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A Is for Atom

A Is for Atom is a 14-minute 1953 promotional animated short documentary film created by John Sutherland and sponsored by General Electric (GE).

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A Short History of Nearly Everything

A Short History of Nearly Everything by American author Bill Bryson is a popular science book that explains some areas of science, using easily accessible language that appeals more so to the general public than many other books dedicated to the subject.

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A value

The A-value for a methyl group is 1.74 as derived from the chemical equilibrium above. This means it costs 1.74 kcal/mol of energy to have a methyl group in the axial position compared to the equatorial position. A-Values are numerical values used in the determination of the most stable orientation of atoms in a molecule (Conformational Analysis), as well as a general representation of steric bulk.

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Absolute configuration

An absolute configuration refers to the spatial arrangement of the atoms of a chiral molecular entity (or group) and its stereochemical description e.g. R or S, referring to Rectus, or Sinister, respectively.

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Absorption (chemistry)

In chemistry, absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules or ions enter some bulk phase – liquid or solid material.

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Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)

In physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the way in which the energy of a photon is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom.

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Absorption band

According to quantum mechanics, atoms and molecules can only hold certain defined quantities of energy, or exist in specific states.

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Absorption spectroscopy

Absorption spectroscopy refers to spectroscopic techniques that measure the absorption of radiation, as a function of frequency or wavelength, due to its interaction with a sample.

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Abundance of the chemical elements

The abundance of the chemical elements is a measure of the occurrence of the chemical elements relative to all other elements in a given environment.

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Achim Müller

Achim Müller (born 14 February 1938 in Detmold, Germany) is a German scientist.

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Acid salt

Acid salt is a class of salts that produces an acidic solution after being dissolved in a solvent.

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Acoustic metamaterial

An acoustic metamaterial is a material designed to control, direct, and manipulate sound waves as these might occur in gases, liquids, and solids.

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Acrylate

Acrylates are the salts, esters, and conjugate bases of acrylic acid and its derivatives.

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Adatom

An adatom is an atom that lies on a crystal surface, and can be thought of as the opposite of a surface vacancy.

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Adparticle

An adparticle is an atom, molecule, or cluster of atoms or molecules that lies on a crystal surface.

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AdS/CFT correspondence

In theoretical physics, the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence, sometimes called Maldacena duality or gauge/gravity duality, is a conjectured relationship between two kinds of physical theories.

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AdS/CMT correspondence

In theoretical physics, anti-de Sitter/condensed matter theory correspondence is the program to apply string theory to condensed matter theory using the AdS/CFT correspondence.

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Adsorption

Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved solid to a surface.

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Air–fuel ratio meter

An air–fuel ratio meter monitors the air–fuel ratio of an internal combustion engine.

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Ajiva

Ajiva (Sanskrit) is anything that has no soul or life, the polar opposite of "jīva" (soul).

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Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics).

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Albert Paul Weiss

Albert Paul Weiss (September 15, 1879 – April 3, 1931) was a German American behavioral psychologist, theorist, scientist, and experimentalist.

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Alchemy

Alchemy is a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practiced throughout Europe, Africa, Brazil and Asia.

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Aldose

An aldose is a monosaccharide (a simple sugar) with a carbon backbone chain with a carbonyl group on the endmost carbon atom, making it an aldehyde, and hydroxyl groups connected to all the other carbon atoms.

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Alexander Crum Brown

Alexander Crum Brown FRSE FRS (26 March 1838 – 28 October 1922) was a Scottish organic chemist.

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Alexander William Williamson

Alexander William Williamson FRS (1 May 18246 May 1904) was an English chemist of Scottish descent.

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Alfred Kastler

Alfred Kastler (3 May 1902 – 7 January 1984) was a French physicist, and Nobel Prize laureate.

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Alfred Landé

Alfred Landé (13 December 1888 – 30 October 1976) was a German-American physicist known for his contributions to quantum theory.

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Alfred Lauck Parson

Alfred Lauck Parson (October 24, 1889 – January 1, 1970) was a British chemist and physicist, whose "magneton theory" of the atom contributed to the history of chemistry.

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Algorithmic cooling

Algorithmic cooling is an algorithmic method for transferring heat (or entropy) from some qubits to others or outside the system and into the environment, which results in a cooling effect.

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ALICE experiment

ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) is one of seven detector experiments at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.

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Alkali metal

The alkali metals are a group (column) in the periodic table consisting of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K),The symbols Na and K for sodium and potassium are derived from their Latin names, natrium and kalium; these are still the names for the elements in some languages, such as German and Russian.

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Alkene

In organic chemistry, an alkene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one carbon–carbon double bond.

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Alloprotein

An alloprotein is a novel synthetic protein containing one or more "non-natural" amino acids.

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Allotropes of carbon

Carbon is capable of forming many allotropes due to its valency.

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Allotropes of phosphorus

Elemental phosphorus can exist in several allotropes, the most common of which are white and red solids.

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Allotropy

Allotropy or allotropism is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical state, known as allotropes of these elements.

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Alloy

An alloy is a combination of metals or of a metal and another element.

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Alpha and beta carbon

The alpha carbon (Cα) in organic molecules refers to the first carbon atom that attaches to a functional group, such as a carbonyl.

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Alpha decay

Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus) and thereby transforms or 'decays' into an atom with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two.

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Alpha effect

The alpha effect refers to the increased nucleophilicity of an atom due to the presence of an adjacent (alpha) atom with lone pair electrons.

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Alpha factor

The α-factor is used to predict the solid–liquid interface type of a material during solidification.

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Alpha helix

The alpha helix (α-helix) is a common motif in the secondary structure of proteins and is a righthand-spiral conformation (i.e. helix) in which every backbone N−H group donates a hydrogen bond to the backbone C.

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Alpha particle

Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus.

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Alternative medicine

Alternative medicine, fringe medicine, pseudomedicine or simply questionable medicine is the use and promotion of practices which are unproven, disproven, impossible to prove, or excessively harmful in relation to their effect — in the attempt to achieve the healing effects of medicine.--> --> --> They differ from experimental medicine in that the latter employs responsible investigation, and accepts results that show it to be ineffective. The scientific consensus is that alternative therapies either do not, or cannot, work. In some cases laws of nature are violated by their basic claims; in some the treatment is so much worse that its use is unethical. Alternative practices, products, and therapies range from only ineffective to having known harmful and toxic effects.--> Alternative therapies may be credited for perceived improvement through placebo effects, decreased use or effect of medical treatment (and therefore either decreased side effects; or nocebo effects towards standard treatment),--> or the natural course of the condition or disease. Alternative treatment is not the same as experimental treatment or traditional medicine, although both can be misused in ways that are alternative. Alternative or complementary medicine is dangerous because it may discourage people from getting the best possible treatment, and may lead to a false understanding of the body and of science.-->---> Alternative medicine is used by a significant number of people, though its popularity is often overstated.--> Large amounts of funding go to testing alternative medicine, with more than US$2.5 billion spent by the United States government alone.--> Almost none show any effect beyond that of false treatment,--> and most studies showing any effect have been statistical flukes. Alternative medicine is a highly profitable industry, with a strong lobby. This fact is often overlooked by media or intentionally kept hidden, with alternative practice being portrayed positively when compared to "big pharma". --> The lobby has successfully pushed for alternative therapies to be subject to far less regulation than conventional medicine.--> Alternative therapies may even be allowed to promote use when there is demonstrably no effect, only a tradition of use. Regulation and licensing of alternative medicine and health care providers varies between and within countries. Despite laws making it illegal to market or promote alternative therapies for use in cancer treatment, many practitioners promote them.--> Alternative medicine is criticized for taking advantage of the weakest members of society.--! Terminology has shifted over time, reflecting the preferred branding of practitioners.. Science Based Medicine--> For example, the United States National Institutes of Health department studying alternative medicine, currently named National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, was established as the Office of Alternative Medicine and was renamed the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine before obtaining its current name. Therapies are often framed as "natural" or "holistic", in apparent opposition to conventional medicine which is "artificial" and "narrow in scope", statements which are intentionally misleading. --> When used together with functional medical treatment, alternative therapies do not "complement" (improve the effect of, or mitigate the side effects of) treatment.--> Significant drug interactions caused by alternative therapies may instead negatively impact functional treatment, making it less effective, notably in cancer.--> Alternative diagnoses and treatments are not part of medicine, or of science-based curricula in medical schools, nor are they used in any practice based on scientific knowledge or experience.--> Alternative therapies are often based on religious belief, tradition, superstition, belief in supernatural energies, pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, fraud, or lies.--> Alternative medicine is based on misleading statements, quackery, pseudoscience, antiscience, fraud, and poor scientific methodology. Promoting alternative medicine has been called dangerous and unethical.--> Testing alternative medicine that has no scientific basis has been called a waste of scarce research resources.--> Critics state that "there is really no such thing as alternative medicine, just medicine that works and medicine that doesn't",--> that the very idea of "alternative" treatments is paradoxical, as any treatment proven to work is by definition "medicine".-->.

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Aluminium hydroxide

Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, is found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite) and its three much rarer polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite, and nordstrandite.

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Amafinius

Gaius Amafinius (or Amafanius) was one of the earliest Roman writers in favour of the Epicurean philosophy.

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Ambient ionization

Ambient ionization is a form of ionization in which ions are formed in an ion source outside the mass spectrometer without sample preparation or separation.

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Amedeo Avogadro

Amedeo Carlo Avogadro, Count of Quaregna and Cerreto (9 August 17769 July 1856), was an Italian scientist, most noted for his contribution to molecular theory now known as Avogadro's law, which states that equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure will contain equal numbers of molecules.

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Amine

In organic chemistry, amines are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair.

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Ammonium

The ammonium cation is a positively charged polyatomic ion with the chemical formula.

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Amnon Marinov

Amnon Marinov (1930 –2011) was born in Jerusalem in 1930 to parents who emigrated from Russia in the 1920s.

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Amorphism

An Amorphism, in chemistry, crystallography and, by extension, to other areas of the natural sciences is a substance or feature that lacks an ordered form.

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Amorphous metal

An amorphous metal (also known as metallic glass or glassy metal) is a solid metallic material, usually an alloy, with a disordered atomic-scale structure.

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Amorphous solid

In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous (from the Greek a, without, morphé, shape, form) or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal.

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AN1 zinc finger

In molecular biology, the AN1-type zinc finger domain, which has a dimetal (zinc)-bound alpha/beta fold.

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Analogy

Analogy (from Greek ἀναλογία, analogia, "proportion", from ana- "upon, according to" + logos "ratio") is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject (the analog, or source) to another (the target), or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process.

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Ananda Marga

Ánanda Márga (আনন্দ মার্গ প্রচারক সংঘ, आनंद मार्ग "The Path of Bliss", also spelled Anand Marg and Ananda Marg) or officially Ánanda Márga Pracáraka Saḿgha (organisation for the propagation of the path of bliss) is a socio-spiritual organisation and movement founded in Jamalpur, Bihar, India in 1955 by Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar.

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Andersen thermostat

The Andersen thermostat is a proposal in molecular dynamics simulation for maintaining constant temperature conditions.

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Andre Geim

Sir Andre Konstantin Geim, FRS, HonFRSC, HonFInstP (born 21 October 1958) is a Soviet-born Dutch-British physicist working in the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Manchester.

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Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison

Andrew Seth, FBA, DCL (1856, Edinburgh – 1931, The Haining, Selkirkshire), who changed his name to Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison in 1898 to fulfill the terms of a bequest, was a Scottish philosopher.

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Angular momentum

In physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum.

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Angular momentum coupling

In quantum mechanics, the procedure of constructing eigenstates of total angular momentum out of eigenstates of separate angular momenta is called angular momentum coupling.

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Angular momentum diagrams (quantum mechanics)

In quantum mechanics and its applications to quantum many-particle systems, notably quantum chemistry, angular momentum diagrams, or more accurately from a mathematical viewpoint angular momentum graphs, are a diagrammatic method for representing angular momentum quantum states of a quantum system allowing calculations to be done symbolically.

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Annulene

Annulenes are completely conjugated monocyclic hydrocarbons.

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Annus Mirabilis papers

The Annus mirabilis papers (from Latin annus mīrābilis, "extraordinary year") are the papers of Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905.

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Anode ray

An anode ray (also positive ray or canal ray) is a beam of positive ions that is created by certain types of gas-discharge tubes.

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Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array

The Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array (AMANDA) is a neutrino telescope located beneath the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station.

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Anthropic principle

The anthropic principle is a philosophical consideration that observations of the universe must be compatible with the conscious and sapient life that observes it.

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Antiferromagnetism

In materials that exhibit antiferromagnetism, the magnetic moments of atoms or molecules, usually related to the spins of electrons, align in a regular pattern with neighboring spins (on different sublattices) pointing in opposite directions.

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Antinomy

Antinomy (Greek ἀντί, antí, "against, in opposition to", and νόμος, nómos, "law") refers to a real or apparent mutual incompatibility of two laws.

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Antiparticle

In particle physics, every type of particle has an associated antiparticle with the same mass but with opposite physical charges (such as electric charge).

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Anton Zeilinger

Anton Zeilinger (born 20 May 1945) is an Austrian quantum physicist who in 2008 received the Inaugural Isaac Newton Medal of the Institute of Physics (UK) for "his pioneering conceptual and experimental contributions to the foundations of quantum physics, which have become the cornerstone for the rapidly-evolving field of quantum information".

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AP Physics B

AP Physics B was an Advanced Placement science course equivalent to a year-long introductory college course in physics.

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Appearance energy

Appearance energy (also known as appearance potential) is the minimum energy that must be supplied to a gas phase atom or molecule in order to produce an ion.

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April 1950

The following events occurred in April 1950.

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Arabinose

Arabinose is an aldopentose – a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde (CHO) functional group.

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Aristotelian physics

Aristotelian physics is a form of natural science described in the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–).

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Armchair Science

Armchair Science was a British monthly journal of topical and popular science articles published from 1929 to 1940; it ceased publication because of wartime paper shortages.

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Arrow pushing

Arrow pushing or electron pushing is a technique used to describe the progression of organic chemistry reaction mechanisms.

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Asclepiades of Bithynia

Asclepiades (Ἀσκληπιάδης; c. 124 or 129 – 40 BC), sometimes called Asclepiades of Bithynia or Asclepiades of Prusa, was a Greek physician born at Prusias-on-Sea in Bithynia in Asia Minor and who flourished at Rome, where he established Greek medicine near the end of the 2nd century BC.

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Ashʿari

Ashʿarism or Ashʿari theology (الأشعرية al-ʾAšʿarīyya or الأشاعرة al-ʾAšāʿira) is the foremost theological school of Sunni Islam which established an orthodox dogmatic guideline based on clerical authority, founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ashʿari (d. AD 936 / AH 324).

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Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology

Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology is a history of science by Isaac Asimov, written as the biographies of over 1500 scientists.

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Aspartate carbamoyltransferase

Aspartate carbamoyltransferase (also known as aspartate transcarbamoylase or ATCase) catalyzes the first step in the pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway.

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Astrochemistry

Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the Universe, and their interaction with radiation.

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Astronomy

Astronomy (from ἀστρονομία) is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena.

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Astrophysical plasma

An astrophysical plasma is a plasma (highly ionized gas) that occurs beyond the solar system.

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Asymmetric carbon

An asymmetric carbon atom (chiral carbon) is a carbon atom that is attached to four different types of atoms or groups of atoms.

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Atmosphere of Uranus

The atmosphere of Uranus is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium.

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Atom (Al Pratt)

Al Pratt is a character in the DC Comics Universe, the original hero to fight crime as the Atom.

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Atom (Asimov book)

Atom: Journey Across the Subatomic Cosmos is a non-fiction book by Isaac Asimov.

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Atom (disambiguation)

An atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of a nucleus within a cloud of one or more electrons.

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Atom (video game)

Atom is an action game published by Tandy in 1983 for the TRS-80 Color Computer.

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Atom economy

Atom economy (atom efficiency) is the conversion efficiency of a chemical process in terms of all atoms involved and the desired products produced.

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Atom interferometer

An atom interferometer is an interferometer which uses the wave character of atoms.

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Atom probe

The atom probe was introduced at the by Erwin Wilhelm Müller and J. A. Panitz.

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Atom vibrations

The atoms and ions of a crystalline lattice, which are bonded with each other with considerable inter molecular forces, are not motionless.

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Atomic

Atomic may refer to.

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Atomic Age

The Atomic Age, also known as the Atomic Era, is the period of history following the detonation of the first nuclear ("atomic") bomb, Trinity, on July 16, 1945, during World War II.

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Atomic clock

An atomic clock is a clock device that uses an electron transition frequency in the microwave, optical, or ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum of atoms as a frequency standard for its timekeeping element.

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Atomic coherence

In physics, atomic coherence is the induced coherence between levels of a multi-level atomic system sometimes observed when it interacts with a coherent electromagnetic field.

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Atomic diffusion

Vacancy diffusion is a diffusion process whereby the random thermally-activated movement of atoms in a solid results in the net transport of atoms.

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Atomic electron transition

Atomic electron transition is a change of an electron from one energy level to another within an atom or artificial atom.

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Atomic emission spectroscopy

Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a method of chemical analysis that uses the intensity of light emitted from a flame, plasma, arc, or spark at a particular wavelength to determine the quantity of an element in a sample.

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Atomic energy

Atomic energy is energy carried by atoms.

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Atomic mirror

In physics, an atomic mirror is a device which reflects neutral atoms in the similar way as a conventional mirror reflects visible light.

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Atomic nucleus

The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment.

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Atomic number

The atomic number or proton number (symbol Z) of a chemical element is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.

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Atomic orbital

In quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom.

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Atomic packing factor

In crystallography, atomic packing factor (APF), packing efficiency or packing fraction is the fraction of volume in a crystal structure that is occupied by constituent particles.

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Atomic physics

Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus.

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Atomic recoil

Atomic recoil is the result of the interaction of an atom with an energetic elementary particle, when the momentum of the interacting particle is transferred to the atom as whole without altering non-translational degrees of freedom of the atom.

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Atomic spacing

Atomic spacing refers to the distance between the nuclei of atoms in a material.

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Atomic spectroscopy

Atomic spectroscopy is the study of the electromagnetic radiation absorbed and emitted by atoms.

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Atomic theory

In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms.

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Atomic, molecular, and optical physics

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter-matter and light-matter interactions; at the scale of one or a few atoms and energy scales around several electron volts.

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Atomic-terrace low-angle shadowing

Atomic Terrace Low Angle Shadowing (ATLAS) is a surface science technique which enables the growth of planar nanowire or nanodot arrays using molecular beam epitaxy on a vicinal surface.

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Atomicity (chemistry)

Atomicity is the total number of atoms present in one molecule of an element, compound or a substance.

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Atomino

Atomino is a 1990 puzzle video game originally for the Amiga, Atari ST and MS-DOS.

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Atomism (social)

Atomism or social atomism is a sociological theory arising from the scientific notion atomic theory, coined by the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus and the Roman philosopher Lucretius.

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Atomium

The Atomium is a landmark building in Brussels, originally constructed for the 1958 Brussels World's Fair (Expo 58).

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Atomix (video game)

Atomix is a transport puzzle video game developed by Günter Krämer (as "Softtouch") and published by Thalion Software, released for the Commodore Amiga and other personal computers in late 1990.

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Atomization

Atomization or atomizer may refer to.

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Atomos

Atomos (Greek "undivided") may refer to.

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Atoms in molecules

The quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM) is a model of molecular and condensed matter electronic systems (such as crystals) in which the principal objects of molecular structure - atoms and bonds - are natural expressions of a system's observable electron density distribution function.

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Atragon

is a 1963 Japanese science fiction film produced and distributed by Toho.

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Attosecond

An attosecond is 1×10−18 of a second (one quintillionth of a second).

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Aufbau principle

The aufbau principle states that in the ground state of an atom or ion, electrons fill atomic orbitals of the lowest available energy levels before occupying higher levels.

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Auger effect

The Auger effect is a physical phenomenon in which the filling of an inner-shell vacancy of an atom is accompanied by the emission of an electron from the same atom.

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Auger electron spectroscopy

Hanford scientist uses an Auger electron spectrometer to determine the elemental composition of surfaces. Auger electron spectroscopy (AES; pronounced in French) is a common analytical technique used specifically in the study of surfaces and, more generally, in the area of materials science.

