelist, dramatist, and scholar.
See Multilingualism and Giannina Braschi
Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti
Giuseppe Gasparo Mezzofanti (17 September 1774 – 15 March 1849) was an Italian cardinal known for being a hyperpolyglot.
See Multilingualism and Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti
Gloria E. Anzaldúa
Gloria Evangelina Anzaldúa (September 26, 1942 – May 15, 2004) was an American scholar of Chicana feminism, cultural theory, and queer theory.
See Multilingualism and Gloria E. Anzaldúa
Gloss (annotation)
A gloss is a brief notation, especially a marginal or interlinear one, of the meaning of a word or wording in a text.
See Multilingualism and Gloss (annotation)
Grammar
In linguistics, a grammar is the set of rules for how a natural language is structured, as demonstrated by its speakers or writers.
See Multilingualism and Grammar
Greek language
Greek (Elliniká,; Hellēnikḗ) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus, Italy (in Calabria and Salento), southern Albania, and other regions of the Balkans, the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor, and the Eastern Mediterranean.
See Multilingualism and Greek language
Guillermo Gómez-Peña
Guillermo Gómez-Peña is a Mexican/Chicano performance artist, writer, activist, and educator.
See Multilingualism and Guillermo Gómez-Peña
Half of a Yellow Sun
Half of a Yellow Sun is a novel by Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie.
See Multilingualism and Half of a Yellow Sun
Hebrew language
Hebrew (ʿÎbrit) is a Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic language family.
See Multilingualism and Hebrew language
Helsinki slang
Helsinki slang or ('Helsinki's slang', from Swedish stad, 'city'; see etymology) is a local dialect and a sociolect of the Finnish language mainly used in the capital city of Helsinki.
See Multilingualism and Helsinki slang
Huichol
The Huichol or Wixárika are an indigenous people of Mexico and the United States living in the Sierra Madre Occidental range in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Durango, as well as in the United States in the states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas.
See Multilingualism and Huichol
Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli
Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli (born 2 February 1964) is a Greek linguist and Chair of English and Applied Linguistics at the University of Cambridge.
See Multilingualism and Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli
Idiom
An idiom is a phrase or expression that usually presents a figurative, non-literal meaning attached to the phrase.
Igbo language
Igbo (Standard Igbo: Ásụ̀sụ́ Ìgbò) is the principal native language cluster of the Igbo people, an ethnicity in the Southeastern part of Nigeria.
See Multilingualism and Igbo language
Immigration
Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not usual residents or where they do not possess nationality in order to settle as permanent residents.
See Multilingualism and Immigration
India
India, officially the Republic of India (ISO), is a country in South Asia.
Intelligence quotient
An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from a set of standardised tests or subtests designed to assess human intelligence.
See Multilingualism and Intelligence quotient
Interlinguistics
Interlinguistics, also known as cosmoglottics, is the science of planned languages as it has existed for more than a century.
See Multilingualism and Interlinguistics
International Journal of Bilingualism
The International Journal of Bilingualism is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers in the field of linguistics.
See Multilingualism and International Journal of Bilingualism
Internationalization and localization
In computing, internationalization and localization (American) or internationalisation and localisation (British), often abbreviated i18n and l10n respectively, are means of adapting computer software to different languages, regional peculiarities and technical requirements of a target locale.
See Multilingualism and Internationalization and localization
Italian language
Italian (italiano,, or lingua italiana) is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire.
See Multilingualism and Italian language
Japan
Japan is an island country in East Asia, located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asian mainland.
Jared Diamond
Jared Mason Diamond (born September 10, 1937) is an American scientist, historian, and author.
See Multilingualism and Jared Diamond
Jargon
Jargon or technical language is the specialized terminology associated with a particular field or area of activity.
See Multilingualism and Jargon
Jewish languages
Jewish languages are the various languages and dialects that developed in Jewish communities in the diaspora.
See Multilingualism and Jewish languages
Joseph Brodsky
Iosif Aleksandrovich Brodsky (Иосиф Александрович Бродский; 24 May 1940 – 28 January 1996) was a Russian and American poet and essayist.
See Multilingualism and Joseph Brodsky
Kannada
Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), formerly also known as Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states.
See Multilingualism and Kannada
Language
Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary.
See Multilingualism and Language
Language acquisition
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language.