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Aurelia High School

Aurelia High School was the senior high school of Aurelia Community School.

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Autoionization

Autoionization is a process by which an atom or a molecule in an excited state spontaneously emits one of the outer-shell electrons, thus going from a state with charge to a state with charge, for example from an electrically neutral state to a singly ionized state.

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Aviation electronics technician (United States Navy)

Aviation electronics technician (AT) is a US Navy enlisted rating or job specialty (often called MOS or AFSC by other services).

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Avogadro constant

In chemistry and physics, the Avogadro constant (named after scientist Amedeo Avogadro) is the number of constituent particles, usually atoms or molecules, that are contained in the amount of substance given by one mole.

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Azacosterol

Azacosterol (INN), or azacosterol hydrochloride (USAN) (brand name Ornitrol), also known as 20,25-diazacholesterol, is a cholesterol-lowering drug (hypocholesteremic) which was marketed previously but has since been discontinued. It is also an avian chemosterilant used to control the pest pigeon population via inducing sterility. The drug is a sterol and derivative of cholesterol in which two carbon atoms have been replaced with nitrogen atoms. Azacosterol acts as an inhibitor of 24-dehydrocholesterol reductase (24-DHCR), preventing the formation of cholesterol from desmosterol. Although it primarily acts to inhibit 24-DHCR, the drug also inhibits other steps in cholesterol biosynthesis. The anti-fertility effects of the drug in birds are mediated by inhibition of steroid hormone production, steroid hormones being synthesized from cholesterol. Due to prevention of the metabolism of desmosterol, the drug causes it to accumulate, in turn producing side effects such as hyperkeratosis, particularly of the palms and soles.

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Ångström

The ångström or angstrom is a unit of length equal to (one ten-billionth of a metre) or 0.1 nanometre.

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Ball-and-stick model

In chemistry, the ball-and-stick model is a molecular model of a chemical substance which is to display both the three-dimensional position of the atoms and the bonds between them.

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Ballistic electron emission microscopy

Ballistic electron emission microscopy or BEEM is a technique for studying ballistic electron transport through a variety of materials and material interfaces.

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Banana equivalent dose

Banana equivalent dose (BED) is an informal measurement of ionizing radiation exposure, intended as a general educational example to compare a dose of radioactivity to the dose one is exposed to by eating one average-sized banana.

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Bang Goes the Theory

Bang Goes the Theory or Bang was a British television science magazine series, co-produced by the BBC and the Open University, that began on 27 July 2009 and ended on 5 May 2014 on BBC One.

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Banknotes of Denmark, 1997 series

Danmarks Nationalbank issues banknotes of the Danish Krone (kr.) and has replaced the 1997 banknote series as of 24 May 2011.

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Barry Schuler

Barry Martin Schuler (born September 7, 1953 in Jersey City, New Jersey) is an American Internet entrepreneur and former chairman and CEO of America Online Inc. He is best known for leading the AOL team that simplified the online service provider’s user interface, making it possible for millions of consumers to gain easy access to the Internet.

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Barry Simon

Barry Martin Simon (born 16 April 1946) is an American mathematical physicist and the IBM Professor of Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at Caltech, known for his prolific contributions in spectral theory, functional analysis, and nonrelativistic quantum mechanics (particularly Schrödinger operators), including the connections to atomic and molecular physics.

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Baryon

A baryon is a composite subatomic particle made up of three quarks (a triquark, as distinct from mesons, which are composed of one quark and one antiquark).

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Basic aromatic ring

Basic aromatic rings are aromatic rings in which the lone pair of electrons of a ring-nitrogen atom is not part of the aromatic system and extends in the plane of the ring.

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Bead Game

Bead Game (French: Histoire de perles) is a 1977 animated short film by Ishu Patel, created by arranging beads into the shapes of real and mythical creatures, who absorb and devour one another, thus, evolving into scenes of modern human warfare.

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Being Digital

Being Digital is a non-fiction book about digital technologies and their possible future by technology author Nicholas Negroponte.

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Benorterone

Benorterone, also known by its developmental code name SKF-7690 and as 17α-methyl-B-nortestosterone, is an steroidal antiandrogen which was studied for potential medical use but was never marketed.

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Bent's rule

In chemistry, Bent's rule describes and explains the relationship between the orbital hybridization of central atoms in molecules and the electronegativities of substituents.

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Benzofuran

Benzofuran is the heterocyclic compound consisting of fused benzene and furan rings.

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Benzoxazole

Benzoxazole is an aromatic organic compound with a molecular formula C7H5NO, a benzene-fused oxazole ring structure, and an odor similar to pyridine.

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BESS (experiment)

BESS is a particle physics experiment carried by a balloon.

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Bicarbonate

In inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate (IUPAC-recommended nomenclature: hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid.

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Bifunctional

In organic chemistry, when a single organic molecule has two different functional groups, it is called bifunctional.

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Big Bang

The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution.

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Big Rip

In physical cosmology, the Big Rip is a hypothetical cosmological model concerning the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the matter of the universe, from stars and galaxies to atoms and subatomic particles, and even spacetime itself, is progressively torn apart by the expansion of the universe at a certain time in the future.

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Bill Nye the Science Guy

Bill Nye the Science Guy is an American half-hour live action science program that originally aired on PBS from September 10, 1993 to June 20, 1998 and was also syndicated by Walt Disney Television to local stations.

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Binary collision approximation

The binary collision approximation (BCA) signifies a method used in ion irradiation physics to enable efficient computer simulation of the penetration depth and defect production by energetic (with kinetic energies in the kilo-electronvolt (keV) range or higher) ions in solids.

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Binding energy

Binding energy (also called separation energy) is the minimum energy required to disassemble a system of particles into separate parts.

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Bioleaching

Bioleaching is the extraction of metals from their ores through the use of living organisms.

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Biological network

A biological network is any network that applies to biological systems.

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Biological organisation

Biological organization is the hierarchy of complex biological structures and systems that define life using a reductionistic approach.

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Biomolecular structure

Biomolecular structure is the intricate folded, three-dimensional shape that is formed by a molecule of protein, DNA, or RNA, and that is important to its function.

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Black

Black is the darkest color, the result of the absence or complete absorption of visible light.

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Black Box (game)

Black Box is an abstract board game for one or two players, which simulates shooting rays into a black box to deduce the locations of "atoms" hidden inside.

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Bohr model

In atomic physics, the Rutherford–Bohr model or Bohr model or Bohr diagram, introduced by Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford in 1913, depicts the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus—similar to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic forces rather than gravity.

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Bohr radius

The Bohr radius (a0 or rBohr) is a physical constant, approximately equal to the most probable distance between the nucleus and the electron in a hydrogen atom in its ground state.

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Boltzmann's entropy formula

In statistical mechanics, Boltzmann's equation is a probability equation relating the entropy S of an ideal gas to the quantity W, the number of real microstates corresponding to the gas' macrostate: where kB is the Boltzmann constant (also written as simply k) and equal to 1.38065 × 10−23 J/K.

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Bond length

In molecular geometry, bond length or bond distance is the average distance between nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule.

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Bond order

Bond order is the number of chemical bonds between a pair of atoms.

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Bond order potential

Bond order potential is a class of empirical (analytical) interatomic potentials which is used in molecular dynamics and molecular statics simulations.

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Borabenzene

A borabenzene is a heteroaromatic compound that has a boron atom instead of the carbon atom of a benzene molecule.

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Borazine

Borazine is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula (BH)3(NH)3.

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Borophene

Borophene is a proposed crystalline allotrope of boron.

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Boson

In quantum mechanics, a boson is a particle that follows Bose–Einstein statistics.

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Bound state

In quantum physics, a bound state is a special quantum state of a particle subject to a potential such that the particle has a tendency to remain localised in one or more regions of space.

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Boyle's law

Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law) is an experimental gas law that describes how the pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of the container decreases.

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Bragg's law

In physics, Bragg's law, or Wulff–Bragg's condition, a special case of Laue diffraction, gives the angles for coherent and incoherent scattering from a crystal lattice.

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Branches of physics

Physics deals with the combination of matter and energy.

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Branches of science

The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, "scientific fields", or "scientific disciplines" are commonly divided into three major groups.

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Bravais lattice

In geometry and crystallography, a Bravais lattice, named after, is an infinite array of discrete points in three dimensional space generated by a set of discrete translation operations described by: where ni are any integers and ai are known as the primitive vectors which lie in different directions and span the lattice.

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BTX (chemistry)

In the petroleum refining and petrochemical industries, the initialism BTX refers to mixtures of benzene, toluene, and the three xylene isomers, all of which are aromatic hydrocarbons.

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Butane

Butane is an organic compound with the formula C4H10 that is an alkane with four carbon atoms.

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Butene

Butene, also known as butylene, is a series of alkenes with the general formula C4H8.

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Butyl group

In organic chemistry, butyl is a four-carbon alkyl radical or substituent group with general chemical formula −C4H9, derived from either of the two isomers of butane.

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C parity

In physics, the C parity or charge parity is a multiplicative quantum number of some particles that describes their behavior under the symmetry operation of charge conjugation.

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Cacodylic acid

Cacodylic acid is the chemical compound with the formula (CH3)2AsO2H.

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Caesium standard

The caesium standard is a primary frequency standard in which electronic transitions between the two hyperfine ground states of caesium-133 atoms are used to control the output frequency.

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California NanoSystems Institute

The California NanoSystems Institute (CNSI) is an integrated research center operating jointly at UCLA and UC Santa Barbara.

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Calmodulin in target binding and recognition

Calmodulin (CaM) is a versatile protein involved in almost every cellular process, including apoptosis, metabolism, smooth muscle contraction, learning and memory formation, inflammation and immune response.

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Carbenium ion

A carbenium ion is a positive ion with the structure RR′R″C+, that is, a chemical species with a trivalent carbon that bears a +1 formal charge.

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Carbocation

A carbocation (/karbɔkətaɪː'jɔ̃/) is an ion with a positively charged carbon atom.

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Carbohydrate

A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (where m may be different from n).

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Carbohydrate conformation

Carbohydrate conformation refers to the overall three-dimensional structure adopted by a carbohydrate (saccharide) molecule as a result of the through-bond and through-space physical forces it experiences arising from its molecular structure.

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Carbohydrate-binding module

In molecular biology, a carbohydrate-binding module (CBM) is a protein domain found in carbohydrate-active enzymes (for example glycoside hydrolases).

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Carbon

Carbon (from carbo "coal") is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6.

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Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide (chemical formula) is a colorless gas with a density about 60% higher than that of dry air.

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Carbon fibers

Carbon fibers or carbon fibres (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fibre) are fibers about 5–10 micrometers in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms.

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Carbon group

The carbon group is a periodic table group consisting of carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and flerovium (Fl).

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Carbon nanofiber

Carbon nanofibers (CNFs), vapor grown carbon fibers (VGCFs), or vapor grown carbon nanofibers (VGCNFs) are cylindrical nanostructures with graphene layers arranged as stacked cones, cups or plates.

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Carbon nanofoam

Carbon nanofoam is an allotrope of carbon discovered in 1997 by Andrei V. Rode and co-workers at the Australian National University in Canberra.

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Carbon tetrachloride

Carbon tetrachloride, also known by many other names (the most notable being tetrachloromethane, also recognized by the IUPAC, carbon tet in the cleaning industry, Halon-104 in firefighting, and Refrigerant-10 in HVACR) is an organic compound with the chemical formula CCl4.

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Carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance

Carbon-13 (C13)nuclear magnetic resonance (most commonly known as carbon-13 NMR or 13C NMR or sometimes simply referred to as carbon NMR) is the application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to carbon.

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Carbon–carbon bond

A carbon–carbon bond is a covalent bond between two carbon atoms.

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Carbonyl alpha-substitution reactions

Alpha-substitution reactions occur at the position next to the carbonyl group, the α-position, and involve the substitution of an α hydrogen atom by an electrophile, E, through either an enol or enolate ion intermediate.

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Carbonyl group

In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C.

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Carisoprodol

Carisoprodol, marketed under the brand name Soma among others, is a prescription drug marketed since 1959.

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Carminite

Carminite (PbFe3+2(AsO4)2(OH)2http://pubsites.uws.edu.au/ima-cnmnc) is an anhydrous arsenate mineral containing hydroxyl.

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Catalan Institute of Nanotechnology

The Catalan Institute of Nanotechnology (ICN) (NanoCAT or Institut Català de Nanotecnologia) was established in 2003, at the initiative of the Catalan government and the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Catalonia, with the aim of attracting international research talent to create a world renowned centre for nanoscience and nanotechnology research.

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Catalytic distillation

Catalytic distillation is a branch of reactive distillation which combines the processes of distillation and catalysis to selectively separate mixtures within solutions.

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Catenation

In chemistry, catenation is the bonding of atoms of the same element into a series, called a chain.

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Cathode ray

Cathode rays (also called an electron beam or e-beam) are streams of electrons observed in vacuum tubes.

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Catholic Church and evolution

Early contributions to biology were made by Catholic scientists such as Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and the Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel.

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Cavity quantum electrodynamics

Cavity quantum electrodynamics (cavity QED) is the study of the interaction between light confined in a reflective cavity and atoms or other particles, under conditions where the quantum nature of light photons is significant.

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Cellocidin

Cellocidin (2-butynediamide) is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C4H4O2N2.

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Center for Nanotechnology in Society

The Center for Nanotechnology in Society at the University of California at Santa Barbara (CNS-UCSB) is funded by the National Science Foundation and "serves as a national research and education center, a network hub among researchers and educators concerned with societal issues concerning nanotechnologies, and a resource base for studying these issues in the US and abroad." The CNS-UCSB began its operations in January 2006.

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Certified Health Physicist

Certified Health Physicist is an official title granted by the, the certification board for health physicists in the United States.

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Chain reaction

A chain reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place.

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Chandrasekhar limit

The Chandrasekhar limit is the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star.

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Characteristic X-ray

Characteristic X-rays are emitted when outer-shell electrons fill a vacancy in the inner shell of an atom, releasing X-rays in a pattern that is "characteristic" to each element.

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Charge density

In electromagnetism, charge density is a measure of the amount of electric charge per unit length, surface area, or volume.

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Charged particle

In physics, a charged particle is a particle with an electric charge.

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Charles Galton Darwin

Sir Charles Galton Darwin, KBE, MC, FRS (18 December 1887 – 31 December 1962) was an English physicist who served as director of the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) during the Second World War.

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ChEBI

Chemical Entities of Biological Interest, also known as ChEBI, is a database and ontology of molecular entities focused on 'small' chemical compounds, that is part of the Open Biomedical Ontologies effort.

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Chemi-ionization

Chemi-ionization is the formation of an ion through the reaction of a gas phase atom or molecule with an atom or molecule in an excited state while also creating new bonds.

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Chemical affinity

In chemical physics and physical chemistry, chemical affinity is the electronic property by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds.

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Chemical bond

A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds.

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Chemical change

Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, called chemical synthesis or, alternatively, chemical decomposition into two or more different substances.

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Chemical composition

Chemical composition refers to the identity and relative number of the chemical elements that make up any particular compound.

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Chemical compound

A chemical compound is a chemical substance composed of many identical molecules (or molecular entities) composed of atoms from more than one element held together by chemical bonds.

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Chemical database

A chemical database is a database specifically designed to store chemical information.

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Chemical element

A chemical element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (that is, the same atomic number, or Z).

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Chemical formula

A chemical formula is a way of presenting information about the chemical proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound or molecule, using chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, commas and plus (+) and minus (−) signs.

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Chemical physics

Chemical physics is a subdiscipline of chemistry and physics that investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics.

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Chemical reaction

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.

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Chemical structure

A chemical structure determination includes a chemist's specifying the molecular geometry and, when feasible and necessary, the electronic structure of the target molecule or other solid.

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Chemical thermodynamics

Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.

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Chemically modified electrode

A chemically modified electrode (CME) is an electrical conductor (material that has the ability to transfer electricity) that has its surface modified for different electrochemical functions.

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Chemist

A chemist (from Greek chēm (ía) alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchimista) is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry.

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Chemistry

Chemistry is the scientific discipline involved with compounds composed of atoms, i.e. elements, and molecules, i.e. combinations of atoms: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other compounds.

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Chemistry: A Volatile History

Chemistry: A Volatile History is a 2010 BBC documentary on the history of chemistry presented by Jim Al-Khalili.

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Chicken wire (chemistry)

In chemistry the term chicken wire is used in different contexts.

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Chloride

The chloride ion is the anion (negatively charged ion) Cl−.

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Chlorine-37

Chlorine-37, or, is one of the stable isotopes of chlorine, the other being chlorine-35.

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Chloroprene

Chloroprene is the common name for the organic compound 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene, which has the formula CH2.

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Christiaan Huygens

Christiaan Huygens (Hugenius; 14 April 1629 – 8 July 1695) was a Dutch physicist, mathematician, astronomer and inventor, who is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time and a major figure in the scientific revolution.

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Chronology of the universe

The chronology of the universe describes the history and future of the universe according to Big Bang cosmology.

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Churchill College, Cambridge

Churchill College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England.

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Cimetidine

Cimetidine, sold under the brand name Tagamet among others, is a histamine H2 receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production.

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Circling: 1978-1987

Circling: 1978-1987 (Krugovanje) is a 1993 poetry collection by the Serbian-American poet Dejan Stojanović (1959).

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Classical mechanics

Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of machinery, and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars and galaxies.

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Classical physics

Classical physics refers to theories of physics that predate modern, more complete, or more widely applicable theories.

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Claude Cohen-Tannoudji

Claude Cohen-Tannoudji (born 1 April 1933) is a French physicist.

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Clinamen

Clinamen (plural clinamina, derived from clīnāre, to incline) is the Latin name Lucretius gave to the unpredictable swerve of atoms, in order to defend the atomistic doctrine of Epicurus.

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Clock

A clock is an instrument to measure, keep, and indicate time.

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Cluster (physics)

In physics, the term clusters denotes small, multiatom particles.

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Cluster chemistry

In chemistry, a cluster is an ensemble of bound atoms or molecules that is intermediate in size between a molecule and a bulk solid.

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Coal oil

Coal oil is a shale oil obtained from the destructive distillation of cannel coal, mineral wax, or bituminous shale, once used widely for illumination.

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Coastline paradox

The coastline paradox is the counterintuitive observation that the coastline of a landmass does not have a well-defined length.

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Coat of arms of Kharkiv

The Coat of arms of Kharkiv is the official coat of arms of both Kharkiv city and Kharkiv Oblast.

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Cobalt

Cobalt is a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27.

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Coherence (physics)

In physics, two wave sources are perfectly coherent if they have a constant phase difference and the same frequency, and the same waveform.

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Cold Big Bang

Cold Big Bang is a designation used in cosmology to denote an absolute zero temperature at the beginning of the Universe, instead of a (hot) Big Bang.

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Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy

Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (CVAFS) is a subset of the analytical technique known as atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS).

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Collision cascade

A collision cascade (also known as a displacement cascade or a displacement spike) is a set of nearby adjacent energetic (much higher than ordinary thermal energies) collisions of atoms induced by an energetic particle in a solid or liquid.

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Collision-induced absorption and emission

In spectroscopy, collision-induced absorption and emission refers to spectral features generated by inelastic collisions of molecules in a gas.

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Collisional excitation

Collisional excitation is a process in which the kinetic energy of a collision partner is converted into the internal energy of a reactant species.

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Colloid

In chemistry, a colloid is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance.

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Comet Hyakutake

Comet Hyakutake (formally designated C/1996 B2) is a comet, discovered on 31 January 1996, that passed very close to Earth in March of that year.

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Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (formally designated D/1993 F2) was a comet that broke apart in July 1992 and collided with Jupiter in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects.

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Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3

Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 is a real-time strategy video game developed by EA Los Angeles and published by Electronic Arts.

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Complementary experiments

In physics, two experimental techniques are often called complementary if they investigate the same subject in two different ways such that two different (ideally non-overlapping) properties or aspects can be investigated.

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Composition of the human body

Body composition may be analyzed in terms of molecular type e.g., water, protein, connective tissue, fats (or lipids), hydroxylapatite (in bones), carbohydrates (such as glycogen and glucose) and DNA.

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Compressive strength

Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads tending to elongate.

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Computational chemistry

Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems.

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Conatus

In early philosophies of psychology and metaphysics, conatus (Latin for "effort; endeavor; impulse, inclination, tendency; undertaking; striving") is an innate inclination of a thing to continue to exist and enhance itself.

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Configuration entropy

In statistical mechanics, configuration entropy is the portion of a system's entropy that is related to the position of its constituent particles rather than to their velocity or momentum.

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Conjugate acid

A conjugate acid, within the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, is a species formed by the reception of a proton (H+) by a base—in other words, it is a base with a hydrogen ion added to it.

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Conjugated system

In chemistry, a conjugated system is a system of connected p-orbitals with delocalized electrons in molecules which are conventionally represented as having alternating single and multiple bonds, which in general may lower the overall energy of the molecule and increase stability.

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CONQUEST

CONQUEST is a linear scaling, or O(N), density functional theory (DFT) electronic structure code.

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Construct (philosophy)

A construct in the philosophy of science is an ideal object, where the existence of the thing may be said to depend upon a subject's mind.

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Contact area

When two objects touch, a certain portion of their surface areas will be in contact with each other.

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Contact electrification

Contact electrification was an erroneous scientific theory from the Enlightenment that attempted to account for all the sources of electric charge known at the time.

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Continuous spectrum

In physics, a continuous spectrum usually means a set of attainable values for some physical quantity (such as energy or wavelength) that is best described as an interval of real numbers, as opposed to a discrete spectrum, a set of attainable values that is discrete in the mathematical sense, where there is a positive gap between each value and the next one.

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Continuum mechanics

Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles.

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Coordinate covalent bond

A coordinate covalent bond, also known as a dative bond or coordinate bond is a kind of 2-center, 2-electron covalent bond in which the two electrons derive from the same atom.

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Coordination complex

In chemistry, a coordination complex consists of a central atom or ion, which is usually metallic and is called the coordination centre, and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions, that are in turn known as ligands or complexing agents.

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Coordination number

In chemistry, crystallography, and materials science the coordination number, also called ligancy, of a central atom in a molecule or crystal is the number of atoms, molecules or ions bonded to it.

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Coordination polymer

A coordination polymer is an inorganic or organometallic polymer structure containing metal cation centers linked by ligands.

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Copenhagen (EWTC show)

Copenhagen is the name of East West Theatre Company's theatre production of the same name; written by Michael Frayn and directed by Nermin Hamzagic.

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Copenhagen (play)

Copenhagen is a play by Michael Frayn, based on an event that occurred in Copenhagen in 1941, a meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg.

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Copper conductor

Copper has been used in electrical wiring since the invention of the electromagnet and the telegraph in the 1820s.

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Coproporphyrinogen III oxidase

Coproporphyrinogen-III oxidase, mitochondrial (abbreviated as CPOX) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CPOX gene.

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Core charge

Core charge is the effective nuclear charge experienced by an outer shell electron.

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Core electron

Core electrons are the electrons in an atom that are not valence electrons and therefore do not participate in bonding.

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Corpuscular theory of light

In optics, the corpuscular theory of light, arguably set forward by Descartes (1637) states that light is made up of small discrete particles called "corpuscles" (little particles) which travel in a straight line with a finite velocity and possess impetus.

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Correspondence principle

In physics, the correspondence principle states that the behavior of systems described by the theory of quantum mechanics (or by the old quantum theory) reproduces classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers.

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Cosmic Odyssey (documentary)

Cosmic Odyssey is a 2002 documentary television series about the cosmos, created by Avanti Pictures, narrated by William Shatner, and produced by Soapbox Entertainment for The Discovery Channel.

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Cosmic ray

Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation, mainly originating outside the Solar System and even from distant galaxies.

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Cosmic ray spallation

Cosmic ray spallation is a naturally occurring nuclear reaction causing nucleosynthesis.

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Cosmic View

"Cosmic View: The Universe in 40 Jumps" is an essay by Dutch educator Kees Boeke that combines writing and graphics to explore many levels of size and structure, from the astronomically vast to the atomically tiny.

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Cosmogenic nuclide

Cosmogenic nuclides (or cosmogenic isotopes) are rare nuclides (isotopes) created when a high-energy cosmic ray interacts with the nucleus of an in situ Solar System atom, causing nucleons (protons and neutrons) to be expelled from the atom (see cosmic ray spallation).

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Cosmology

Cosmology (from the Greek κόσμος, kosmos "world" and -λογία, -logia "study of") is the study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe.

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Cosmos: A Personal Voyage

Cosmos: A Personal Voyage is a thirteen-part television series written by Carl Sagan, Ann Druyan, and Steven Soter, with Sagan as presenter.

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Cottrell atmosphere

In materials science, the concept of the Cottrell atmosphere was introduced by Cottrell and Bilby in 1949 to explain how dislocations are pinned in some metals by carbon or nitrogen interstitials.

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Coulomb's law

Coulomb's law, or Coulomb's inverse-square law, is a law of physics for quantifying the amount of force with which stationary electrically charged particles repel or attract each other.

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Coupled cluster

Coupled cluster (CC) is a numerical technique used for describing many-body systems.

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Covalent bond

A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

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Covalent radius

The covalent radius, rcov, is a measure of the size of an atom that forms part of one covalent bond.

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Covalent radius of fluorine

The covalent radius of fluorine is a measure of the size of a fluorine atom; it is approximated at about 60 picometres.

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CPK coloring

In chemistry, the CPK coloring is a popular color convention for distinguishing atoms of different chemical elements in molecular models.

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Critical Mass (book)

Critical Mass: How One Thing Leads to Another is a non-fiction book by English chemist and physicist Philip Ball, originally published in 2004, discusses the concept of a “physics of society”.

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Critical radius

Critical radius is the minimum size that must be formed by atoms or molecules clustering together (in a gas, liquid or solid matrix) before a new-phase inclusion (a bubble, a droplet, or a solid particle) is stable and begins to grow.

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Crookes tube

A Crookes tube (also Crookes–Hittorf tube) is an early experimental electrical discharge tube, with partial vacuum, invented by English physicist William Crookes and others around 1869-1875, in which cathode rays, streams of electrons, were discovered.

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Crossed molecular beam

Crossed molecular beam experiments are chemical experiments where two beams of atoms or molecules are collided together to study the dynamics of the chemical reaction, and can detect individual reactive collisions.

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Crystal

A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions.

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Crystal field excitation

Electronic transition between two orbitals of an atom that is situated in a crystal field environment.

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Crystal growth

Crystal growth is the process where a pre-existing crystal becomes larger as more molecules or ions add in their positions in the crystal lattice.

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Crystal oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency.

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Crystal structure

In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material.

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Crystallographic database

A crystallographic database is a database specifically designed to store information about the structure of molecules and crystals.

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Crystallographic defect

Crystalline solids exhibit a periodic crystal structure.

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Crystallographic defects in diamond

Imperfections in the crystal lattice of diamond are common.

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Crystallography

Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids (see crystal structure).

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Cubane

Cubane (C8H8) is a synthetic hydrocarbon molecule that consists of eight carbon atoms arranged at the corners of a cube, with one hydrogen atom attached to each carbon atom.

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Cubical atom

The cubical atom was an early atomic model in which electrons were positioned at the eight corners of a cube in a non-polar atom or molecule.

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Culture of Egypt

The culture of Egypt has thousands of years of recorded history.

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Curie–Weiss law

The Curie–Weiss law describes the magnetic susceptibility of a ferromagnet in the paramagnetic region above the Curie point: \chi.

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Cyanocarbon

Cyanocarbons are a group of chemical compounds that contain several cyanide functional groups.

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Cyclic nucleotide

A cyclic nucleotide (cNMP) is a single-phosphate nucleotide with a cyclic bond arrangement between the sugar and phosphate groups.

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Cycloalkene

A cycloalkene or cycloolefin is a type of alkene hydrocarbon which contains a closed ring of carbon atoms, but has no aromatic character.

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Cyclobutane

Cyclobutane is a cycloalkane and organic compound with the formula (CH2)4.

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Cyclol

The cyclol hypothesis is the first structural model of a folded, globular protein.

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Cyclopropane

Cyclopropane is a cycloalkane molecule with the molecular formula C3H6, consisting of three carbon atoms linked to each other to form a ring, with each carbon atom bearing two hydrogen atoms resulting in D3h molecular symmetry.

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Cyclotron (comics)

Cyclotron is the name of two different DC Comics characters.

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Cyclotron radiation

Cyclotron radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by accelerating charged particles deflected by a magnetic field.

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Damage

Damage is any change in a thing, often a physical object, that degrades it away from its initial state.

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Dangling bond

In chemistry, a dangling bond is an unsatisfied valence on an immobilized atom.

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Dark Ages Radio Explorer

The Dark Ages Radio Explorer (DARE) mission is a proposed concept lunar orbiter intended to identify redshifted emanations from primeval hydrogen atoms just as the first stars began to emit light.

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Dark matter

Dark matter is a theorized form of matter that is thought to account for approximately 80% of the matter in the universe, and about a quarter of its total energy density.

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David E. Pritchard

David Edward Pritchard (born October 15, 1941 in New York City) is physics professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

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Davydov soliton

Davydov soliton is a quantum quasiparticle representing an excitation propagating along the protein α-helix self-trapped amide I. It is a solution of the Davydov Hamiltonian.

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Day

A day, a unit of time, is approximately the period of time during which the Earth completes one rotation with respect to the Sun (solar day).

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Dæmon (His Dark Materials)

A dæmon is a type of fictional being in the Philip Pullman fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials.

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De rerum natura

De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things) is a first-century BC didactic poem by the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius (c. 99 BC – c. 55 BC) with the goal of explaining Epicurean philosophy to a Roman audience.

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Decoupling (cosmology)

In cosmology, decoupling refers to a period in the development of the universe when different types of particles fall out of thermal equilibrium with each other.

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Defining equation (physical chemistry)

In physical chemistry, there are numerous quantities associated with chemical compounds and reactions; notably in terms of amounts of substance, activity or concentration of a substance, and the rate of reaction.

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Degree of ionization

The degree of ionization (also known as ionization yield in the literature) refers to the proportion of neutral particles, such as those in a gas or aqueous solution, that are ionized to charged particles.

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Delocalized electron

In chemistry, delocalized electrons are electrons in a molecule, ion or solid metal that are not associated with a single atom or a covalent bond.

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Delta ray

A delta ray is a secondary electron with enough energy to escape a significant distance away from the primary radiation beam and produce further ionization", and is sometimes used to describe any recoil particle caused by secondary ionization.

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Democritus

Democritus (Δημόκριτος, Dēmókritos, meaning "chosen of the people") was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe.

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Denaturation (biochemistry)

Denaturation is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose the quaternary structure, tertiary structure, and secondary structure which is present in their native state, by application of some external stress or compound such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent (e.g., alcohol or chloroform), radiation or heat.

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Density functional theory

Density functional theory (DFT) is a computational quantum mechanical modelling method used in physics, chemistry and materials science to investigate the electronic structure (principally the ground state) of many-body systems, in particular atoms, molecules, and the condensed phases.

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Deoxyribose

Deoxyribose, or more precisely 2-deoxyribose, is a monosaccharide with idealized formula H−(C.

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Derivative (chemistry)

In chemistry, a derivative is a compound that is derived from a similar compound by a chemical reaction.

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Deuterium

Deuterium (or hydrogen-2, symbol or, also known as heavy hydrogen) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen (the other being protium, or hydrogen-1).

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Dextran

Dextran is a complex branched glucan (polysaccharide made of many glucose molecules) composed of chains of varying lengths (from 3 to 2000 kilodaltons).

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Diamond color

A chemically pure and structurally perfect diamond is perfectly transparent with no hue, or color.

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Diatomic molecule

Diatomic molecules are molecules composed of only two atoms, of the same or different chemical elements.

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Dicarbon monoxide

Dicarbon monoxide (C2O) is molecule that contains two carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.

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Dichloroacetic acid

Dichloroacetic acid (DCA), sometimes called bichloroacetic acid (BCA), is the chemical compound with formula.

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Dick Tracy

Dick Tracy is an American comic strip featuring Dick Tracy (originally Plainclothes Tracy), a tough and intelligent police detective created by Chester Gould.

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Dicke effect

Dicke effect, also known as Dicke narrowing (or sometimes collisional narrowing) in spectroscopy, named after Robert H. Dicke, refers to narrowing of the Doppler broadening of a spectral line due to collisions the emitting species (usually an atom or a molecule) experiences with other particles.

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Dielectric heating

Dielectric heating, also known as electronic heating, RF (radio frequency) heating, and high-frequency heating, is the process in which a radio frequency alternating electric field, or radio wave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material.

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Diesel fuel

Diesel fuel in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines, whose fuel ignition takes place, without any spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then injection of fuel.

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Diffuse interstellar bands

Diffuse interstellar bands (DIBs) are absorption features seen in the spectra of astronomical objects in the Milky Way and other galaxies.

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Diffusion damping

In modern cosmological theory, diffusion damping, also called photon diffusion damping, is a physical process which reduced density inequalities (anisotropies) in the early universe, making the universe itself and the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) more uniform.

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Diffusionless transformation

A diffusionless transformation is a phase change that occurs without the long-range diffusion of atoms but rather by some form of cooperative, homogeneous movement of many atoms that results in a change in crystal structure.

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Dihydrogen monoxide hoax

The dihydrogen monoxide hoax involves calling water by the unfamiliar chemical name "dihydrogen monoxide" (DHMO), and listing some of water's effects in a particularly alarming manner, such as accelerating corrosion and causing suffocation.

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Dilithium

Dilithium, Li2, is a strongly electrophilic, diatomic molecule comprising two lithium atoms covalently bonded together.

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Dimethylamine

Dimethylamine is an organic compound with the formula (CH3)2NH.

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Diose

A diose is a monosaccharide containing two carbon atoms.

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Diphosphagermylene

Diphosphagermylenes are a class of compounds containing a divalent germanium atom bound to two phosphorus atoms.

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Dirac sea

The Dirac sea is a theoretical model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles with negative energy.

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Direct methods (electron microscopy)

In crystallography, direct methods is a set of techniques used for structure determination using diffraction data and a priori information.

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Discover Magazine (TV series)

Discover Magazine is a 1992-2000 documentary television series that aired on the Disney Channel from 1992-1994 and then on Discovery Channel from 1996-2000.

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Discovery and development of statins

The discovery of HMG-CoA (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA) reductase inhibitors, called statins, was a breakthrough in the prevention of hypercholesterolemia and related diseases.

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Discrete spectrum

A physical quantity is said to have a discrete spectrum if it takes only distinct values, with gaps between one value and the next.

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Discworld (world)

The Discworld is the fictional setting for all of Terry Pratchett's Discworld fantasy novels.

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Dislocation

In materials science, a dislocation or Taylor's dislocation is a crystallographic defect or irregularity within a crystal structure.

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Dispersive adhesion

Dispersive adhesion, also called adsorptive adhesion, is a mechanism for adhesion which attributes attractive forces between two materials to intermolecular interactions between molecules of each material.

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Disulfide

In chemistry, a disulfide refers to a functional group with the structure R−S−S−R′.

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Diving watch

A diving watch, also commonly referred to as a diver's or dive watch, is a watch designed for underwater diving that features, as a minimum, a water resistance greater than, the equivalent of.

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DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a thread-like chain of nucleotides carrying the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

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DNA base flipping

DNA base flipping, or nucleotide flipping, is a mechanism in which a single nucleotide base, or nucleobase, is rotated outside the nucleic acid double helix.

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Doping (semiconductor)

In semiconductor production, doping is the intentional introduction of impurities into an intrinsic semiconductor for the purpose of modulating its electrical properties.

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Doppler broadening

In atomic physics, Doppler broadening is the broadening of spectral lines due to the Doppler effect caused by a distribution of velocities of atoms or molecules.

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Doppler cooling

Doppler cooling is a mechanism that can be used to trap and slow the motion of atoms to cool a substance.

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DP code

DP is a free software package for physicists implementing ab initio linear-response TDDFT (time-dependent density functional theory) in frequency-reciprocal space and on a plane wave basis set.

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Dragon's Egg

Dragon's Egg is a 1980 hard science fiction novel by Robert L. Forward.

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Drift velocity

The drift velocity is the average velocity that a particle, such as an electron, attains in a material due to an electric field.

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Drude particle

Drude particles are model oscillators used to simulate the effects of electronic polarizability in the context of a classical molecular mechanics force field.

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Dry ice

Dry ice, sometimes referred to as "cardice" (chiefly by British chemists), is the solid form of carbon dioxide.

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DU spectrophotometer

The DU spectrophotometer or Beckman DU, introduced in 1941, was the first commercially viable scientific instrument for measuring the amount of ultraviolet light absorbed by a substance.

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Dubnium

Dubnium is a synthetic chemical element with symbol Db and atomic number 105.

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Duck Dodgers

Duck Edgar Dumas Aloysius Eoghain Dodgers is the metafictional star of a series of cartoons produced by Warner Bros., featuring Daffy Duck in the role of a science fiction hero.

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Dwingeloo 2

Dwingeloo 2 is a small irregular galaxy discovered in 1996 and located about 10 million light-years away from the Earth.

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Earth Revealed: Introductory Geology

Earth Revealed: Introductory Geology, originally titled Earth Revealed, is a 26-part video instructional series covering the processes and properties of the physical Earth, with particular attention given to the scientific theories underlying geological principles.

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Eastern philosophy

Eastern philosophy or Asian philosophy includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia including Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy which are dominant in East Asia and Vietnam, and Indian philosophy (including Buddhist philosophy) which are dominant in South Asia, Tibet and Southeast Asia.

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Edward Emily

Edward Emily (1617–1657) was an English physician and the first Harveian orator.

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Edward Haskell

Edward Fröhlich Haskell (August 24, 1906 – 1986) was a synergic scientist and integral thinker who dedicated his life to the unification of human knowledge into a single discipline.

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Edward P. Ney

Edward Purdy Ney (October 28, 1920 – July 9, 1996) was an American physicist who made major contributions to cosmic ray research, atmospheric physics, heliophysics, and infrared astronomy.

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Effective atomic number

Effective atomic number has two different meanings: one that is the effective nuclear charge of an atom, and one that calculates the average atomic number for a compound or mixture of materials.

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Effective nuclear charge

The effective nuclear charge (often symbolized as Z_ or Z^\ast) is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a polyelectronic atom.

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Elastic collision

An elastic collision is an encounter between two bodies in which the total kinetic energy of the two bodies after the encounter is equal to their total kinetic energy before the encounter.

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Elastic recoil detection

Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis (ERDA), also referred to as forward recoil scattering (or, contextually, spectrometry), is an Ion Beam Analysis technique in materials science to obtain elemental concentration depth profiles in thin films.

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Elastic scattering

Elastic scattering is a form of particle scattering in scattering theory, nuclear physics and particle physics.

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Electric charge

Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field.

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Electric dipole transition

Electric dipole transition is the dominant effect of an interaction of an electron in an atom with the electromagnetic field.

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Electric field

An electric field is a vector field surrounding an electric charge that exerts force on other charges, attracting or repelling them.

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Electrical resistivity and conductivity

Electrical resistivity (also known as resistivity, specific electrical resistance, or volume resistivity) is a fundamental property that quantifies how strongly a given material opposes the flow of electric current.

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Electricity

Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of electric charge.

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Electricity on Shabbat

Many Jews who strictly observe Shabbat (the Sabbath), especially within Orthodox Judaism, refrain from what is considered turning electricity on or off during Shabbat.

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Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope

The electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope (ESTM) is a scanning tunneling microscope that measures the structures of surfaces and electrochemical reactions in solid-liquid interfaces at atomic or molecular scales.

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Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry that studies the relationship between electricity, as a measurable and quantitative phenomenon, and identifiable chemical change, with either electricity considered an outcome of a particular chemical change or vice versa.

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Electroluminescent display

Electroluminescent Displays (ELDs) are a type of Flat panel display created by sandwiching a layer of electroluminescent material such as GaAs between two layers of conductors.

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Electromagnetic cavity

An electromagnetic cavity is a cavity that acts as a container for electromagnetic fields such as photons, in effect containing their wave function inside.

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Electromagnetic radiation

In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space-time, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy.

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Electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies.

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Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles.

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Electromigration

Electromigration is the transport of material caused by the gradual movement of the ions in a conductor due to the momentum transfer between conducting electrons and diffusing metal atoms.

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Electron

The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol or, whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge.