See Multilingualism and Language acquisition
Language acquisition device
The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a claim from language acquisition research proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1960s. Multilingualism and language acquisition device are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and Language acquisition device
Language attrition
Language attrition is the process of decreasing proficiency in or losing a language.
See Multilingualism and Language attrition
Language contact
Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or varieties interact with and influence each other.
See Multilingualism and Language contact
Language legislation in Belgium
This article outlines the legislative chronology concerning the use of official languages in Belgium.
See Multilingualism and Language legislation in Belgium
Language transfer
Language transfer is the application of linguistic features from one language to another by a bilingual or multilingual speaker.
See Multilingualism and Language transfer
Languages of the European Union
The European Union (EU) has 24 official languages, of which threeEnglish, French and Germanhave the status of "procedural" languages of the European Commission (whereas the European Parliament accepts all official languages as working languages).
See Multilingualism and Languages of the European Union
Latino literature
Latino literature is literature written by people of Latin American ancestry, often but not always in English, most notably by Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, and Dominican Americans, many of whom were born in the United States.
See Multilingualism and Latino literature
Latino poetry
Latino poetry is a branch of American poetry written by poets born or living in the United States who are of Latin American origin or descent and whose roots are tied to the Americas and their languages, cultures, and geography.
See Multilingualism and Latino poetry
Lingua franca
A lingua franca (for plurals see), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups of people who do not share a native language or dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from both of the speakers' native languages.
See Multilingualism and Lingua franca
Linguapax Prize
The International Linguapax Award is awarded annually on International Mother Language Day (21 February) by Linguapax (Linguapax International) "which recognises and awards the actions carried out in different areas in favour of the preservation of linguistic diversity, revitalization and reactivation of linguistic communities and the promotion of multilingualism".
See Multilingualism and Linguapax Prize
Linguistic relativity
The idea of linguistic relativity, known also as the Whorf hypothesis, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, is a principle suggesting that the structure of a language influences its speakers' worldview or cognition, and thus individuals' languages determine or influence their perceptions of the world.
See Multilingualism and Linguistic relativity
Linguistic rights
Linguistic rights are the human and civil rights concerning the individual and collective right to choose the language or languages for communication in a private or public atmosphere.
See Multilingualism and Linguistic rights
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
See Multilingualism and Linguistics
List of countries and territories where English is an official language
The following is a list of countries and territories where English is an official language used in citizen interactions with government officials.
See Multilingualism and List of countries and territories where English is an official language
List of countries and territories where French is an official language
French is an official language in 32 independent nations which is the second most geographically widespread official language in the world after English.
See Multilingualism and List of countries and territories where French is an official language
List of countries and territories where German is an official language
The following is a list of the countries and territories where German is an official language (also known as the Germanosphere).
See Multilingualism and List of countries and territories where German is an official language
List of European Commission portfolios
A portfolio in the European Commission is an area of responsibility assigned to a European Commissioner, usually connected to one or several Directorates-General (DGs).
See Multilingualism and List of European Commission portfolios
List of languages by number of native speakers
Human languages ranked by their number of native speakers are as follows.
See Multilingualism and List of languages by number of native speakers
List of multilingual countries and regions
This is an incomplete list of areas with either multilingualism at the community level or at the personal level.
See Multilingualism and List of multilingual countries and regions
Logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning.
Lusatia
Lusatia (Łużyce, Łužica, Łužyca, Lužice) is a historical region in Central Europe, territorially split between Germany and modern-day Poland.
See Multilingualism and Lusatia
Macaronic language
Macaronic language is any expression using a mixture of languages, particularly bilingual puns or situations in which the languages are otherwise used in the same context (rather than simply discrete segments of a text being in different languages).
See Multilingualism and Macaronic language
Malayalam
Malayalam is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people.
See Multilingualism and Malayalam
Malays (ethnic group)
Malays (Orang Melayu, Jawi) are an Austronesian ethnoreligious group native to eastern Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and coastal Borneo, as well as the smaller islands that lie between these locations.
See Multilingualism and Malays (ethnic group)
Malaysia
Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia.
See Multilingualism and Malaysia
Martha's Vineyard
Martha's Vineyard, often simply called the Vineyard, is an island in the U.S. state of Massachusetts, lying just south of Cape Cod.
See Multilingualism and Martha's Vineyard
Martha's Vineyard Sign Language
Martha's Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL) was a village sign-language that was once widely used on the island of Martha's Vineyard from the early 18th century to 1952.