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Electron affinity

In chemistry and atomic physics, the electron affinity (Eea) of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy released or spent when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.

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Electron affinity (data page)

This page deals with the electron affinity as a property of isolated atoms or molecules (i.e. in the gas phase).

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Electron backscatter diffraction

Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) is a microstructural-crystallographic characterisation technique to study any crystalline or polycrystalline material.

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Electron beam ion trap

Electron beam ion trap (EBIT) is an electromagnetic bottle that produces and confines highly charged ions.

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Electron capture

Electron capture (K-electron capture, also K-capture, or L-electron capture, L-capture) is a process in which the proton-rich nucleus of an electrically neutral atom absorbs an inner atomic electron, usually from the K or L electron shell.

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Electron capture detector

An electron capture detector (ECD) is a device for detecting atoms and molecules in a gas through the attachment of electrons via electron capture ionization.

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Electron capture ionization

Electron capture ionization is the ionization of a gas phase atom or molecule by attachment of an electron to create an ion of the form A. The reaction is where the M over the arrow denotes that to conserve energy and momentum a third body is required (the molecularity of the reaction is three).

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Electron configuration

In atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical structure) in atomic or molecular orbitals.

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Electron density

Electron density is the measure of the probability of an electron being present at a specific location.

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Electron gun

An electron gun (also called electron emitter) is an electrical component in some vacuum tubes that produces a narrow, collimated electron beam that has a precise kinetic energy.

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Electron hole

In physics, chemistry, and electronic engineering, an electron hole (often simply called a hole) is the lack of an electron at a position where one could exist in an atom or atomic lattice.

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Electron interferometer

An Electron interferometer is an interferometer based on exploiting the wave character of electrons.

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Electron shell

In chemistry and atomic physics, an electron shell, or a principal energy level, may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom's nucleus.

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Electron spectroscopy

Electron spectroscopy is an analytical technique to study the electronic structure and its dynamics in atoms and molecules.

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Electron transfer

Electron transfer (ET) occurs when an electron relocates from an atom or molecule to another such chemical entity.

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Electron-longitudinal acoustic phonon interaction

Electron-longitudinal acoustic phonon interaction is an equation concerning atoms.

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Electronegativity

Electronegativity, symbol ''χ'', is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons (or electron density) towards itself.

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Electronic band structure

In solid-state physics, the electronic band structure (or simply band structure) of a solid describes the range of energies that an electron within the solid may have (called energy bands, allowed bands, or simply bands) and ranges of energy that it may not have (called band gaps or forbidden bands).

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Electronic density

In quantum mechanics, and in particular quantum chemistry, the electronic density is a measure of the probability of an electron occupying an infinitesimal element of space surrounding any given point.

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Electroscope

An electroscope is an early scientific instrument that is used to detect the presence and magnitude of electric charge on a body.

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Electrostatic induction

Electrostatic induction, also known as "electrostatic influence" or simply "influence" in Europe and Latin America, is a redistribution of electrical charge in an object, caused by the influence of nearby charges.

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Electrostatics

Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies electric charges at rest.

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Elementary particle

In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle with no substructure, thus not composed of other particles.

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Elementary reaction

An elementary reaction is a chemical reaction in which one or more chemical species react directly to form products in a single reaction step and with a single transition state.

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Eleventh grade

Eleventh grade, junior year, or grade 11 (called Year 12 in the UK) is the eleventh, and for some countries final, grade of secondary schools.

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Elliott H. Lieb

Elliott Hershel Lieb (born July 31, 1932) is an American mathematical physicist and professor of mathematics and physics at Princeton University who specializes in statistical mechanics, condensed matter theory, and functional analysis.

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Ellipsometry

Ellipsometry is an optical technique for investigating the dielectric properties (complex refractive index or dielectric function) of thin films.

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Elwood Haynes

Elwood Haynes (October 14, 1857 – April 13, 1925) was an American inventor, metallurgist, automotive pioneer, entrepreneur and industrialist.

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Emergence

In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when "the whole is greater than the sum of the parts," meaning the whole has properties its parts do not have.

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Emerging technologies

Emerging technologies are technologies that are perceived as capable of changing the status quo.

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Emission channeling

Emission channeling is an experimental technique for identifying the position of short-lived radioactive atoms in the lattice of a single crystal.

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Emission spectrum

The emission spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted due to an atom or molecule making a transition from a high energy state to a lower energy state.

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Empirical formula

In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical compound is the simplest positive integer ratio of atoms present in a compound.

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Encyclopedia (TV series)

Encyclopedia is a television series created by the HBO Network and the for-profit branch of the Children's Television Workshop (CTW) (now known as Sesame Workshop), Distinguished Productions, Inc.

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Endohedral fullerene

Endohedral fullerenes, also called endofullerenes, are fullerenes that have additional atoms, ions, or clusters enclosed within their inner spheres.

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Energetic neutral atom

Energetic neutral atom (ENA) imaging, often described as "seeing with atoms", is a technology used to create global images of otherwise invisible phenomena in the magnetospheres of planets and throughout the heliosphere, even to its outer boundary.

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Energy level

A quantum mechanical system or particle that is bound—that is, confined spatially—can only take on certain discrete values of energy.

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Energy level splitting

In quantum physics, energy level splitting of a quantum system occurs when a degenerate energy level of two or more states is split because corresponding Hamiltonian's eigenvalues become different.

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Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS, EDX, EDXS or XEDS), sometimes called energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA) or energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis (EDXMA), is an analytical technique used for the elemental analysis or chemical characterization of a sample.

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Enthalpy of vaporization

The enthalpy of vaporization, (symbol ∆Hvap) also known as the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy) that must be added to a liquid substance, to transform a quantity of that substance into a gas.

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Entropy (statistical thermodynamics)

In classical statistical mechanics, the entropy function earlier introduced by Rudolf Clausius is interpreted as statistical entropy using probability theory.

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Environmental radioactivity

Environmental radioactivity is produced by radioactive materials in the human environment.

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Enzyme kinetics

Enzyme kinetics is the study of the chemical reactions that are catalysed by enzymes.

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Epicurus

Epicurus (Ἐπίκουρος, Epíkouros, "ally, comrade"; 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded a school of philosophy now called Epicureanism.

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Episulfide

Episulfides are a class of organic compounds that contain a saturated heterocyclic ring consisting of two carbon atoms and one sulfur atom.

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Epitaxy

Epitaxy refers to the deposition of a crystalline overlayer on a crystalline substrate.

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Equipartition theorem

In classical statistical mechanics, the equipartition theorem relates the temperature of a system to its average energies.

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Ergash Karimov

Ergash Karimov (Ergash Karimov, Эргаш Каримов; Эргаш Каримов) (October 26, 1935 – August 4, 2009) was an Uzbek stage actor who received critical acclaim for his roles in theater, film, and television.

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Ernest Rutherford

Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, HFRSE LLD (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937) was a New Zealand-born British physicist who came to be known as the father of nuclear physics.

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Ernest Walton

Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton (6 October 1903 – 25 June 1995) was an Irish physicist and Nobel laureate for his work with John Cockcroft with "atom-smashing" experiments done at Cambridge University in the early 1930s, and so became the first person in history to artificially split the atom.

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Erwin Wilhelm Müller

Erwin Wilhelm Müller (or Mueller) (June 13, 1911 – May 17, 1977) was a German physicist who invented the Field Emission Electron Microscope (FEEM), the Field Ion Microscope (FIM), and the Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope.

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Estradiol undecylate

Estradiol undecylate, or estradiol undecanoate, sold under the brand name Progynon Depot 100 among others, is a medication which has been used in the treatment of prostate cancer in men.

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Ethanol

Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is a chemical compound, a simple alcohol with the chemical formula.

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Ether

Ethers are a class of organic compounds that contain an ether group—an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups.

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Ethylene

Ethylene (IUPAC name: ethene) is a hydrocarbon which has the formula or H2C.

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Etymologiae

Etymologiae (Latin for "The Etymologies"), also known as the Origines ("Origins") and usually abbreviated Orig., is an etymological encyclopedia compiled by Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) towards the end of his life.

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Etymology of chemistry

In the history of science, the etymology of the word chemistry is debatable.

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Eureka: A Prose Poem

Eureka (1848) is a lengthy non-fiction work by American author Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) which he subtitled "A Prose Poem", though it has also been subtitled as "An Essay on the Material and Spiritual Universe".

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Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Belgium)

Euro gold and silver commemorative coins are special euro coins minted and issued by member states of the Eurozone, mainly in gold and silver, although other precious metals are also used in rare occasions.

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European X-ray free-electron laser

The European X-ray free-electron laser (European XFEL) is an X-ray research laser facility commissioned during 2017.

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Excited state

In quantum mechanics, an excited state of a system (such as an atom, molecule or nucleus) is any quantum state of the system that has a higher energy than the ground state (that is, more energy than the absolute minimum).

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Exciton

An exciton is a bound state of an electron and an electron hole which are attracted to each other by the electrostatic Coulomb force.

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Exohedral fullerene

Exohedral fullerenes, also called exofullerenes, are fullerenes that have additional atoms, ions, or clusters attached their outer spheres, such as C50Cl10 and C60H8.

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Exotic atom

An exotic atom is an otherwise normal atom in which one or more sub-atomic particles have been replaced by other particles of the same charge.

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Expansion of the universe

The expansion of the universe is the increase of the distance between two distant parts of the universe with time.

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Expo 58

Expo 58, also known as the Brussels World’s Fair (Brusselse Wereldtentoonstelling, Exposition Universelle et Internationale de Bruxelles), was held from 17 April to 19 October 1958.

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Exponential growth

Exponential growth is exhibited when the rate of change—the change per instant or unit of time—of the value of a mathematical function is proportional to the function's current value, resulting in its value at any time being an exponential function of time, i.e., a function in which the time value is the exponent.

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Extended discrete element method

The extended discrete element method (XDEM) is a numerical technique that extends the dynamics of granular material or particles as described through the classical discrete element method (DEM) (Cundall and Allen) by additional properties such as the thermodynamic state, stress/strain or electro-magnetic field for each particle.

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Ștefania Mărăcineanu

Ștefania Mărăcineanu (June 18, 1882 – 1944) was a Romanian physicist.

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Fallacy of composition

The fallacy of composition arises when one infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the whole (or even of every proper part).

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Fast atom bombardment

Fast atom bombardment (FAB) is an ionization technique used in mass spectrometry in which a beam of high energy atoms strikes a surface to create ions.

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Fast fission

Fast fission is fission that occurs when a heavy atom absorbs a high-energy neutron, called a fast neutron, and splits.

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Feature-oriented scanning

Feature-oriented scanning (FOS), also object-oriented scanning (OOS), is a method of precision measurement of surface topography with a scanning probe microscope in which surface features (objects) are used as reference points for microscope probe attachment.

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February 1915

The following events occurred in February 1915.

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Felix Ehrenhaft

Felix Ehrenhaft (24 April 1879 – 4 March 1952) was an Austrian physicist who contributed to atomic physics, to the measurement of electrical charges and to the optical properties of metal colloids.

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Fermi contact interaction

The Fermi contact interaction is the magnetic interaction between an electron and an atomic nucleus when the electron is inside that nucleus.

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Fermion

In particle physics, a fermion is a particle that follows Fermi–Dirac statistics.

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Fermionic condensate

A fermionic condensate is a superfluid phase formed by fermionic particles at low temperatures.

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Field (physics)

In physics, a field is a physical quantity, represented by a number or tensor, that has a value for each point in space and time.

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Field emission probes

Field emission probes are used in scanning electron miscroscopy for imaging.

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Field ion microscope

The Field ion microscope (FIM) was invented by Müller in 1951 It is a type of microscope that can be used to image the arrangement of atoms at the surface of a sharp metal tip.

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Field-emission microscopy

Field-emission microscopy (FEM) is an analytical technique used in materials science to investigate molecular surface structures and their electronic properties.

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Fifth-century Athens

Fifth-century Athens is the Greek city-state of Athens in the time from 480 BC-404 BC.

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Fine structure

In atomic physics, the fine structure describes the splitting of the spectral lines of atoms due to electron spin and relativistic corrections to the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation.

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Fire

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products.

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Fixed orbit

A fixed orbit is the concept, in atomic physics, where an electron is considered to remain in a specific orbit, at a fixed distance from an atom's nucleus, for a particular energy level.

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Flashtube

A flashtube, also called a flashlamp, is an electric arc lamp designed to produce extremely intense, incoherent, full-spectrum white light for very short durations.

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Flatness problem

The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is a cosmological fine-tuning problem within the Big Bang model of the universe.

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Flippin–Lodge angle

The Flippin–Lodge angle is one of two angles used by organic and biological chemists studying the relationship between a molecule's chemical structure and ways that it reacts, for reactions involving "attack" of an electron-rich reacting species, the nucleophile, on an electron-poor reacting species, the electrophile.

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Fluidized bed combustion

Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) is a combustion technology used to burn solid fuels.

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Fluorocitric acid

Fluorocitric acid is a fluorinated carboxylic acid derived from citric acid by substitution of one hydrogen by a fluorine atom.

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Fluorosurfactant

Fluorosurfactants (also fluorinated surfactants, perfluorinated alkylated substances or PFASs) are synthetic organofluorine chemical compounds that have multiple fluorine atoms.

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Fluxional molecule

Fluxional molecules are molecules that undergo dynamics such that some or all of their atoms interchange between symmetry-equivalent positions.

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Foil (metal)

A foil is a very thin sheet of metal, usually made by hammering or rolling.

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Forbidden mechanism

In spectroscopy, a forbidden mechanism (forbidden transition or forbidden line) is a spectral line associated with absorption or emission of light by atomic nuclei, atoms, or molecules which undergo a transition that is not allowed by a particular selection rule but is allowed if the approximation associated with that rule is not made.

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Force

In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object.

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Formal charge

In chemistry, a formal charge (FC) is the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule, assuming that electrons in all chemical bonds are shared equally between atoms, regardless of relative electronegativity.

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Formula

In science, a formula is a concise way of expressing information symbolically, as in a mathematical formula or a chemical formula.

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Formula unit

A formula unit in chemistry is the empirical formula of any ionic or covalent network solid compound used as an independent entity for stoichiometric calculations.

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Four-center two-electron bond

A four-center two-electron bond (4c–2e bond) is a type of chemical bond in which four atoms share two electrons in bonding, with a net bond order of.

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Francium

Francium is a chemical element with symbol Fr and atomic number 87.

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Frank Read

Frank Henry Read (born 6 October 1934) is a British physicist.

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Frank Spedding

Frank Harold Spedding (22 October 1902 – 15 December 1984) was a Canadian American chemist.

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Frédéric Joliot-Curie

Jean Frédéric Joliot-Curie (19 March 1900 – 14 August 1958), born Jean Frédéric Joliot, was a French physicist, husband of Irène Joliot-Curie with whom he was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

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Fred Hoyle

Sir Fred Hoyle FRS (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001) was a British astronomer who formulated the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis.

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Frenkel defect

A Frenkel defect or dislocation defect is a type of defect in crystalline solids wherein an atom is displaced from its lattice position to an interstitial site, creating a vacancy at the original site and an interstitial defect at the new location without any changes in chemical properties.

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Friedrich Wöhler

Friedrich Wöhler (31 July 1800 – 23 September 1882) was a German chemist, best known for his synthesis of urea, but also the first to isolate several chemical elements.

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Fundamental interaction

In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions.

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Fusicoccin

Fusicoccins are organic compounds produced by a fungus.

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Galatea of the Spheres

Galatea of the Spheres is a painting by Salvador Dalí made in 1952.

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Galaxy

A galaxy is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter.

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Gamma-ray spectrometer

A gamma-ray spectrometer (GRS) is an instrument for measuring the distribution (or spectrum—see figure) of the intensity of gamma radiation versus the energy of each photon.

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Garbhodaksayi Vishnu

Garbhodakaśāyī Vishnu is an expansion of Mahā Vishnu.

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Gas cracker

A gas cracker is any device that splits the molecules in a gas or liquid, usually by electrolysis, into atoms.

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Gas mask

The gas mask is a mask used to protect the user from inhaling airborne pollutants and toxic gases.

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Gas-discharge lamp

Gas-discharge lamps are a family of artificial light sources that generate light by sending an electric discharge through an ionized gas, a plasma.

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Gas-phase ion chemistry

Gas phase ion chemistry is a field of science encompassed within both chemistry and physics.

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Gasoline pill

The gasoline pill or gasoline powder is claimed to turn water into gasoline, which can be used to run a combustion engine.

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Gauge boson

In particle physics, a gauge boson is a force carrier, a bosonic particle that carries any of the fundamental interactions of nature, commonly called forces.

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Geiger–Marsden experiment

The Geiger–Marsden experiment(s) (also called the Rutherford gold foil experiment) were a landmark series of experiments by which scientists discovered that every atom contains a nucleus where all of its positive charge and most of its mass are concentrated.

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Gemcitabine

Gemcitabine, sold under the brand name Gemzar, among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of types of cancer.

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Geminal

In chemistry, the descriptor geminal refers to the relationship between two atoms or functional groups that are attached to the same atom.

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Gemstone irradiation

The gemstone irradiation is a process in which a gemstone is artificially irradiated in order to enhance its optical properties.

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General chemistry

General chemistry (sometimes called "gen chem" for short) is a course often taught at the high school and introductory university level.

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General Wade Eiling

General Wade Eiling, sometimes known as The General, is a villain who appears in comics published by DC Comics.

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Generation (particle physics)

In particle physics, a generation or family is a division of the elementary particles.

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Geometrical frustration

In condensed matter physics, the term geometrical frustration (or in short: frustration) refers to a phenomenon, where atoms tend to stick to non-trivial positions or where, on a regular crystal lattice, conflicting inter-atomic forces (each one favoring rather simple, but different structures) lead to quite complex structures.

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George E. Kimball

George Elbert Kimball (July 12, 1906 – December 6, 1967) was an American professor of quantum chemistry, and a pioneer of operations research algorithms during World War II.

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George G. M. James

Dr.

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George Series

George William Series FRS (22 February 1920 – 2 January 1995) was a British physicist, notable for his work on the optical spectroscopy of hydrogen atoms.

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German philosophy

German philosophy, here taken to mean either (1) philosophy in the German language or (2) philosophy by Germans, has been extremely diverse, and central to both the analytic and continental traditions in philosophy for centuries, from Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz through Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger and Ludwig Wittgenstein to contemporary philosophers.

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Giulio Racah

Giulio (Yoel) Racah (ג'וליו (יואל) רקח; February 9, 1909 – August 28, 1965) was an Italian–Israeli physicist and mathematician.

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Glenn T. Seaborg

Glenn Theodore Seaborg (April 19, 1912February 25, 1999) was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

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Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals

The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is an internationally agreed-upon standard managed by the United Nations that was set up to replace the assortment of hazardous material classification and labelling schemes previously used around the world.

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Glossary of biology

Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself.

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Glossary of chemistry terms

Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself.

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Glossary of civil engineering

Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself.

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Glossary of classical physics

This article is a glossary of classical physics.

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Glossary of education terms (T–Z)

This glossary of education-related terms is based on how they commonly are used in Wikipedia articles.

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Glossary of fuel cell terms

The Glossary of fuel cell terms lists the definitions of many terms used within the fuel cell industry.

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Glossary of physics

Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself.

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Glossary of structural engineering

Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself.

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Glycal

Glycal is a name for cyclic enol ether derivatives of sugars having a double bond between carbon atoms 1 and 2 of the ring.

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Gold plating

Gold plating is a method of depositing a thin layer of gold onto the surface of another metal, most often copper or silver (to make silver-gilt), by chemical or electrochemical plating.

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Googie architecture

Googie architecture is a form of modern architecture, a subdivision of futurist architecture influenced by car culture, jets, the Space Age, and the Atomic Age.

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Graph theory

In mathematics, graph theory is the study of graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects.

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Graphene

Graphene is a semi-metal with a small overlap between the valence and the conduction bands (zero bandgap material).

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Graphite furnace atomic absorption

Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS) (also known as Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (ETAAS)) is a type of spectrometry that uses a graphite-coated furnace to vaporize the sample.

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Gravity Probe B

Gravity Probe B (GP-B) was a satellite-based mission which launched on 20 April 2004 on a Delta II rocket.

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Gray molasses

There are many methods for sub-Doppler laser cooling of atoms to low temperatures.

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GRE Physics Test

The GRE physics test is an examination administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS).

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GreenSun Energy

GreenSun Energy is a Jerusalem-based Israeli company that has developed a new process for producing electricity from solar energy.

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Group transfer reaction

In organic chemistry, a group transfer reaction is a pericyclic process where one or more groups of atoms is transferred from one molecule to another.

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GSI anomaly

One of the experimental facilities at the German laboratory GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt is an ''E''xperimental ''S''torage ''R''ing (ESR) with electron cooling in which large numbers of highly charged radioactive ions can be stored for extended periods of time.

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Gustav Jaumann

Gustav Jaumann (1863–1924) was an Austrian physicist.

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H II region

An H II region or HII region is a region of interstellar atomic hydrogen that is ionized.

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H-alpha

H-alpha (Hα) is a specific deep-red visible spectral line in the Balmer series with a wavelength of 656.28 nm in air; it occurs when a hydrogen electron falls from its third to second lowest energy level.

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Hacking Matter

Hacking Matter is a 2003 book by Wil McCarthy.

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Halide

A halide is a binary phase, of which one part is a halogen atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less electronegative (or more electropositive) than the halogen, to make a fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, astatide, or theoretically tennesside compound.

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Hall effect

The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied magnetic field perpendicular to the current.

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Halocarbon

Halocarbon compounds are chemicals in which one or more carbon atoms are linked by covalent bonds with one or more halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine –) resulting in the formation of organofluorine compounds, organochlorine compounds, organobromine compounds, and organoiodine compounds.

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Halogenated ether

A halogenated ether is a subcategory of a larger group of chemicals known as ethers.

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Hantaro Nagaoka

was a Japanese physicist and a pioneer of Japanese physics during the Meiji period.

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Hapticity

Hapticity is the coordination of a ligand to a metal center via an uninterrupted and contiguous series of atoms.

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Hartree

The hartree (symbol: Eh or Ha), also known as the Hartree energy, is the atomic unit of energy, named after the British physicist Douglas Hartree.

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Hartree–Fock method

In computational physics and chemistry, the Hartree–Fock (HF) method is a method of approximation for the determination of the wave function and the energy of a quantum many-body system in a stationary state.

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HD-Rosetta

High-Density Rosetta (HD-Rosetta) is a permanent data storage device which contains engraved microscopic information on a small nickel plate.

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Heat transfer physics

Heat transfer physics describes the kinetics of energy storage, transport, and energy transformation by principal energy carriers: phonons (lattice vibration waves), electrons, fluid particles, and photons.

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Hedwig Kohn

Hedwig Kohn (April 5, 1887 – 1964), was a pioneer in physics and one of only three women who obtained Habilitation (the qualification for university teaching in Germany) in physics before World War II.

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Helen Freedhoff

Helen Sarah Freedhoff (January 9, 1940 – June 10, 2017) was a Canadian theoretical physicist who studied the interaction of light with atoms.

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Helium

Helium (from lit) is a chemical element with symbol He and atomic number 2.

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Helium atom

A helium atom is an atom of the chemical element helium.

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Helium dimer

The helium dimer is a van der Waals molecule with formula He2 consisting of two helium atoms.

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Helium focusing cone

A helium focusing cone is a concentration of helium atoms that has passed through the Sun's heliosphere and is concentrated in a conical region on the opposite side from where the particles entered.

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Helium hydride ion

The hydrohelium(1+) cation, HeH+, also known as the helium hydride ion or helium-hydride molecular ion, is a positively charged ion formed by the reaction of a proton with a helium atom in the gas phase, first produced in the laboratory in 1925.

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Helium release valve

A helium release valve, or helium escape valve, as it is also called, is a feature found on some diving watches.

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Helium-3

Helium-3 (He-3, also written as 3He, see also helion) is a light, non-radioactive isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron (common helium having two protons and two neutrons).

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Helium-3 nuclear magnetic resonance

Helium-3 nuclear magnetic resonance (3He-NMR) is an analytical technique used to identify helium-containing compounds.

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Hendrik Lorentz

Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (18 July 1853 – 4 February 1928) was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pieter Zeeman for the discovery and theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect.

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Henning Stahlberg

Henning Stahlberg is a German physicist and Professor at the Biozentrum of the University of Basel, Switzerland.

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Henry Moseley

Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (23 November 1887 – 10 August 1915) was an English physicist, whose contribution to the science of physics was the justification from physical laws of the previous empirical and chemical concept of the atomic number.

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Henryk Chmielewski (comics)

Henryk Jerzy Chmielewski (born 7 June 1923), also known under his pseudonym Papcio Chmiel, is a Polish comic book artist and journalist.

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Heteroatom

In chemistry, a heteroatom (from Ancient Greek heteros, "different", + atomos, "uncut") is any atom that is not carbon or hydrogen.

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Hierarchy

A hierarchy (from the Greek hierarchia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "leader of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally.

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Higgs boson

The Higgs boson is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics.

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High energy nuclear physics

High-energy nuclear physics studies the behaviour of nuclear matter in energy regimes typical of high energy physics.

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Highlander: The Animated Series

Highlander: The Animated Series is a Canadian/French/American animated television series which premiered on September 18, 1994.

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Hindu philosophy

Hindu philosophy refers to a group of darśanas (philosophies, world views, teachings) that emerged in ancient India.

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Hirudin

Hirudin is a naturally occurring peptide in the salivary glands of blood-sucking leeches (such as Hirudo medicinalis) that has a blood anticoagulant property.

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History of atheism

Atheism (derived from the Ancient Greek ἄθεος atheos meaning "without gods; godless; secular; denying or disdaining the gods, especially officially sanctioned gods") is the absence or rejection of the belief that deities exist.

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History of chemistry

The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present.

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History of electrical engineering

This article details the history of electrical engineering.

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History of electromagnetic theory

The history of electromagnetic theory begins with ancient measures to understand atmospheric electricity, in particular lightning.

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History of Kentucky

The prehistory and history of Kentucky spans thousands of years, and has been influenced by the state's diverse geography and central location.

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History of mass spectrometry

The history of mass spectrometry has its roots in physical and chemical studies regarding the nature of matter.

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History of mathematical notation

The history of mathematical notation includes the commencement, progress, and cultural diffusion of mathematical symbols and the conflict of the methods of notation confronted in a notation's move to popularity or inconspicuousness.

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History of molecular theory

In chemistry, the history of molecular theory traces the origins of the concept or idea of the existence of strong chemical bonds between two or more atoms.

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History of nuclear weapons

Nuclear weapons possess enormous destructive power from nuclear fission or combined fission and fusion reactions.

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History of optics

Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians, followed by theories on light and vision developed by ancient Greek philosophers, and the development of geometrical optics in the Greco-Roman world.

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History of physics

Physics (from the Ancient Greek φύσις physis meaning "nature") is the fundamental branch of science.

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History of quantum mechanics

The history of quantum mechanics is a fundamental part of the history of modern physics.

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History of science

The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural and social sciences.

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History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent

The history of science and technology in the Indian Subcontinent begins with prehistoric human activity in the Indus Valley Civilization to early states and empires.

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History of scientific method

The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the history of science itself.

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History of Solar System formation and evolution hypotheses

The history of scientific thought about the Formation and evolution of the Solar System begins with the Copernican Revolution.

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History of subatomic physics

The idea that matter consists of smaller particles and that there exists a limited number of sorts of primary, smallest particles in nature has existed in natural philosophy at least since the 6th century BC.

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History of the Big Bang theory

The history of the Big Bang theory began with the Big Bang's development from observations and theoretical considerations.

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History of the bikini

Evidence of bikini-style women's clothing has been found as early as 5600 BC, and the history of the bikini can be traced back to that era.

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History of thermodynamics

The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general.

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History of Vanderbilt Commodores football

The Vanderbilt Commodores football team represents Vanderbilt University in the sport of American football.

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Hollow atoms

Hollow Atoms (discovered in 1990 by a French team of researchers around Jean-Pierre Briand) are short-lived multiply excited neutral atoms which carry a large part of their Z electrons (Z... projectile nuclear charge) in high-n levels while inner shells remain (transiently) empty.

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Homoeomeria (philosophy)

Homoeomeria was a doctrine in the philosophy of the ancient Greek Anaxagoras, as claimed by the Roman atomist Lucretius.

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Homogeneity (physics)

In physics, a homogeneous material or system has the same properties at every point; it is uniform without irregularities.

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Homogeneity and heterogeneity

Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts often used in the sciences and statistics relating to the uniformity in a substance or organism.

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Homonuclear molecule

Homonuclear molecules, or homonuclear species, are molecules composed of only one type of element.

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Hot atom

In physical chemistry, a hot atom is an atom that has a high kinetic or internal energy.

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Hund's rules

In atomic physics, Hund's rules refers to a set of rules that German physicist Friedrich Hund formulated around 1927, which are used to determine the term symbol that corresponds to the ground state of a multi-electron atom.

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Hydrocarbon

In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon.

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Hydrogen

Hydrogen is a chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1.

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Hydrogen astatide

Hydrogen astatide, also known as astatine hydride, astatane, or astidohydrogen, is a chemical compound with the chemical formula, consisting of an astatine atom covalently bonded to a hydrogen atom.

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Hydrogen atom

A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element hydrogen.

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Hydrogen carrier

A hydrogen carrier is an organic macromolecule that transports atoms of hydrogen from one place to another inside a cell or from cell to cell for use in various metabolical processes.

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Hydrogen chloride

The compound hydrogen chloride has the chemical formula and as such is a hydrogen halide.

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Hydrogen ion

A hydrogen ion is created when a hydrogen atom loses or gains an electron.

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Hydrogenation

Hydrogenation – to treat with hydrogen – is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen (H2) and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel, palladium or platinum.

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Hydroxide

Hydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−.

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Hylozoism

Hylozoism is the philosophical point of view that matter is in some sense alive.

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Hyperfine structure

In atomic physics, hyperfine structure refers to small shifts and splittings in the energy levels of atoms, molecules and ions, due to interaction between the state of the nucleus and the state of the electron clouds.

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Hypergiant

A hypergiant (luminosity class 0 or Ia+) is among the very rare kinds of stars that typically show tremendous luminosities and very high rates of mass loss by stellar winds.

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Hypothetical types of biochemistry

Hypothetical types of biochemistry are forms of biochemistry speculated to be scientifically viable but not proven to exist at this time.

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I Robot (album)

I Robot is the second studio album by English rock band The Alan Parsons Project, released on 1 June 1977 by Arista Records.

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IB Group 4 subjects

The Group 4: Experimental sciences subjects of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme comprise the main scientific emphasis of this internationally recognized high school programme.

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IBM (atoms)

IBM in atoms was a demonstration by IBM scientists in 1989 of a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms.

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Ice rules

In chemistry, ice rules are basic principles that govern arrangement of atoms in water ice.

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Identical particles

Identical particles, also called indistinguishable or indiscernible particles, are particles that cannot be distinguished from one another, even in principle.

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Imidazole

Imidazole is an organic compound with the formula C3N2H4.

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Immunostaining

In biochemistry, immunostaining is any use of an antibody-based method to detect a specific protein in a sample.

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Implicate and explicate order

Implicate order and explicate order are ontological concepts for quantum theory coined by theoretical physicist David Bohm during the early 1980s.

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Imponderable fluid

Imponderable fluids are features of several superseded scientific theories, such as archaic atomic and electromotive theories.

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Inchtuthil

Inchtuthil is the site of a Roman legionary fortress situated on a natural platform overlooking the north bank of the River Tay southwest of Blairgowrie, Perth and Kinross, Scotland (Roman Caledonia).

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Indazole

Indazole, also called isoindazole, is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound.

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Index of biochemistry articles

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms.

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Index of chemistry articles

Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem), meaning "earth") is the physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.

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Index of physics articles (A)

The index of physics articles is split into multiple pages due to its size.

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Induced radioactivity

Induced radioactivity occurs when a previously stable material has been made radioactive by exposure to specific radiation.

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Inductive effect

In chemistry and physics, the inductive effect is an experimentally observed effect of the transmission of charge through a chain of atoms in a molecule, resulting in a permanent dipole in a bond.

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Inelastic collision

An inelastic collision, in contrast to an elastic collision, is a collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved due to the action of internal friction.

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Inside the Atom

Inside the Atom is a popular science book by American author Isaac Asimov.

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Instrumental chemistry

Instrumental analysis is a field of analytical chemistry that investigates analytes using scientific instruments.

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Integral membrane protein

An integral membrane protein (IMP) is a type of membrane protein that is permanently attached to the biological membrane.

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Interatomic Coulombic decay

Interatomic Coulombic decay (ICD) is a general, fundamental property of atoms and molecules which have neighbors.

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Interatomic potential

Interatomic potentials are mathematical functions for calculating the potential energy of a system of atoms with given positions in space.

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Intermolecular force

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are the forces which mediate interaction between molecules, including forces of attraction or repulsion which act between molecules and other types of neighboring particles, e.g., atoms or ions.

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International Max Planck Research School for Ultrafast Imaging and Structural Dynamics

The International Max Planck Research School for Ultrafast Imaging and Structural Dynamics (IMPRS-UFAST) is a graduate school of the Max Planck Society.

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International System of Units

The International System of Units (SI, abbreviated from the French Système international (d'unités)) is the modern form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement.

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Interstellar medium

In astronomy, the interstellar medium (ISM) is the matter and radiation that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy.

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Interstitial defect

Interstitials defects are a variety of crystallographic defects where atoms assume a normally unoccupied site in the crystal structure.

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Intramolecular force

An intramolecular force is any force that binds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound, not to be confused with intermolecular forces, which are the forces present between molecules.

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Introduction to M-theory

In non-technical terms, M-theory presents an idea about the basic substance of the universe.

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Introduction to quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is the science of the very small.

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Iodine in biology

SBHarris 05:41, 26 July 2009 (UTC)--> Iodine is an essential trace element for life, the heaviest element commonly needed by living organisms, and the second-heaviest known to be used by any form of life (only tungsten, a component of a few bacterial enzymes, has a higher atomic number and atomic weight).

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Iodocholesterol

Iodocholesterol, or 19-iodocholesterol, also as iodocholesterol (131I) (INN), is a derivative of cholesterol with an iodine atom in the C19 position and a radiopharmaceutical.

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Iodophenol

Iodophenol is a substitution product of phenol in which one of the hydrogen atoms is replaced by iodine.

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Ion

An ion is an atom or molecule that has a non-zero net electrical charge (its total number of electrons is not equal to its total number of protons).

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Ion source

An ion source is a device that creates atomic and molecular ions.

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Ion thruster

An ion thruster or ion drive is a form of electric propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion.

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Ionic compound

In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound composed of ions held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding.

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Ionization

Ionization or ionisation, is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons to form ions, often in conjunction with other chemical changes.

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Ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation (ionising radiation) is radiation that carries enough energy to liberate electrons from atoms or molecules, thereby ionizing them.

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Ionosphere

The ionosphere is the ionized part of Earth's upper atmosphere, from about to altitude, a region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere.

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Iosif Khriplovich

Iosif Benzionovich Khriplovich (Иосиф Бенционович Хриплович) (born 1937) is a Russian theoretical physicist who has made deep contributions in quantum field theory, atomic physics, and general relativity.

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Irradiation

Irradiation is the process by which an object is exposed to radiation.

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Ishrat Hussain Usmani

Ishrat Hussain Usmani, NI (Urdu: ڈاکٹر عشرت حيسن عتثمانى‎ 15 April 1917 – 17 June 1992), best known as I. H. Usmani, was a Pakistani bureaucrat and an atomic physicist who was the second chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) from 1960 to 1972; as well as the associate director of the Space Research Commission.

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ISIS neutron source

ISIS Neutron and Muon Source is a pulsed neutron and muon source.

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Island growth

Island growth is a physical model of deposited film growth and chemical vapor deposition.

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Island of Terror

Island of Terror is a 1966 British horror film released by Planet Film Productions.

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Isoelectronicity

Isoelectronicity is the phenomenon of two or more chemical species (atoms, molecules, radicals, ions etc.) differing in the atoms that comprise them but having the same number of valence electrons and the same structure (that is, the same number of atoms with the same connectivity).

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Isotope

Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number.

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Isotopes of lithium

Naturally occurring lithium (3Li) is composed of two stable isotopes, lithium-6 and lithium-7, with the latter being far more abundant: about 92.5 percent of the atoms.

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Isotopes of livermorium

Livermorium (116Lv) is an artificial element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given.

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Isotopes of mendelevium

Mendelevium (101Md) is a synthetic element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given.

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Isotopes of oxygen

There are three known stable isotopes of oxygen (8O): 16O, 17O, and 18O.

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Isotopic labeling

Isotopic labeling (or isotopic labelling) is a technique used to track the passage of an isotope (an atom with a detectable variation) through a reaction, metabolic pathway, or cell.

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Isoxazole

Isoxazole is an azole with an oxygen atom next to the nitrogen.

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ISSPIC

ISSPIC or International Symposium on Small Particles and Inorganic Clusters is an established biennial conference series on fundamental science of atomically small particles, organized since 1976.

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IUPAC numerical multiplier

The numerical multiplier (or multiplying affix) in IUPAC nomenclature indicates how many particular atoms or functional groups are attached at a particular point in a molecule.

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Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff

Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Jr. (30 August 1852 – 1 March 1911) was a Dutch physical chemist.

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James Challis

James Challis FRS (12 December 1803 – 3 December 1882) was an English clergyman, physicist and astronomer.

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James Franck

James Franck (26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964) was a German physicist who won the 1925 Nobel Prize for Physics with Gustav Hertz "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom".

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James Gimzewski

James Kazimierz Gimzewski FRS FREng FInstP is a Scottish physicist of Polish descent who pioneered research on electrical contacts with single atoms and molecules and light emission using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM).

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James J. Gibson

James Jerome Gibson (January 27, 1904 – December 11, 1979), was an American psychologist and one of the most important contributors to the field of visual perception.

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James Prescott Joule

James Prescott Joule (24 December 1818 11 October 1889) was an English physicist, mathematician and brewer, born in Salford, Lancashire.

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Jan Zaanen

Jan Zaanen (born 17 April 1957) is professor of theoretical physics at Leiden University, the Netherlands.

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Janez Strnad

Janez Strnad (March 4, 1934 – November 28, 2015) was a Slovene physicist and popularizer of natural science.

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Japanese swords in fiction

The katana sword appears in many folk tales as well as legends.

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Jaynes-Cummings Model

The Jaynes-Cummings model is a model in quantum field theory that describes the coupling of a two state quantum mechanical system to a single mode of a bosonic field.

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Jaynes–Cummings–Hubbard model

The Jaynes-Cummings-Hubbard (JCH) model is a many-body quantum system modeling the quantum phase transition of light.

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Jean Baptiste Perrin

Jean Baptiste Perrin (30 September 1870 – 17 April 1942) was a French physicist who, in his studies of the Brownian motion of minute particles suspended in liquids, verified Albert Einstein’s explanation of this phenomenon and thereby confirmed the atomic nature of matter (sedimentation equilibrium).

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Jean Charles Athanase Peltier

Jean Charles Athanase Peltier (22 February 1785 – 27 October 1845) was a French physicist.

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Jean Gebser

Jean Gebser (August 20, 1905 – May 14, 1973) was a philosopher, a linguist, and a poet, who described the structures of human consciousness.

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer and composer.

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Jewish culture

Jewish culture is the culture of the Jewish people from the formation of the Jewish nation in biblical times through life in the diaspora and the modern state of Israel.

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Johannes Martin Bijvoet

Johannes Martin Bijvoet (23 January 1892, Amsterdam – 4 March 1980, Winterswijk) was a Dutch chemist and crystallographer at the van 't Hoff Laboratory at Utrecht University.

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Johannes Phocylides Holwarda

Johannes Phocylides Holwarda (Jan Fokkesz, Jan Fokker, Johann Holwarda, Johannes Fokkes Holwarda, Jan Fokkens Holwarda, Jan Fokkes van haylen) (February 19, 1618—January 22, 1651) was a Frisian astronomer, physician, and philosopher.

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John Dalton

John Dalton FRS (6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist.

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John Herapath

John Herapath (30 May 1790 – 24 February 1868) was an English physicist who gave a partial account of the kinetic theory of gases in 1820 though it was neglected by the scientific community at the time.