See Multilingualism and Martha's Vineyard Sign Language
Mayan languages
The Mayan languagesIn linguistics, it is conventional to use Mayan when referring to the languages, or an aspect of a language.
See Multilingualism and Mayan languages
Metatypy
Metatypy is a type of morphosyntactic and semantic language change brought about by language contact involving multilingual speakers.
See Multilingualism and Metatypy
Michael Erard
Michael Erard (born 27 December 1967) is an American non-fiction writer and journalist.
See Multilingualism and Michael Erard
Middle High German
Middle High German (MHG; Mittelhochdeutsch (Mhdt., Mhd.)) is the term for the form of German spoken in the High Middle Ages.
See Multilingualism and Middle High German
Ministry of Aliyah and Integration
The Ministry of Aliyah and Integration (Ministry of Immigration and Absorption before 2017) (משרד העלייה והקליטה, Misrad HaAliyah VeHaKlita) is a ministry of the Israeli government responsible for providing assistance to immigrants.
See Multilingualism and Ministry of Aliyah and Integration
Ministry of Interior (Israel)
The Ministry of Interior (משרד הפנים, Misrad HaPnim; وزارة الداخلية) in the State of Israel is one of the government offices that is responsible for local government, citizenship and residency, identity cards, and student and entry visas.
See Multilingualism and Ministry of Interior (Israel)
Modern Standard Arabic
Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) or Modern Written Arabic (MWA) is the variety of standardized, literary Arabic that developed in the Arab world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and in some usages also the variety of spoken Arabic that approximates this written standard.
See Multilingualism and Modern Standard Arabic
Monolingualism
Monoglottism (Greek μόνος monos, "alone, solitary", + γλῶττα, "tongue, language") or, more commonly, monolingualism or unilingualism, is the condition of being able to speak only a single language, as opposed to multilingualism.
See Multilingualism and Monolingualism
Montenegrin language
Montenegrin (crnogorski, црногорски) is a normative variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Montenegrins and is the official language of Montenegro.
See Multilingualism and Montenegrin language
Multi-competence
Multi-competence is a concept in second language acquisition formulated by Vivian Cook that refers to the knowledge of more than one language in one person's mind. Multilingualism and Multi-competence are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and Multi-competence
Multilingual education
Multilingual education (MLE) typically refers to "first-language-first" education, that is, schooling which begins in the mother tongue, or first language, and transitions to additional languages.
See Multilingualism and Multilingual education
Multilingual education in Africa
Multilingual education in Africa is an outlook on how to approach teaching students in the different states in Africa considering the different possible languages to use for instruction.
See Multilingualism and Multilingual education in Africa
Multilingualism and globalization
Globalization has had major effects on the spread and ascribed value of multilingualism.
See Multilingualism and Multilingualism and globalization
Multilingualism in Luxembourg
Multilingualism is a part of everyday life for the population of Luxembourg.
See Multilingualism and Multilingualism in Luxembourg
Muteness
In human development, muteness or mutism is defined as an absence of speech, with or without an ability to hear the speech of others.
See Multilingualism and Muteness
Mutual intelligibility
In linguistics, mutual intelligibility is a relationship between languages or dialects in which speakers of different but related varieties can readily understand each other without prior familiarity or special effort.
See Multilingualism and Mutual intelligibility
Nahuatl
Nahuatl, Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family.
See Multilingualism and Nahuatl
Neil Smith (linguist)
Neilson Voyne Smith FBA (born 1939, died 16 November 2023), known as Neil Smith, was Emeritus Professor of Linguistics at University College London. He wrote his PhD (1964) on the grammar of Nupe, a language of Nigeria. Since then his research has encompassed theoretical syntax, language acquisition, the savant syndrome, and general linguistic theory, particularly the work of Noam Chomsky.
See Multilingualism and Neil Smith (linguist)
Njattyela Sreedharan
Njattyela Sreedharan (ഞാറ്റ്യേല ശ്രീധരൻ; born in 1938) is a lexicographer from Thalassery in Kerala.
See Multilingualism and Njattyela Sreedharan
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American professor and public intellectual known for his work in linguistics, political activism, and social criticism.
See Multilingualism and Noam Chomsky
Non-convergent discourse
A non-convergent discourse (NCD) is a discourse in which the participants do not converge in their language, which results in the use of different languages.
See Multilingualism and Non-convergent discourse
Non-English-based programming languages
Non-English-based programming languages are programming languages that do not use keywords taken from or inspired by English vocabulary.
See Multilingualism and Non-English-based programming languages
Occitan language
Occitan (occitan), also known as (langue d'oc) by its native speakers, sometimes also referred to as Provençal, is a Romance language spoken in Southern France, Monaco, Italy's Occitan Valleys, as well as Spain's Val d'Aran in Catalonia; collectively, these regions are sometimes referred to as Occitania.
See Multilingualism and Occitan language
Official bilingualism in Canada
The official languages of Canada are English and French, which "have equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all institutions of the Parliament and Government of Canada," according to Canada's constitution.
See Multilingualism and Official bilingualism in Canada
Official multilingualism
Official multilingualism is the policy adopted by some states of recognizing multiple languages as official and producing all official documents, and handling all correspondence and official dealings, including court procedure, in these languages.
See Multilingualism and Official multilingualism
One person, one language
The “one person, one language” approach is a popular method adopted by parents attempting to raise simultaneous bilingual children. Multilingualism and one person, one language are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and One person, one language
Open-mindedness
Open-mindedness is receptiveness to new ideas.
See Multilingualism and Open-mindedness
Papiamento
Papiamento or Papiamentu (Papiaments) is a Portuguese-based creole language spoken in the Dutch Caribbean.
See Multilingualism and Papiamento
Persian language
Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi (Fārsī|), is a Western Iranian language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian subdivision of the Indo-European languages.
See Multilingualism and Persian language
Pidgin
A pidgin, or pidgin language, is a grammatically simplified means of communication that develops between two or more groups of people that do not have a language in common: typically, its vocabulary and grammar are limited and often drawn from several languages.
See Multilingualism and Pidgin
Pluricentric language
A pluricentric language or polycentric language is a language with several codified standard forms, often corresponding to different countries.
See Multilingualism and Pluricentric language
Plurilingualism
Plurilingualism is the ability of a person who has competence in more than one language to switch between multiple languages depending on the situation for ease of communication. Multilingualism and Plurilingualism are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and Plurilingualism
Political correctness
"Political correctness" (adjectivally "politically correct"; commonly abbreviated to P.C.) is a term used to describe language, policies, or measures that are intended to avoid offense or disadvantage to members of particular groups in society.
See Multilingualism and Political correctness
Portuguese language
Portuguese (português or, in full, língua portuguesa) is a Western Romance language of the Indo-European language family originating from the Iberian Peninsula of Europe.
See Multilingualism and Portuguese language
Postcolonial feminism
Postcolonial feminism is a form of feminism that developed as a response to feminism focusing solely on the experiences of women in Western cultures and former colonies.
See Multilingualism and Postcolonial feminism
Productivity software
Productivity software (also called personal productivity software or office productivity software) is application software used for producing information (such as documents, presentations, worksheets, databases, charts, graphs, digital paintings, electronic music and digital video).
See Multilingualism and Productivity software
Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the way in which a word or a language is spoken.
See Multilingualism and Pronunciation
Puberty
Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction.
See Multilingualism and Puberty
Purple Hibiscus
Purple Hibiscus is a novel written by the Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie.
See Multilingualism and Purple Hibiscus
Regional language
* A regional language is a language spoken in a region of a sovereign state, whether it be a small area, a federated state or province or some wider area.
See Multilingualism and Regional language
Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of persuasion.
See Multilingualism and Rhetoric
Rod Ellis
Rod Ellis is a Kenneth W. Mildenberger Prize-winning British linguist.
See Multilingualism and Rod Ellis
Routledge
Routledge is a British multinational publisher.
See Multilingualism and Routledge
Russian language
Russian is an East Slavic language, spoken primarily in Russia.
See Multilingualism and Russian language
Russians
Russians (russkiye) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe.
See Multilingualism and Russians
Sandra Cisneros
Sandra Cisneros (born December 20, 1954) is an American writer.
See Multilingualism and Sandra Cisneros
Savant syndrome
Savant syndrome is a phenomenon where someone demonstrates exceptional aptitude in one domain, such as art or mathematics, despite significant social or intellectual impairment.
See Multilingualism and Savant syndrome
Scandinavia
Scandinavia is a subregion of Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples.
See Multilingualism and Scandinavia
Scots language
ScotsThe endonym for Scots is Scots.
See Multilingualism and Scots language
Second language
A second language (L2) is a language spoken in addition to one's first language (L1).