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John Lennard-Jones

Sir John Edward Lennard-Jones KBE, FRS (27 October 1894 – 1 November 1954) was an English mathematician who was a professor of theoretical physics at University of Bristol, and then of theoretical science at the University of Cambridge.

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John Wycliffe

John Wycliffe (also spelled Wyclif, Wycliff, Wiclef, Wicliffe, Wickliffe; 1320s – 31 December 1384) was an English scholastic philosopher, theologian, Biblical translator, reformer, English priest, and a seminary professor at the University of Oxford.

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Joseph ben Abraham

Joseph ben Abraham (Hebrew: יוסף בן אברהם הכהן, also known by the Arabic name Yusuf al-Basir) was a Karaite philosopher and theologian who flourished in Babylonia or Persia in the first half of the eleventh century.

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Joseph Larmor

Sir Joseph Larmor FRS FRSE DCL LLD (11 July 1857 – 19 May 1942) was an Irish physicist and mathematician who made innovations in the understanding of electricity, dynamics, thermodynamics, and the electron theory of matter.

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Joule heating

Joule heating, also known as Ohmic heating and resistive heating, is the process by which the passage of an electric current through a conductor produces heat.

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Journal of the Physical Society of Japan

Journal of the Physical Society of Japan (JPSJ) is a monthly, peer reviewed, scientific journal published by the Physical Society of Japan (JPS).

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Julia R. Burdge

Dr.

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Justus von Liebig

Justus Freiherr von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and was considered the founder of organic chemistry.

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K-edge

K-edge is the binding energy of the K-shell (innermost, using X-ray notation) electron of an atom.

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Kaisei Academy

The Kaisei Academy (開成学園) is a preparatory boys private secondary school located in Arakawa ward, Tokyo, Japan.

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Kanada (philosopher)

Kanada (Sanskrit: कणाद, IAST: 'Kaṇāda), also known as Kashyapa, Uluka, Kananda and Kanabhuk, was an ancient Indian natural scientist and philosopher who founded the Vaisheshika school of Indian philosophy.

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Kanika (name)

Kanika (sanskrit, कनिका) is an Sanskrit Indian feminine, often found in the Hindu community.

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Kaolinite

Kaolinite is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4.

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Karimat El-Sayed

Karimat El-Sayed is an Egyptian academic, crystallographer, and proponent of women's education.

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Karl Taylor Compton

Karl Taylor Compton (September 14, 1887 – June 22, 1954) was a prominent American physicist and president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) from 1930 to 1948.

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Kasnia

Kasnia or Kaznia is a fictional country which appears in the DC animated universe.

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Kawamoto Kōmin

was a 19th-century Japanese scholar of Rangaku and also a doctor.

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Keating model

In physics, The Keating Model is a model that theoretical physicist Patrick N. Keating introduced in 1966 to describe forces induced on neighboring atoms when one atom moves in a solid.

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Kelvin probe force microscope

Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), also known as surface potential microscopy, is a noncontact variant of atomic force microscopy (AFM).

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Kenji Ohmori

is a Japanese physicist and chemist.

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Kenneth Snelson

Kenneth Duane Snelson (June 29, 1927 – December 22, 2016) was an American contemporary sculptor and photographer.

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Kerosene

Kerosene, also known as paraffin, lamp oil, and coal oil (an obsolete term), is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum.

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Ketosteroid

Androstenedione Androsterone Estrone A ketosteroid, or an oxosteroid, is a steroid in which a hydrogen atom has been replaced with a ketone (C.

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Keum-boo

Keum-boo (also Kum-Boo or Kum-bu—Korean "attached gold") is an ancient Korean gilding technique used to apply thin sheets of gold to silver, to make silver-gilt.

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Keyhole limpet hemocyanin

Keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) is a large, multisubunit, oxygen-carrying, metalloprotein that is found in the hemolymph of the giant keyhole limpet, Megathura crenulata, a species of keyhole limpet that lives off the coast of California, from Monterey Bay to Isla Asuncion off Baja California.

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Kilocalorie per mole

The kilocalorie per mole is a unit to measure an amount of energy per number of molecules, atoms, or other similar particles.

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Kim reformer

The Kim reformer is a type of syngas plant invented by Dr.

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Kinetic diameter

Kinetic diameter is a measure applied to atoms and molecules that expresses the likelihood that a molecule in a gas will collide with another molecule.

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Kinetic isotope effect

The kinetic isotope effect (KIE) is the change in the reaction rate of a chemical reaction when one of the atoms in the reactants is replaced by one of its isotopes.

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Kinetic theory of gases

The kinetic theory describes a gas as a large number of submicroscopic particles (atoms or molecules), all of which are in constant rapid motion that has randomness arising from their many collisions with each other and with the walls of the container.

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Kintech Lab

Kintech Lab is a software company headquartered in Russia.

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Knot theory

In topology, knot theory is the study of mathematical knots.

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Kramers–Heisenberg formula

The Kramers–Heisenberg dispersion formula is an expression for the cross section for scattering of a photon by an atomic electron.

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Kröger–Vink notation

Kröger–Vink notation is a set of conventions that are used to describe electric charge and lattice position for point defect species in crystals.

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Lactoylglutathione lyase

In enzymology, a lactoylglutathione lyase (also known as glyoxalase I) is an enzyme that catalyzes the isomerization of hemithioacetal adducts, which are formed in a spontaneous reaction between a glutathionyl group and aldehydes such as methylglyoxal.

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Landé g-factor

In physics, the Landé g-factor is a particular example of a ''g''-factor, namely for an electron with both spin and orbital angular momenta.

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Landé interval rule

In atomic physics, the Landé interval rule states that if the spin-orbit interactions of an electron are weak, the energy levels of each (i.e. the spin and orbit) are split.

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Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector

In classical mechanics, the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector (or simply the LRL vector) is a vector used chiefly to describe the shape and orientation of the orbit of one astronomical body around another, such as a planet revolving around a star.

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Large Hadron Collider

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle collider, the most complex experimental facility ever built and the largest single machine in the world.

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Large numbers

Large numbers are numbers that are significantly larger than those ordinarily used in everyday life, for instance in simple counting or in monetary transactions.

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Larmor precession

In physics, Larmor precession (named after Joseph Larmor) is the precession of the magnetic moment of an object about an external magnetic field.

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Laser

A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.

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Laser cooling

Laser cooling refers to a number of techniques in which atomic and molecular samples are cooled down to near absolute zero.

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Laser detuning

In optical physics, laser detuning is the tuning of a laser to a frequency that is slightly off from a quantum system's resonant frequency.

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Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a type of atomic emission spectroscopy which uses a highly energetic laser pulse as the excitation source.

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Latent image

A latent image is an invisible image produced by the exposure to light of a photosensitive material such as photographic film.

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Lattice (group)

In geometry and group theory, a lattice in \mathbbR^n is a subgroup of the additive group \mathbb^n which is isomorphic to the additive group \mathbbZ^n, and which spans the real vector space \mathbb^n.

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Lattice model (physics)

In physics, a lattice model is a physical model that is defined on a lattice, as opposed to the continuum of space or spacetime.

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Law of definite proportions

In chemistry, the law of definite proportion, sometimes called Proust's law or the law of definite composition, or law of constant composition states that a given chemical compound always contains its component elements in fixed ratio (by mass) and does not depend on its source and method of preparation.

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Lazarus effect

The Lazarus effect refers to semiconductor detectors; when these are used in harsh radiation environments, defects begin to appear in the semiconductor crystal lattice as atoms become displaced because of the interaction with the high-energy traversing particles.

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Lead

Lead is a chemical element with symbol Pb (from the Latin plumbum) and atomic number 82.

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Leopold Gmelin

Leopold Gmelin (2 August 1788 – 13 April 1853) was a German chemist.

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Lepton

In particle physics, a lepton is an elementary particle of half-integer spin (spin) that does not undergo strong interactions.

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Leucippus

Leucippus (Λεύκιππος, Leúkippos; fl. 5th cent. BCE) is reported in some ancient sources to have been a philosopher who was the earliest Greek to develop the theory of atomism—the idea that everything is composed entirely of various imperishable, indivisible elements called atoms.

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Lewis acids and bases

A Lewis acid is a chemical species that contains an empty orbital which is capable of accepting an electron pair from a Lewis base to form a Lewis adduct.

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Lewis structure

Lewis structures, also known as Lewis dot diagrams, Lewis dot formulas, Lewis dot structures, electron dot structures, or Lewis electron dot structures (LEDS), are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule.

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Libration (molecule)

Libration (from the Latin verb librare "to balance, to sway"; cf. libra "scales") is a type of reciprocating motion in which an object with a nearly fixed orientation repeatedly rotates slightly back and forth.

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Light dressed state

In the fields of atomic, molecular, and optical science, the term light dressed state refers to a quantum state of an atomic or molecular system interacting with a laser light in terms of the Floquet picture, i.e. roughly like an atom or a molecule plus a photon.

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Light-emitting diode

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source.

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Lindemann index

The Lindemann index is a simple measure of thermally driven disorder in atoms or molecules.

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Linear combination of atomic orbitals

A linear combination of atomic orbitals or LCAO is a quantum superposition of atomic orbitals and a technique for calculating molecular orbitals in quantum chemistry.

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Lipinski's rule of five

Lipinski's rule of five also known as the Pfizer's rule of five or simply the rule of five (RO5) is a rule of thumb to evaluate druglikeness or determine if a chemical compound with a certain pharmacological or biological activity has chemical properties and physical properties that would make it a likely orally active drug in humans.

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List of acronyms: B

(Main list of acronyms).

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List of baryons

Baryons are composite particles made of three quarks, as opposed to mesons, which are composite particles made of one quark and one antiquark.

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List of Ben 10 aliens

This is a list of aliens on Cartoon Network's Ben 10 franchise.

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List of British innovations and discoveries

The following is a list and timeline of innovations as well as inventions and discoveries that involved British people or the United Kingdom including predecessor states in the history of the formation of the United Kingdom.

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List of chemical compounds with unusual names

Chemical nomenclature, replete as it is with compounds with complex names, is a repository for some very peculiar and sometimes startling names.

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List of chemical element name etymologies

This is the list of etymologies for all chemical element names.

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List of chemical elements

, 118 chemical elements are identified.

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List of chemistry mnemonics

A mnemonic is a memory aid used to improve long term memory and make the process of consolidation easier.

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List of creation myths

A creation myth (or creation story) is a cultural, traditional or religious myth which describes the earliest beginnings of the present world.

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List of dimensionless quantities

This is a list of well-known dimensionless quantities illustrating their variety of forms and applications.

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List of Dutch inventions and discoveries

The Netherlands had a considerable part in the making of modern society.

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List of English inventions and discoveries

English inventions and discoveries are objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, in England by a person from England (that is, someone born in England - including to non-English parents - or born abroad with at least one English parent and who had the majority of their education or career in England).

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List of examples of lengths

This is a list of examples of lengths, in metres in order to give an understanding of lengths.

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List of experiments

The following is a list of historically important scientific experiments and observations demonstrating something of great scientific interest, typically in an elegant or clever manner.

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List of former Disneyland attractions

Disneyland is a theme park in Anaheim, California conceived by Walt Disney.

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List of genres

This is a list of genres of literature and entertainment, excluding genres in the visual arts.

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List of Greek and Latin roots in English/T

Category:Lists of words.

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List of Heidelberg University people

Alumni and faculty of the university include many founders and pioneers of academic disciplines, and a large number of internationally acclaimed philosophers, poets, jurisprudents, theologians, natural and social scientists.

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List of important publications in physics

This is a list of important publications in physics, organized by field.

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List of Intel codenames

Intel has historically named integrated circuit (IC) development projects after geographical names of towns, rivers or mountains near the location of the Intel facility responsible for the IC.

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List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules

This is a list of molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium and circumstellar envelopes, grouped by the number of component atoms.

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List of Lithuanians

This is a list of Lithuanians, both people of Lithuanian descent and people with the birthplace or citizenship of Lithuania.

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List of Nobel laureates in Physics

The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik) is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of physics.

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List of particles

This article includes a list of the different types of atomic- and sub-atomic particles found or hypothesized to exist in the whole of the universe categorized by type.

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List of Pennsylvania State University people

This is a list of famous individuals associated with the Pennsylvania State University, including graduates, former students, and professors.

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List of plasma physics articles

This is a list of plasma physics topics.

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List of Professor Blastoff episodes

Professor Blastoff was a weekly comedy audio podcast which aired from May 15, 2011 to July 21, 2015.

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List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors

Before Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Conquistadors landed on the island of "Borikén" (Puerto Rico), the Tainos who inhabited the island depended on their astronomical observations for the cultivation of their crops.

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List of Reborn! antagonists

The antagonists of the Reborn! anime and manga series, known in Japan as Katekyō Hitman Reborn!, are created by Akira Amano.

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List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was a renowned theoretical physicist of the 20th century, best known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity.

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List of scientists whose names are used as non SI units

Most of the physical units are named after great scientists.

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List of secular humanists

This is a partial list of notable secular humanists.

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List of semiconductor materials

Semiconductor materials are nominally small band gap insulators.

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List of Star Trek materials

This is a list of notable fictional materials from the science fiction universe of Star Trek.

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List of University of California, Berkeley alumni

This page lists notable alumni and students of the University of California, Berkeley.

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List of words ending in ology

† not study.

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Lithium atom

A lithium atom is an atom of the chemical element lithium.

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Living Still Life

Living Still Life (French: Nature Morte Vivante) is a painting by the artist Salvador Dalí.

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Llewellyn Thomas

Llewellyn Hilleth Thomas (21 October 1903 – 20 April 1992) was a British physicist and applied mathematician.

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Local Bubble

The Local Bubble, or Local Cavity, is a relative cavity in the interstellar medium (ISM) in the Orion Arm of the Milky Way.

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Locant

In organic chemistry, a locant is a figure to indicate the position of a functional group within a molecule.

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Logology (science of science)

Logology ("the science of science") is the study of all aspects of science and of its practitioners—aspects philosophical, biological, psychological, societal, historical, political, institutional, financial.

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London dispersion force

London dispersion forces (LDF, also known as dispersion forces, London forces, instantaneous dipole–induced dipole forces, or loosely van der Waals forces) are a type of force acting between atoms and molecules.

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Loop quantum gravity

Loop quantum gravity (LQG) is a theory of quantum gravity, merging quantum mechanics and general relativity.

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Lorenz S. Cederbaum

Lorenz Cederbaum (born 26 October 1946 in Braunschweig, Germany) is a German physical chemist.

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Loschmidt constant

The Loschmidt constant or Loschmidt's number (symbol: n0) is the number of particles (atoms or molecules) of an ideal gas in a given volume (the number density).

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Low-energy ion scattering

Low-energy ion scattering spectroscopy (LEIS), sometimes referred to simply as ion scattering spectroscopy (ISS), is a surface-sensitive analytical technique used to characterize the chemical and structural makeup of materials.

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Ludwig Boltzmann

Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann (February 20, 1844 – September 5, 1906) was an Austrian physicist and philosopher whose greatest achievement was in the development of statistical mechanics, which explains and predicts how the properties of atoms (such as mass, charge, and structure) determine the physical properties of matter (such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion).

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Luminophore

A luminophore is an atom or functional group in a chemical compound that is responsible for its luminescent properties.

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Lyman series

In physics and chemistry, the Lyman series is a hydrogen spectral series of transitions and resulting ultraviolet emission lines of the hydrogen atom as an electron goes from n ≥ 2 to n.

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Lynn Bomar

Robert Lynn Bomar (January 21, 1901 – June 11, 1964) was an American football end in the National Football League (NFL).

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Lyxose

Lyxose is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde functional group.

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Macrocyclic stereocontrol

Macrocyclic stereocontrol refers to the directed outcome of a given intermolecular or intramolecular chemical reaction, generally an organic reaction, that is governed by the conformational or geometrical preference of a carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring, where the ring containing 8 or more atoms.

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Macromolecular assembly

The term macromolecular assembly (MA) refers to massive chemical structures such as viruses and non-biologic nanoparticles, cellular organelles and membranes and ribosomes, etc.

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Macromolecule

A macromolecule is a very large molecule, such as protein, commonly created by the polymerization of smaller subunits (monomers).

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Macroscopic quantum phenomena

Macroscopic quantum phenomena refer to processes showing quantum behavior at the macroscopic scale, rather than at the atomic scale where quantum effects are prevalent.

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Magenta

Magenta is a color that is variously defined as purplish-red, reddish-purple, purplish, or mauvish-crimson.

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Magnesium citrate

Magnesium citrate is a magnesium preparation in salt form with citric acid in a 1:1 ratio (1 magnesium atom per citrate molecule).

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Magnesium citrate (3:2)

Magnesium citrate (3:2) (3 magnesium atoms per 2 citrate molecules), also called trimagnesium dicitrate, trimagnesium citrate, or the ambiguous name magnesium citrate.

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Magnet

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field.

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Magnetar

A magnetar is a type of neutron star with an extremely powerful inferred magnetic field (\sim 10^ - 10^ G).

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Magnetic confinement fusion

Magnetic confinement fusion is an approach to generate thermonuclear fusion power that uses magnetic fields to confine the hot fusion fuel in the form of a plasma.

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Magnetic resonance imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both health and disease.

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Magnetic weapon

A magnetic weapon is one that uses magnetic fields to accelerate or stop projectiles, or to focus charged particle beams.

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Magnetism

Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields.

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Magnetization

In classical electromagnetism, magnetization or magnetic polarization is the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced magnetic dipole moments in a magnetic material.

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Marceli Nencki

Wilhelm Marceli Nencki (15 January 1847 in Boczki, Zduńska Wola County – 14 October 1901 in Saint Petersburg) was a famous Polish chemist and doctor.

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Marian Danysz

Marian Danysz (March 17, 1909 – February 9, 1983) was a Polish physicist.

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Marie Curie

Marie Skłodowska Curie (born Maria Salomea Skłodowska; 7 November 18674 July 1934) was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity.

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Marshall Space Flight Center

The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), located in Huntsville, Alabama, is the U.S. government's civilian rocketry and spacecraft propulsion research center.

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Marvin D. Girardeau

Marvin D. Girardeau (3 October 193013 January 2015) was a quantum physicist, and a research professor at the University of Arizona.

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Mary Somerville

Mary Somerville (née Fairfax, formerly Greig; 26 December 1780 – 29 November 1872), was a Scottish science writer and polymath.

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Mass (mass spectrometry)

The mass recorded by a mass spectrometer can refer to different physical quantities depending on the characteristics of the instrument and the manner in which the mass spectrum is displayed.

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Mass balance

A mass balance, also called a material balance, is an application of conservation of mass to the analysis of physical systems.

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Mass number

The mass number (symbol A, from the German word Atomgewichte (atomic weight), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. It determines the atomic mass of atoms. Because protons and neutrons both are baryons, the mass number A is identical with the baryon number B as of the nucleus as of the whole atom or ion. The mass number is different for each different isotope of a chemical element. This is not the same as the atomic number (Z) which denotes the number of protons in a nucleus, and thus uniquely identifies an element. Hence, the difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons (N) in a given nucleus:. The mass number is written either after the element name or as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol. For example, the most common isotope of carbon is carbon-12, or, which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The full isotope symbol would also have the atomic number (Z) as a subscript to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass number:. This is technically redundant, as each element is defined by its atomic number, so it is often omitted.

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Mass spectral interpretation

Mass spectral interpretation is the method employed to identify the chemical formula, characteristic fragment patterns and possible fragment ions from the mass spectra.

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Materials science

The interdisciplinary field of materials science, also commonly termed materials science and engineering is the design and discovery of new materials, particularly solids.

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Matrix (mass spectrometry)

In mass spectrometry, a matrix is a compound that promotes the formation of ions.

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Matter

In the classical physics observed in everyday life, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume.

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Matter (philosophy)

Matter is the substrate from which physical existence is derived, remaining more or less constant amid changes.

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Matter wave

Matter waves are a central part of the theory of quantum mechanics, being an example of wave–particle duality.

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Matter wave clock

A matter wave clock is a type of clock whose principle of operation makes use of the apparent wavelike properties of matter.

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Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces

The Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces (German: Max-Planck-Institut für Kolloid- und Grenzflächenforschung) is located in Potsdam-Golm Science Park in Golm, Potsdam, Germany.

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Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution

In physics (in particular in statistical mechanics), the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a particular probability distribution named after James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann.