See Multilingualism and Second language
Second-generation immigrants in the United States
Second-generation immigrants in the United States are individuals born and raised in the United States who have at least one foreign-born parent.
See Multilingualism and Second-generation immigrants in the United States
Sequential bilingualism
Sequential bilingualism occurs when a person becomes bilingual by first learning one language and then another. Multilingualism and Sequential bilingualism are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and Sequential bilingualism
Serbian language
Serbian (српски / srpski) is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs.
See Multilingualism and Serbian language
Serbo-Croatian
Serbo-Croatian – also called Serbo-Croat, Serbo-Croat-Bosnian (SCB), Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian (BCS), and Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian (BCMS) – is a South Slavic language and the primary language of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro.
See Multilingualism and Serbo-Croatian
Shtokavian
Shtokavian or Štokavian (štokavski / штокавски) is the prestige supradialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and the basis of its Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin standards.
See Multilingualism and Shtokavian
Simultaneous bilingualism
Simultaneous bilingualism is a form of bilingualism that takes place when a child becomes bilingual by learning two languages from birth. Multilingualism and Simultaneous bilingualism are language acquisition.
See Multilingualism and Simultaneous bilingualism
Singapore
Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia.
See Multilingualism and Singapore
Singlish
Singlish (a portmanteau of Singapore and English); formally known as Colloquial Singaporean English, is an English-based creole language originating in Singapore.
See Multilingualism and Singlish
Slang
A slang is a vocabulary (words, phrases, and linguistic usages) of an informal register, common in everyday conversation but avoided in formal writing.
Slovak language
Slovak (endonym: slovenčina or slovenský jazyk), is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group, written in Latin script.
See Multilingualism and Slovak language
Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on language and the ways it is used.
See Multilingualism and Sociolinguistics
Sorbian languages
The Sorbian languages (serbska rěč, serbska rěc) are the Upper Sorbian language and Lower Sorbian language, two closely related and partially mutually intelligible languages spoken by the Sorbs, a West Slavic ethno-cultural minority in the Lusatia region of Eastern Germany.
See Multilingualism and Sorbian languages
South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia.
See Multilingualism and South Korea
South Slavic languages
The South Slavic languages are one of three branches of the Slavic languages.
See Multilingualism and South Slavic languages
Spanglish
Spanglish (a portmanteau of the words "Spanish" and "English") is any language variety (such as a contact dialect, hybrid language, pidgin, or creole language) that results from conversationally combining Spanish and English.
See Multilingualism and Spanglish
Spanish language in the United States
Spanish is the second most spoken language in the United States.
See Multilingualism and Spanish language in the United States
Standard language
A standard language (or standard variety, standard dialect, standardized dialect or simply standard) is a language variety that has undergone substantial codification of its grammar, lexicon, writing system, or other features and stands out among other varieties in a community as the one with the highest status or prestige.
See Multilingualism and Standard language
Stephen Krashen
Stephen D. Krashen (born May 14, 1941) is an American linguist, educational researcher and activist, who is Emeritus Professor of Education at the University of Southern California.
See Multilingualism and Stephen Krashen
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa, Subsahara, or Non-Mediterranean Africa is the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara.
See Multilingualism and Sub-Saharan Africa
Swedish language
Swedish (svenska) is a North Germanic language from the Indo-European language family, spoken predominantly in Sweden and in parts of Finland.
See Multilingualism and Swedish language
Tamil language
Tamil (தமிழ்) is a Dravidian language natively spoken by the Tamil people of South Asia.
See Multilingualism and Tamil language
Tatar language
Tatar (татар теле, tatar tele or татарча, tatarça) is a Turkic language spoken by the Volga Tatars mainly located in modern Tatarstan (European Russia), as well as Siberia and Crimea.
See Multilingualism and Tatar language
Tatars
The Tatars, in the Collins English Dictionary formerly also spelt Tartars, is an umbrella term for different Turkic ethnic groups bearing the name "Tatar" across Eastern Europe and Asia. Initially, the ethnonym Tatar possibly referred to the Tatar confederation. That confederation was eventually incorporated into the Mongol Empire when Genghis Khan unified the various steppe tribes.
See Multilingualism and Tatars
Tatarstan
Tatarstan (Татарстан; Татарстан), officially the Republic of Tatarstan, sometimes also called Tataria, is a republic of Russia located in Eastern Europe.
See Multilingualism and Tatarstan
Telugu language
Telugu (తెలుగు|) is a Dravidian language native to the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, where it is also the official language.
See Multilingualism and Telugu language
The Hanen Centre
The Hanen Centre is a not-for-profit registered charitable organization, based in Toronto, Canada.
See Multilingualism and The Hanen Centre
The House on Mango Street
The House on Mango Street is a 1984 novel by Mexican-American author Sandra Cisneros.
See Multilingualism and The House on Mango Street
The Multilingual Library
The Multilingual Library in Oslo, Norway (Det flerspråklige bibliotek) is a competence centre for multicultural library services, and acts as an advisor to libraries.
See Multilingualism and The Multilingual Library
The World Until Yesterday
The World Until Yesterday: What Can We Learn from Traditional Societies? is a 2012 popular science book by Jared Diamond.
See Multilingualism and The World Until Yesterday
Tifinagh
Tifinagh (Tuareg Berber language:; Neo-Tifinagh:; Berber Latin alphabet: Tifinaɣ) is a script used to write the Berber languages.
See Multilingualism and Tifinagh
Translanguaging
Translanguaging is a term that can refer to different aspects of multilingualism.
See Multilingualism and Translanguaging
Troika (Julia Kogan album)
Troika: Russia's westerly poetry in three orchestral song cycles is a 2011 album of contemporary classical songs performed by soprano Julia Kogan, who also conceived the project.
See Multilingualism and Troika (Julia Kogan album)
Trolley problem
The trolley problem is a series of thought experiments in ethics, psychology and artificial intelligence involving stylized ethical dilemmas of whether to sacrifice one person to save a larger number.
See Multilingualism and Trolley problem
Tsar
Tsar (also spelled czar, tzar, or csar; tsar; tsar'; car) is a title historically used by Slavic monarchs.
Ukrainian language
Ukrainian (label) is an East Slavic language of the Indo-European language family spoken primarily in Ukraine.
See Multilingualism and Ukrainian language
United States
The United States of America (USA or U.S.A.), commonly known as the United States (US or U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America.
See Multilingualism and United States
Vivian Cook (linguist)
Prof.
See Multilingualism and Vivian Cook (linguist)
Vladimir Nabokov
Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov (Владимир Владимирович Набоков; 2 July 1977), also known by the pen name Vladimir Sirin (Владимир Сирин), was a Russian-American novelist, poet, translator, and entomologist.
See Multilingualism and Vladimir Nabokov
Vocabulary
A vocabulary (also known as a lexicon) is a set of words, typically the set in a language or the set known to an individual.
See Multilingualism and Vocabulary
Vulgar Latin
Vulgar Latin, also known as Popular or Colloquial Latin, is the range of non-formal registers of Latin spoken from the Late Roman Republic onward.
See Multilingualism and Vulgar Latin
Web browser
A web browser is an application for accessing websites.
See Multilingualism and Web browser
Wiley (publisher)
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., commonly known as Wiley, is an American multinational publishing company that focuses on academic publishing and instructional materials.
See Multilingualism and Wiley (publisher)
World population
In world demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living.
See Multilingualism and World population
Yiddish
Yiddish (ייִדיש, יידיש or אידיש, yidish or idish,,; ייִדיש-טײַטש, historically also Yidish-Taytsh) is a West Germanic language historically spoken by Ashkenazi Jews.
See Multilingualism and Yiddish
Yle
Yleisradio Oy (Rundradion Ab), abbreviated as Yle (formerly styled in all uppercase until 2012), translated into English as the Finnish Broadcasting Company, is Finland's national public broadcasting company, founded in 1926.
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia (Југославија; Jugoslavija; Југославија) was a country in Southeast and Central Europe that existed from 1918 to 1992.
See Multilingualism and Yugoslavia
2020 Summer Olympics
The officially the and officially branded as were an international multi-sport event held from 23 July to 8 August 2021 in Tokyo, Japan, with some preliminary events that began on 21 July 2021.