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Meade Layne

Meade Layne (September 8, 1882May 12, 1961) was an early researcher of ufology and parapsychology, best known for proposing an early version of the interdimensional hypothesis to explain flying saucer sightings.

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Mean free path

In physics, the mean free path is the average distance traveled by a moving particle (such as an atom, a molecule, a photon) between successive impacts (collisions), which modify its direction or energy or other particle properties.

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Mean inter-particle distance

Mean inter-particle distance (or mean inter-particle separation) is the mean distance between microscopic particles (usually atoms or molecules) in a macroscopic body.

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Mechanical philosophy

The mechanical philosophy is a natural philosophy describing the universe as similar to a large-scale mechanism.

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Mechanical resonance

Mechanical resonance is the tendency of a mechanical system to respond at greater amplitude when the frequency of its oscillations matches the system's natural frequency of vibration (its resonance frequency or resonant frequency) than it does at other frequencies.

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Mechanism (philosophy)

Mechanism is the belief that natural wholes (principally living things) are like complicated machines or artifacts, composed of parts lacking any intrinsic relationship to each other.

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Medal "For Merit in the Development of Nuclear Energy"

The Medal "For Merit in the Development of Atomic Energy" (Медаль «За заслуги в освоении атомной энергии») is a state decoration of the Russian Federation aimed at recognising achievements in the nuclear industry.

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Megamaser

A megamaser is a type of astrophysical maser, which is a naturally occurring source of stimulated spectral line emission.

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Melba Phillips

Melba Newell Phillips (February 1, 1907 – November 8, 2004) was an American physicist and pioneer science educator.

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Melting-point depression

Melting-point depression is the phenomenon of reduction of the melting point of a material with reduction of its size.

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Meme

A meme is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture—often with the aim of conveying a particular phenomenon, theme, or meaning represented by the meme.

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Mercury-manganese star

A mercury-manganese star is a type of chemically peculiar star with a prominent spectral line at 398.4 nm, due to absorption from ionized mercury.

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Mesoscopic physics

Mesoscopic physics is a subdiscipline of condensed matter physics that deals with materials of an intermediate length.

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Metaclass (Semantic Web)

In the Semantic Web and in knowledge representation, a metaclass is a class whose instances are themselves classes.

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Metakosmia

The metakosmia (μετακόσμια; intermundia), according to Epicurean philosophy were the relatively empty spaces in the infinite void where worlds had not been formed by the joining together of the atoms through their endless motion.

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Metal–organic framework

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are compounds consisting of metal ions or clusters coordinated to organic ligands to form one-, two-, or three-dimensional structures.

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Metallate

Metallate is the name given to any complex anion containing a metal ligated to several atoms or small groups.

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Metallic bonding

Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons (in the form of an electron cloud of delocalized electrons) and positively charged metal ions.

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Metalloprotease inhibitor

Metalloprotease inhibitors are cellular inhibitors of the Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs).

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Metamaterial

A metamaterial (from the Greek word μετά meta, meaning "beyond") is a material engineered to have a property that is not found in nature.

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Metamorphic rock

Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form".

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Metastability

In physics, metastability is a stable state of a dynamical system other than the system's state of least energy.

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Methane

Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula (one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen).

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Methodic school

The Methodic school of medicine (Methodics, Methodists, or Methodici, Μεθοδικοί) was an ancient school of medicine in ancient Greece and Rome.

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Methylenedioxy

Methylenedioxy is the term used in the field of chemistry, particularly in organic chemistry, for a functional group with the structural formula R-O-CH2-O-R' which is connected to the rest of a molecule by two chemical bonds.

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Methylidyne group

In chemistry, a methylidyne group or just methylidyne is a neutral part of a molecule (a substituent or functional group) with formula ≡CH, consisting of a carbon atom bonded to a hydrogen atom by one single bond and to the rest of the molecule by one triple bond.

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Metre

The metre (British spelling and BIPM spelling) or meter (American spelling) (from the French unit mètre, from the Greek noun μέτρον, "measure") is the base unit of length in some metric systems, including the International System of Units (SI).

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Mica

The mica group of sheet silicate (phyllosilicate) minerals includes several closely related materials having nearly perfect basal cleavage.

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Michele Parrinello

Michele Parrinello (born 7 September 1945, Messina) is an Italian physicist particularly known for his work in molecular dynamics (the computer simulation of physical movements of atoms and molecules).

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Mickey Mouse universe

The Mickey Mouse universe is a fictional shared universe which is the setting for stories involving Disney cartoon characters Mickey and Minnie Mouse, Pluto, Goofy, Donald Duck and many other characters.

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Middle World

Middle World, a term coined by evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins, is used to describe the realm generally experienced by humans that lies between the microscopic world of quarks and atoms and the "cosmic world" of stars and galaxies.

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Miguel A. Catalán

Miguel Antonio Catalán Sañudo (1894–1957) was a Spanish spectroscopist.

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Milan Kurepa

Milan V. Kurepa (1933–2000) was a renowned Serbian atomic physicist.

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Miller index

Miller indices form a notation system in crystallography for planes in crystal (Bravais) lattices.

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MiniGrail

MiniGRAIL is a type of Resonant Mass Antenna, which is a massive sphere that used to detect gravitational waves.

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Minima naturalia

Minima naturalia ("natural minima") were theorized by Aristotle as the smallest parts into which a homogeneous natural substance (e.g., flesh, bone, or wood) could be divided and still retain its essential character.

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Miscibility

Miscibility is the property of substances to mix in all proportions (that is, to fully dissolve in each other at any concentration), forming a homogeneous solution.

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Modal logic

Modal logic is a type of formal logic primarily developed in the 1960s that extends classical propositional and predicate logic to include operators expressing modality.

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MODELLER

Modeller, often stylized as MODELLER, is a computer program used for homology modeling to produce models of protein tertiary structures and quaternary structures (rarer).

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Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering

Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the IOP Publishing eight times per year.

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Modern physics

Modern physics is the post-Newtonian conception of physics.

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Molar ionization energies of the elements

These tables list values of molar ionization energies, measured in kJ mol−1.

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Molar mass

In chemistry, the molar mass M is a physical property defined as the mass of a given substance (chemical element or chemical compound) divided by the amount of substance.

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Mole (unit)

The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance.

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Molecular beam

A molecular beam is produced by allowing a gas at higher pressure to expand through a small orifice into a chamber at lower pressure to form a beam of particles (atoms, free radicals, molecules or ions) moving at approximately equal velocities, with very few collisions between the particles.

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Molecular cloud

A molecular cloud, sometimes called a stellar nursery (if star formation is occurring within), is a type of interstellar cloud, the density and size of which permit the formation of molecules, most commonly molecular hydrogen (H2).

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Molecular dynamics

Molecular dynamics (MD) is a computer simulation method for studying the physical movements of atoms and molecules.

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Molecular entity

A molecular entity is "any constitutionally or isotopically distinct atom, molecule, ion, ion pair, radical, radical ion, complex, conformer, etc., identifiable as a separately distinguishable entity".

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Molecular geometry

Molecular geometry is the three-dimensional arrangement of the atoms that constitute a molecule.

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Molecular graphics

Molecular graphics (MG) is the discipline and philosophy of studying molecules and their properties through graphical representation.

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Molecular mass

Relative Molecular mass or molecular weight is the mass of a molecule.

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Molecular orbital

In chemistry, a molecular orbital (MO) is a mathematical function describing the wave-like behavior of an electron in a molecule.

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Molecular orbital diagram

A molecular orbital diagram, or MO diagram, is a qualitative descriptive tool explaining chemical bonding in molecules in terms of molecular orbital theory in general and the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) molecular orbital method in particular.

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Molecular orbital theory

In chemistry, molecular orbital (MO) theory is a method for determining molecular structure in which electrons are not assigned to individual bonds between atoms, but are treated as moving under the influence of the nuclei in the whole molecule.

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Molecular physics

Molecular physics is the study of the physical properties of molecules, the chemical bonds between atoms as well as the molecular dynamics.

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Molecular probe

A molecular probe is a group of atoms or molecules used in molecular biology or chemistry to study the properties of other molecules or structures.

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Molecular vibration

A molecular vibration occurs when atoms in a molecule are in periodic motion while the molecule as a whole has constant translational and rotational motion.

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Molecularium Project

The Molecularium Project is an informal science education project of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

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Molecule

A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

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Molecules in stars

Stellar molecules are molecules that exist or form in or around stars.

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Momentum diffusion

Momentum diffusion most commonly refers to the diffusion, or spread of momentum between particles (atoms or molecules) of matter, often in the fluid state.

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Monatomic gas

In physics and chemistry, monatomic is a combination of the words "mono" and "atomic", and means "single atom".

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Monobasic acid

A monobasic acid is an acid that has only one hydrogen ion to donate to a base in an acid-base reaction.

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Monoisotopic mass

The monoisotopic mass is the sum of the masses of the atoms in a molecule using the unbound, ground-state, rest mass of the principal (most abundant) isotope for each element instead of the isotopic average mass.

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Monolayer

A monolayer is a single, closely packed layer of atoms, molecules, or cells.

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Monosaccharide

Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar), also called simple sugars, are the most basic units of carbohydrates.

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Monounsaturated fat

In biochemistry and nutrition, monounsaturated fatty acids (abbreviated MUFAs, or more plainly monounsaturated fats) are fatty acids that have one double bond in the fatty acid chain with all of the remainder carbon atoms being single-bonded.

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Monoxide

A monoxide is any oxide containing just one atom of oxygen in the molecule.

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Moore's law

Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles about every two years.

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Moseley's law

Moseley's law is an empirical law concerning the characteristic x-rays that are emitted by atoms.

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MOSFET

MOSFET showing gate (G), body (B), source (S) and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer (white). surface-mount packages. Operating as switches, each of these components can sustain a blocking voltage of 120nbspvolts in the ''off'' state, and can conduct a continuous current of 30 amperes in the ''on'' state, dissipating up to about 100 watts and controlling a load of over 2000 watts. A matchstick is pictured for scale. A cross-section through an nMOSFET when the gate voltage ''V''GS is below the threshold for making a conductive channel; there is little or no conduction between the terminals drain and source; the switch is off. When the gate is more positive, it attracts electrons, inducing an ''n''-type conductive channel in the substrate below the oxide, which allows electrons to flow between the ''n''-doped terminals; the switch is on. Simulation result for formation of inversion channel (electron density) and attainment of threshold voltage (IV) in a nanowire MOSFET. Note that the threshold voltage for this device lies around 0.45 V The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a type of field-effect transistor (FET), most commonly fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon.

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Motion (physics)

In physics, motion is a change in position of an object over time.

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Motor oil

Motor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any of various substances comprising base oils enhanced with additives, particularly antiwear additive plus detergents, dispersants and, for multi-grade oils viscosity index improvers.

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Mott transition

A Mott transition is a metal-nonmetal transition in condensed matter.

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Mr Tompkins

Mr Tompkins is the title character in a series of four popular science books by the physicist George Gamow.

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Multipole density formalism

The Multipole Density Formalism (also referred to as Hansen-Coppens Formalism) is an X-ray crystallography method of electron density modelling proposed by Niels K. Hansen and Philip Coppens in 1978.

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Muon

The muon (from the Greek letter mu (μ) used to represent it) is an elementary particle similar to the electron, with an electric charge of −1 e and a spin of 1/2, but with a much greater mass.

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N,N'-Di-n-butylthiourea

N,N′-Di-n-butylthiourea is an organic compound with S.

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NAMD

Nanoscale Molecular Dynamics (NAMD, formerly Not Another Molecular Dynamics Program) is computer software for molecular dynamics simulation, written using the Charm++ parallel programming model.

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Nano guitar

The nano guitar is a microscopically small carved guitar.

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Nanochemistry

Nanochemistry is the combination of chemistry and nanoscience.

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Nanoclusters

Metal nanoclusters consist of a small number of atoms, at most in the tens.

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Nanocrystal

A nanocrystal is a material particle having at least one dimension smaller than 100 nanometres, based on quantum dots (a nanoparticle) and composed of atoms in either a single- or poly-crystalline arrangement.

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Nanofabrics

Nanofabrics are textiles engineered with small particles that give ordinary materials advantageous properties such as superhydrophobicity (extreme water resistance, also see "Lotus effect"), odor and moisture elimination, increased elasticity and strength, and bacterial resistance.

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Nanofoundry

A nanofoundry is considered to be a foundry that performs on a scale similar to nanotechnology.

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Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 to 1000 nanometres (10−9 meter) but usually is 1 to 100 nm (the usual definition of nanoscale).

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Nanomechanics

Nanomechanics is a branch of nanoscience studying fundamental mechanical (elastic, thermal and kinetic) properties of physical systems at the nanometer scale.

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Nanonephrology

Nanonephrology is a branch of nanomedicine and nanotechnology that deals with.

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Nanoparticle

Nanoparticles are particles between 1 and 100 nanometres (nm) in size with a surrounding interfacial layer.

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Nanosensor

Nanosensors are sensors whose active elements include nanomaterials.

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Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology ("nanotech") is manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale.

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Nanotribology

Nanotribology is the branch of tribology that studies friction, wear, adhesion and lubrication phenomena at the nanoscale, where atomic interactions and quantum effects are not negligible.

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Naphthalen-1,8-diyl 1,3,2,4-dithiadiphosphetane 2,4-disulfide

A compound related to Lawesson's reagent named NpP2S4 has been formed by the reaction of 1-bromonaphthalene with P4S10, this is a 1,3,2,4-dithiadiphosphetane 2,4-disulfide which has a naphth-1,8-diyl group holding the two phosphorus atoms together.

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National Research Universal reactor

The National Research Universal (NRU) reactor was a 135 MWt nuclear research reactor built in the Chalk River Laboratories, Ontario, one of Canada’s national science facilities.

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National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory

The National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory (NSCL) is located on the campus of Michigan State University and is the leading rare isotope research facility in the United States.

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Natural computing

Natural computing,G.Rozenberg, T.Back, J.Kok, Editors, Handbook of Natural Computing, Springer Verlag, 2012A.Brabazon, M.O'Neill, S.McGarraghy.

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Natural science

Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.

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Nayland College

Nayland College is a coeducational state secondary school located in Stoke, Nelson, New Zealand.

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Negative temperature

In physics, certain systems can achieve negative temperature; that is, their thermodynamic temperature can be expressed as a negative quantity on the Kelvin or Rankine scales.

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Negative-index metamaterial

Negative-index metamaterial or negative-index material (NIM) is a metamaterial whose refractive index for an electromagnetic wave has a negative value over some frequency range.

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Neodymium-doped yttrium orthovanadate

Neodymium-doped yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4) is a crystalline material formed by adding neodymium ions to yttrium orthovanadate.

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Neon

Neon is a chemical element with symbol Ne and atomic number 10.

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Neuromuscular-blocking drug

Neuromuscular-blocking drugs block neuromuscular transmission at the neuromuscular junction, causing paralysis of the affected skeletal muscles.

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Neutrino decoupling

In Big Bang cosmology, neutrino decoupling refers to the epoch at which neutrinos ceased interacting with baryonic matter, and thereby ceased influencing the dynamics of the universe at early times.

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Neutron

| magnetic_moment.

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Neutron embrittlement

Neutron embrittlement, sometimes more broadly radiation embrittlement, is the embrittlement of various materials due to the action of neutrons.

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Neutron magnetic moment

The neutron magnetic moment is the intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of the neutron, symbol μn.

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Neutron radiation

Neutron radiation is a form of ionizing radiation that presents as free neutrons.

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Nevil Sidgwick

Nevil Vincent Sidgwick FRS (8 May 1873 – 15 March 1952) was an English theoretical chemist who made significant contributions to the theory of valency and chemical bonding.

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New Zealand one hundred-dollar note

The New Zealand one-hundred-dollar note was issued on May 3, 1999.

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NGC 4151

NGC 4151 is an intermediate spiral Seyfert galaxy with weak inner ring structure located from Earth in the constellation Canes Venatici.

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Niels Bohr

Niels Henrik David Bohr (7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922.

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Nikolay Neprimerov

Nikolay Neprimerov (1 May 1921 – 11 January 2017) was a Doctor of Technical Sciences and professor of physics at the Kazan State University.

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Nitrate

Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the molecular formula and a molecular mass of 62.0049 u.

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Nitrene

In chemistry, a nitrene (R–N) is the nitrogen analogue of a carbene.

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Nitrogen rule

The nitrogen rule states that organic compounds containing exclusively hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and the halogens either have 1) an odd nominal mass that indicates an odd number of nitrogen atoms are present or 2) an even nominal mass that indicates an even number of nitrogen atoms in the molecular formula of the molecular ion. The nitrogen rule is not a rule, per se, as much as a general principle which may prove useful when attempting to solve organic mass spectrometry structures.

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Nitrogenous base

A nitrogenous base, or nitrogen-containing base, is an organic molecule with a nitrogen atom that has the chemical properties of a base.

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Noble gas

The noble gases (historically also the inert gases) make up a group of chemical elements with similar properties; under standard conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity.

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Noble gas configuration

Noble gas configuration is the electron configuration of noble gases.

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Non-bonding orbital

A non-bonding orbital, also known as non-bonding molecular orbital (NBMO), is a molecular orbital whose occupation by electrons neither increases nor decreases the bond order between the involved atoms.

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Non-covalent interactions

A non-covalent interaction differs from a covalent bond in that it does not involve the sharing of electrons, but rather involves more dispersed variations of electromagnetic interactions between molecules or within a molecule.

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Non-ionizing radiation

Non-ionizing (or non-ionising) radiation refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough energy per quantum (photon energy) to ionize atoms or molecules—that is, to completely remove an electron from an atom or molecule.

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Non-Kekulé molecule

A non-Kekulé molecule is a conjugated hydrocarbon that cannot be assigned a classical Kekulé structure.

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Nonradiation condition

Classical nonradiation conditions define the conditions according to classical electromagnetism under which a distribution of accelerating charges will not emit electromagnetic radiation.

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Noun

A noun (from Latin nōmen, literally meaning "name") is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.

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Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation

In chemistry, the Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation of ketones is a chemical reaction for the enantioselective hydrogenation of ketones, aldehydes, and imines.

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Nuclear art

Nuclear art was an artistic tendency developed by some artists and painters, after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

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Nuclear binding energy

Nuclear binding energy is the minimum energy that would be required to disassemble the nucleus of an atom into its component parts.

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Nuclear chemistry

Nuclear chemistry is the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, such as nuclear transmutation, and nuclear properties.

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Nuclear density

Nuclear density is the density of the nucleus of an atom, averaging about 2.3×1017 kg/m3.

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Nuclear fission

In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is either a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei).

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Nuclear fission product

Nuclear fission products are the atomic fragments left after a large atomic nucleus undergoes nuclear fission.

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Nuclear force

The nuclear force (or nucleon–nucleon interaction or residual strong force) is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms.

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Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) quantum computing is one of the several proposed approaches for constructing a quantum computer, that uses the spin states of nuclei within molecules as qubits.

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Nuclear physics

Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions.

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Nuclear Power and the Environment

Nuclear Power and the Environment, sometimes simply called the Flowers Report, was released in September 1976 and is the sixth report of the UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, chaired by Sir Brian Flowers.

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Nuclear reaction

In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, a nuclear reaction is semantically considered to be the process in which two nuclei, or else a nucleus of an atom and a subatomic particle (such as a proton, neutron, or high energy electron) from outside the atom, collide to produce one or more nuclides that are different from the nuclide(s) that began the process.

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Nuclear transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one chemical element or an isotope into another chemical element.

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Nucleotide

Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as the monomer units for forming the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules within all life-forms on Earth.

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Number density

In physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology and geography, number density (symbol: n or ρN) is an intensive quantity used to describe the degree of concentration of countable objects (particles, molecules, phonons, cells, galaxies, etc.) in physical space: three-dimensional volumetric number density, two-dimensional areal number density, or one-dimensional line number density.

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Number line

In basic mathematics, a number line is a picture of a graduated straight line that serves as abstraction for real numbers, denoted by \mathbb.

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Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is an American multiprogram science and technology national laboratory sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and administered, managed, and operated by UT-Battelle as a federally funded research and development center (FFRDC) under a contract with the DOE.

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Octaazacubane

Octaazacubane is a hypothetical explosive allotrope of nitrogen with formula N8, whose molecules have eight atoms arranged into a cube.