See Multilingualism and 2020 Summer Olympics
See also
Neurolinguistics
- Aphasiology
- Bi-directional hypothesis of language and action
- Bilingual interactive activation plus
- Body part as object
- Broca's area
- Clinical linguistics
- Cohort model
- Dyscravia
- Early left anterior negativity
- Expressive aphasia
- Jabberwocky sentence
- Language center
- Language module
- Language processing in the brain
- Mismatch negativity
- Motor theory of speech perception
- Multilingualism
- N400 (neuroscience)
- Neurolinguistics
- P600 (neuroscience)
- Prediction in language comprehension
- Receptive aphasia
- Wernicke's area
- Wernicke–Geschwind model
Sociology of language
- Ethnolinguistic group
- Language preservation
- Multilingualism
- Sociology of language
- Spanish language in science and technology
References
Also known as Ambilingual, Ambilingualism, Balanced bilingualism, Bi-lingual, Bilangual, Bilingual, Bilingualism, Bilingualness, Bilinguals, Equilingualism, Hyperglot, Hyperpolyglot, Language plurality, M17n, Multi- lingual, Multi-lingual, Multi-lingualism, Multilanguage, Multilingual, Multilingual computer-mediated communication, Multilingual computer-mediated interaction, Multilingual language, Multilingual person, Multilinguality, Multilinguism, Multiple languages, Myths about multilingualism, New speaker, Polyglot, Polyglot (person), Polyglotism, Polyglottism, Polylingual, Quadrilingual, Trilingual, Trilingualism.
, Dutch people, Eastern Herzegovinian dialect, Ecclesiastical Latin, Economics of language, EF English Proficiency Index, Empathy, Ems Ukaz, English in computing, English language, English-only movement, Eponym, Ethnic groups in Europe, Europe, European Day of Languages, European Union, Executive functions, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Finland, Finnish language, First language, Framing effect (psychology), François Grosjean, Frisia, Frisian languages, German language, Giannina Braschi, Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti, Gloria E. Anzaldúa, Gloss (annotation), Grammar, Greek language, Guillermo Gómez-Peña, Half of a Yellow Sun, Hebrew language, Helsinki slang, Huichol, Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli, Idiom, Igbo language, Immigration, India, Intelligence quotient, Interlinguistics, International Journal of Bilingualism, Internationalization and localization, Italian language, Japan, Jared Diamond, Jargon, Jewish languages, Joseph Brodsky, Kannada, Language, Language acquisition, Language acquisition device, Language attrition, Language contact, Language legislation in Belgium, Language transfer, Languages of the European Union, Latino literature, Latino poetry, Lingua franca, Linguapax Prize, Linguistic relativity, Linguistic rights, Linguistics, List of countries and territories where English is an official language, List of countries and territories where French is an official language, List of countries and territories where German is an official language, List of European Commission portfolios, List of languages by number of native speakers, List of multilingual countries and regions, Logic, Lusatia, Macaronic language, Malayalam, Malays (ethnic group), Malaysia, Martha's Vineyard, Martha's Vineyard Sign Language, Mayan languages, Metatypy, Michael Erard, Middle High German, Ministry of Aliyah and Integration, Ministry of Interior (Israel), Modern Standard Arabic, Monolingualism, Montenegrin language, Multi-competence, Multilingual education, Multilingual education in Africa, Multilingualism and globalization, Multilingualism in Luxembourg, Muteness, Mutual intelligibility, Nahuatl, Neil Smith (linguist), Njattyela Sreedharan, Noam Chomsky, Non-convergent discourse, Non-English-based programming languages, Occitan language, Official bilingualism in Canada, Official multilingualism, One person, one language, Open-mindedness, Papiamento, Persian language, Pidgin, Pluricentric language, Plurilingualism, Political correctness, Portuguese language, Postcolonial feminism, Productivity software, Pronunciation, Puberty, Purple Hibiscus, Regional language, Rhetoric, Rod Ellis, Routledge, Russian language, Russians, Sandra Cisneros, Savant syndrome, Scandinavia, Scots language, Second language, Second-generation immigrants in the United States, Sequential bilingualism, Serbian language, Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian, Simultaneous bilingualism, Singapore, Singlish, Slang, Slovak language, Sociolinguistics, Sorbian languages, South Korea, South Slavic languages, Spanglish, Spanish language in the United States, Standard language, Stephen Krashen, Sub-Saharan Africa, Swedish language, Tamil language, Tatar language, Tatars, Tatarstan, Telugu language, The Hanen Centre, The House on Mango Street, The Multilingual Library, The World Until Yesterday, Tifinagh, Translanguaging, Troika (Julia Kogan album), Trolley problem, Tsar, Ukrainian language, United States, Vivian Cook (linguist), Vladimir Nabokov, Vocabulary, Vulgar Latin, Web browser, Wiley (publisher), World population, Yiddish, Yle, Yugoslavia, 2020 Summer Olympics.