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Octet rule

The octet rule is a chemical rule of thumb that reflects observation that atoms of main-group elements tend to combine in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell, giving it the same electron configuration as a noble gas.

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Oddo–Harkins rule

The Oddo–Harkins rule holds that an element with an even atomic number (such as carbon: element 6) is more abundant than both elements with the adjacently smaller and larger odd atomic numbers (such as boron: element 5 and nitrogen: element 7, respectively for the carbon).

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Ohm's law

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.

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Oil refinery

Oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is transformed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas, jet fuel and fuel oils.

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One World or None

One World or None (1946) is a instructional documentary short film produced by the National Committee on Atomic Information in conjunction with Philip Ragan Productions.

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Ontology

Ontology (introduced in 1606) is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations.

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Open shell

In the context of atomic orbitals, an open shell is a valence shell which is not completely filled with electrons or that has not given all of its valence electrons through chemical bonds with other atoms or molecules during a chemical reaction.

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Optical fiber

An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair.

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Optical lattice

An optical lattice is formed by the interference of counter-propagating laser beams, creating a spatially periodic polarization pattern.

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Optical microcavity

An optical microcavity or microresonator is a structure formed by reflecting faces on the two sides of a spacer layer or optical medium, or by wrapping a waveguide in a circular fashion to form a ring.

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Optical molasses

Optical molasses is a laser cooling technique that can cool neutral atoms to temperatures lower than a magneto-optical trap (MOT).

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Optical pumping

Optical pumping is a process in which light is used to raise (or "pump") electrons from a lower energy level in an atom or molecule to a higher one.

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Optically active additive

Optically active additive (OAA) is an organic or inorganic material which, when added to a coating, makes that coating react to ultra violet light.

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Orders of magnitude (data)

An order of magnitude is a factor of ten.

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Orders of magnitude (energy)

This list compares various energies in joules (J), organized by order of magnitude.

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Orders of magnitude (numbers)

This list contains selected positive numbers in increasing order, including counts of things, dimensionless quantity and probabilities.

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Original Child Bomb

Original Child Bomb is a 2004 documentary about the aftermath of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

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Orion's Arm

Orion's Arm (also called the Orion's Arm Universe Project, OAUP, or simply OA) is a multi-authored online science fiction world-building project, first established in 2000 by M. Alan Kazlev, Donna Malcolm Hirsekorn, Bernd Helfert and Anders Sandberg and further co-authored by many people since.

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Other Songs (novel)

Inne pieśni (Other Songs) is a novel written in 2003 by Jacek Dukaj, Polish science fiction writer and published in Poland by Wydawnictwo Literackie.

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Otto Stern

Otto Stern (17 February 1888 – 17 August 1969) was a German American physicist and Nobel laureate in physics.

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Our Mr. Sun

Our Mr.

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Outline of chemistry

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry: Chemistry – science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions.

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Outline of physical science

Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science.

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Outline of physics

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to physics: Physics – natural science that involves the study of matterRichard Feynman begins his ''Lectures'' with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations..., what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is...

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Outline of water

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to water: Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O.

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Oxazole

Oxazole is the parent compound for a vast class of heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds.

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Oxford Instruments

Oxford Instruments plc is a United Kingdom manufacturing and research company that designs and manufactures tools and systems for industry and research.

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Oxidation state

The oxidation state, sometimes referred to as oxidation number, describes degree of oxidation (loss of electrons) of an atom in a chemical compound.

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Oxidizing agent

In chemistry, an oxidizing agent (oxidant, oxidizer) is a substance that has the ability to oxidize other substances — in other words to cause them to lose electrons.

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Ozone

Ozone, or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula.

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Ozone layer

The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation.

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P-process

The term p-process (p is for proton) is used in two ways in the scientific literature concerning the astrophysical origin of the elements (nucleosynthesis).

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Partial charge

A partial charge is a non-integer charge value when measured in elementary charge units.

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Partial pressure

In a mixture of gases, each gas has a partial pressure which is the hypothetical pressure of that gas if it alone occupied the entire volume of the original mixture at the same temperature.

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Particle

In the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscule in older texts) is a small localized object to which can be ascribed several physical or chemical properties such as volume, density or mass.

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Particle physics

Particle physics (also high energy physics) is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation.

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Particle statistics

Particle statistics is a particular description of multiple particles in statistical mechanics.

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Particle-beam weapon

A particle-beam weapon uses a high-energy beam of atomic or subatomic particles to damage the target by disrupting its atomic and/or molecular structure.

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Passive transport

Passive transport is a movement of ions and other atomic or molecular substances across cell membranes without need of energy input.

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Paul Langevin

Paul Langevin (23 January 1872 – 19 December 1946) was a prominent French physicist who developed Langevin dynamics and the Langevin equation.

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Paul Sophus Epstein

Paul Sophus Epstein (Warsaw, then part of Imperial Russia, now Poland, March 20, 1883 – Pasadena, February 8, 1966) was a Russian-American mathematical physicist.

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Paul Steinhardt

Paul Joseph Steinhardt (born December 25, 1952) is an American theoretical physicist and cosmologist who is currently the Albert Einstein Professor in Science at Princeton University.

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Pauli exclusion principle

The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum mechanical principle which states that two or more identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin) cannot occupy the same quantum state within a quantum system simultaneously.

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Pavel Jelínek

Pavel Jelínek (born November 17, 1972) is a Czech physicist, member of an international group of scientists (from Japan, Spain and Czech Republic), that for the first time chemically identified individual atoms using an atomic force microscope and quantum-mechanical computation.

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P–n junction

A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor.

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PDE1

PDE1 (phosphodiesterase type 1) is a phosphodiesterase enzyme also known as calcium- and calmodulin-dependent phosphodiesterase.

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Pentakis dodecahedron

In geometry, a pentakis dodecahedron or kisdodecahedron is a dodecahedron with a pentagonal pyramid covering each face; that is, it is the Kleetope of the dodecahedron.

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Pentose

A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms.

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Perfluorodecalin

Perfluorodecalin is a fluorocarbon, a derivative of decalin in which all of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by fluorine atoms.

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Perfluorohexane

Perfluorohexane, or tetradecafluorohexane, is a fluorocarbon.

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Period 1 element

A period 1 element is one of the chemical elements in the first row (or period) of the periodic table of the chemical elements.

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Period 2 element

A period 2 element is one of the chemical elements in the second row (or period) of the periodic table of the chemical elements.

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Period 5 element

A period 5 element is one of the chemical elements in the fifth row (or period) of the periodic table of the elements.

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Periodic graph (crystallography)

In crystallography, a periodic graph or crystal net is a three-dimensional periodic graph, i.e., a three-dimensional Euclidean graph whose vertices or nodes are points in three-dimensional Euclidean space, and whose edges (or bonds or spacers) are line segments connecting pairs of vertices, periodic in three linearly independent axial directions.

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Periodic poling

Periodic poling is a formation of layers with alternate orientation in a birefringent material.

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Periodic systems of small molecules

Periodic systems of molecules are charts of molecules similar to the periodic table of the elements.

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Periodic table

The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, ordered by their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties, whose structure shows periodic trends.

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Periodic trends

Periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in the periodic table that illustrate different aspects of a certain element, including its radius and its electronic properties.

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Permittivity

In electromagnetism, absolute permittivity, often simply called permittivity, usually denoted by the Greek letter ε (epsilon), is the measure of resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a particular medium.

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Peroxide

Peroxide is a compound with the structure R-O-O-R. The O−O group in a peroxide is called the peroxide group or peroxo group.

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Persistent current

Persistent current is a perpetual electric current, not requiring an external power source.

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Peter Debye

Peter Joseph William Debye (March 24, 1884 – November 2, 1966) was a Dutch-American physicist and physical chemist, and Nobel laureate in Chemistry.

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Peter L. Hagelstein

Peter L. Hagelstein is a principal investigator in the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE) and an associate professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

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Peter Zoller

Peter Zoller (born 16 September 1952) is a theoretical physicist from Austria.

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Petroleum naphtha

Petroleum naphtha is an intermediate hydrocarbon liquid stream derived from the refining of crude oil with CAS-no 64742-48-9.

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Phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging

Phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging (PC-MRI) is a specific type of magnetic resonance imaging used primarily to determine flow velocities.

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Phenylbutazone

Phenylbutazone, often referred to as "bute," is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) for the short-term treatment of pain and fever in animals.

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Philip Skell

Philip S. Skell (December 30, 1918 – November 21, 2010) was an American chemist, emeritus Evan Pugh Professor at Pennsylvania State University, and from 1977 a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences.

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Philosophical Magazine

The Philosophical Magazine is one of the oldest scientific journals published in English.

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Philosophy of chemistry

The philosophy of chemistry considers the methodology and underlying assumptions of the science of chemistry.

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Philosophy of physics

In philosophy, philosophy of physics deals with conceptual and interpretational issues in modern physics, and often overlaps with research done by certain kinds of theoretical physicists.

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Philosophy of science

Philosophy of science is a sub-field of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science.

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Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics

The philosophy of thermal and statistical physics is that part of the philosophy of physics whose subject matter is classical thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and related theories.

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Phonon

In physics, a phonon is a collective excitation in a periodic, elastic arrangement of atoms or molecules in condensed matter, like solids and some liquids.

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Phosphate

A phosphate is chemical derivative of phosphoric acid.

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Phosphazene

Phosphazenes are a class of chemical compounds in which a phosphorus atom is covalently linked to a nitrogen atom by a double bond and to three other atoms or radicals by single bonds.

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Phosphopentose epimerase

Phosphopentose epimerase (also known as ribulose-phosphate 3-epimerase and ribulose 5-phosphate 3-epimerase)() encoded by the RPE gene is a metalloprotein that catalyzes the interconversion between D-ribulose 5-phosphate and D-xylulose 5-phosphate.

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Phosphoric acids and phosphates

There are various kinds of phosphoric acids and phosphates.

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Photodissociation

Photodissociation, photolysis, or photodecomposition is a chemical reaction in which a chemical compound is broken down by photons.

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Photodissociation region

Photodissociation regions (or photon-dominated regions, or PDRs) are predominantly neutral regions of the interstellar medium in which far ultraviolet photons strongly influence the gas chemistry and act as the most important source of heat.

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Photoelectric effect

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light shines on a material.

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Photoelectrochemical process

Photoelectrochemical processes are processes in photoelectrochemistry; they usually involve transforming light into other forms of energy.

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Photoinduced charge separation

Photoinduced charge separation is the process of an electron in an atom or molecule, being excited to a higher energy level by the absorption of a photon and then leaving the atom or molecule to a nearby electron acceptor.

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Photoionization

Photoionization is the physical process in which an ion is formed from the interaction of a photon with an atom or molecule.

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Photoluminescence

Photoluminescence (abbreviated as PL) is light emission from any form of matter after the absorption of photons (electromagnetic radiation).

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Photomagnetic effect

The magnetic effect is a theoretical quantum mechanical effect discovered by the researchers Samuel L. Oliveira and Stephen C. Rand at University of Michigan 2007–2011.

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Photon

The photon is a type of elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force (even when static via virtual particles).

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Phthalazine

Phthalazine, also called benzo-orthodiazine or benzopyridazine, is a heterocyclic organic compound with the molecular formula C8H6N2.

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Physical chemistry

Physical Chemistry is the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of the principles, practices, and concepts of physics such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, analytical dynamics and chemical equilibrium.

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Physical cosmology

Physical cosmology is the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the Universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate.

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Physical organic chemistry

Physical organic chemistry, a term coined by Louis Hammett in 1940, refers to a discipline of organic chemistry that focuses on the relationship between chemical structures and reactivity, in particular, applying experimental tools of physical chemistry to the study of organic molecules.

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Physicist

A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe.

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Physics

Physics (from knowledge of nature, from φύσις phýsis "nature") is the natural science that studies matterAt the start of The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Richard Feynman offers the atomic hypothesis as the single most prolific scientific concept: "If, in some cataclysm, all scientific knowledge were to be destroyed one sentence what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another..." and its motion and behavior through space and time and that studies the related entities of energy and force."Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events." Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, and its main goal is to understand how the universe behaves."Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all disciplines use the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, paleontologists who try to reconstruct how dinosaurs walked, and climatologists who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, an interplanetary spacecraft, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws of physics. (...) You will come to see physics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world and ourselves."Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns that relate these phenomena.""Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you." Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through its inclusion of astronomy, perhaps the oldest. Over the last two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were a part of natural philosophy, but during the scientific revolution in the 17th century, these natural sciences emerged as unique research endeavors in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences and suggest new avenues of research in academic disciplines such as mathematics and philosophy. Advances in physics often enable advances in new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism and nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.

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Pi helix

A pi helix (or π-helix) is a type of secondary structure found in proteins.

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Picometre

The picometre (international spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: pm) or picometer (American spelling) is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to, or one trillionth of a metre, which is the SI base unit of length.

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Picotechnology

The term picotechnology is a portmanteau of picometer and technology, intended to parallel the term nanotechnology.

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Pierre Victor Auger

Pierre Victor Auger (14 May 1899 – 25 December 1993) was a French physicist, born in Paris.

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Pieter Zeeman

Pieter Zeeman (25 May 1865 – 9 October 1943) was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Hendrik Lorentz for his discovery of the Zeeman effect.

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Piperazine

Piperazine is an organic compound that consists of a six-membered ring containing two nitrogen atoms at opposite positions in the ring.

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Plagioclase

Plagioclase is a series of tectosilicate (framework silicate) minerals within the feldspar group.

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Planck postulate

The Planck postulate (or Planck's postulate), one of the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics, is the postulate that the energy of oscillators in a black body is quantized, and is given by where n is an integer (1, 2, 3,...), h is Planck's constant, and \nu (the Greek letter nu, not the Latin letter v) is the frequency of the oscillator.

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Planck's law

Planck's law describes the spectral density of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body in thermal equilibrium at a given temperature T. The law is named after Max Planck, who proposed it in 1900.

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Plasma cleaning

Plasma cleaning is the removal of impurities and contaminants from surfaces through the use of an energetic plasma or dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma created from gaseous species.

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Plasma etching

Plasma etching is a form of plasma processing used to fabricate integrated circuits.

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Plasma gasification

Plasma gasification is an extreme thermal process using plasma which converts organic matter into a syngas (synthesis gas) which is primarily made up of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.

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Plasma recombination

Plasma recombination is a process by which positive ions of a plasma capture a free (energetic) electron and combine with electrons or negative ions to form new neutral atoms (gas).

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Plasma stealth

Plasma stealth is a proposed process to use ionized gas (plasma) to reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) of an aircraft.

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Plasma window

The plasma window (not to be confused with a plasma shield) is a technology that fills a volume of space with plasma confined by a magnetic field.

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Platonic hydrocarbon

A Platonic hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon (molecule) whose structure matches one of the five Platonic solids, with carbon atoms replacing its vertices, carbon–carbon bonds replacing its edges, and hydrogen atoms as needed.

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Plum pudding model

The plum pudding model is one of several scientific models of the atom.

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Pneumatic school

The Pneumatic school of medicine (Pneumatics, or Pneumatici, Πνευματικοί) was an ancient school of medicine in ancient Greece and Rome.

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Polarizability

Polarizability is the ability to form instantaneous dipoles.

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Polaron

A polaron is a quasiparticle used in condensed matter physics to understand the interactions between electrons and atoms in a solid material.

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Polybioides raphigastra

Polybioides raphigastra is a species of social wasp found in the forests of South East Asia and Indonesia.

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Polyclonal B cell response

Polyclonal B cell response is a natural mode of immune response exhibited by the adaptive immune system of mammals.

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Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory

In chemistry the polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory (PSEPT) provides electron counting rules useful for predicting the structures of clusters such as borane and carborane clusters.

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Polymer

A polymer (Greek poly-, "many" + -mer, "part") is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits.

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Polymer chemistry

Polymer chemistry is a chemistry subdiscipline that deals with the structures, chemical synthesis and properties of polymers, primarily synthetic polymers such as plastics and elastomers.

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Polymer degradation

Polymer degradation is a change in the properties—tensile strength, color, shape, etc.—of a polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental factors such as heat, light or chemicals such as acids, alkalis and some salts.

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Polymer science

Polymer science or macromolecular science is a subfield of materials science concerned with polymers, primarily synthetic polymers such as plastics and elastomers.

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Polysaccharide

Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages, and on hydrolysis give the constituent monosaccharides or oligosaccharides.

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Population inversion

In science, specifically statistical mechanics, a population inversion occurs while a system (such as a group of atoms or molecules) exists in a state in which more members of the system are in higher, excited states than in lower, unexcited energy states.

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Positron lifetime spectroscopy

Positron lifetime spectroscopy is a technique in material science used for studying the types and concentrations of atomic sized defects in materials.

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Potential energy

In physics, potential energy is the energy possessed by an object because of its position relative to other objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors.

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Potential energy of protein

Internal potential energy of a molecule in molecular mechanics is described by a system of functions known as forced field.

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Powers of Ten (film)

The Powers of Ten films are two short American documentary films written and directed by Charles and Ray Eames.

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Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar

Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar (11 May 1922 – 21 October 1990), also known by his spiritual name, Shrii Shrii Ánandamúrti (Ánanda Múrti.

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Precision tests of QED

Quantum electrodynamics (QED), a relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics, is among the most stringently tested theories in physics.

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Primary atmosphere

A primary atmosphere is an atmosphere of a planet that forms by accretion of gaseous matter from the accretion disc of the planet's sun.

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Primary Atomic Reference Clock in Space

The Primary Atomic Reference Clock in Space or PARCS was an atomic-clock mission scheduled to fly on the International Space Station (ISS) in 2008, but cancelled to make way for the Vision for Space Exploration.

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Principal quantum number

In quantum mechanics, the principal quantum number (symbolized n) is one of four quantum numbers which are assigned to all electrons in an atom to describe that electron's state.

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Principles of Electronics

Principles of Electronics is a 2002 book by Colin Simpson designed to accompany the Electronics Technician distance education program and contains a concise and practical overview of the basic principles, including theorems, circuit behavior and problem-solving procedures of Electronic circuits and devices.

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Probability interpretations

The word probability has been used in a variety of ways since it was first applied to the mathematical study of games of chance.

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Process philosophy

Process philosophy — also ontology of becoming, processism, or philosophy of organism — identifies metaphysical reality with change and development.

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Prochirality

In stereochemistry, prochiral molecules are those that can be converted from achiral to chiral in a single step.

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Productive nanosystems

The defines "productive nanosystems" as functional nanometer-scale systems that make atomically-specified structures and devices under programmatic control, i.e., they perform manufacturing to atomic precision.

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Programmable matter

Programmable matter is matter which has the ability to change its physical properties (shape, density, moduli, conductivity, optical properties, etc.) in a programmable fashion, based upon user input or autonomous sensing.

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Propædia

The one-volume Propædia is the first of three parts of the 15th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, the other two being the 12-volume Micropædia and the 17-volume Macropædia.

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Propensity probability

The propensity theory of probability is one interpretation of the concept of probability.

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Properties of water

Water is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, which is nearly colorless apart from an inherent hint of blue. It is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal solvent" and the "solvent of life". It is the most abundant substance on Earth and the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas on Earth's surface. It is also the third most abundant molecule in the universe. Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and are strongly polar. This polarity allows it to separate ions in salts and strongly bond to other polar substances such as alcohols and acids, thus dissolving them. Its hydrogen bonding causes its many unique properties, such as having a solid form less dense than its liquid form, a relatively high boiling point of 100 °C for its molar mass, and a high heat capacity. Water is amphoteric, meaning that it is both an acid and a base—it produces + and - ions by self-ionization.

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Proposed redefinition of SI base units

The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) has proposed revised definitions of the SI base units, for consideration at the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM).

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Protein

Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues.

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Protein chemical shift prediction

Protein chemical shift prediction is a branch of biomolecular nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy that aims to accurately calculate protein chemical shifts from protein coordinates.

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Protein structure

Protein structure is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in an amino acid-chain molecule.

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Protein tertiary structure

Protein tertiary structure is the three dimensional shape of a protein.

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Protein-glutamate O-methyltransferase

In enzymology, a protein-glutamate O-methyltransferase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are S-adenosyl methionine and protein L-glutamic acid, whereas its two products are S-adenosylhomocysteine and protein L-glutamate methyl ester.

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Proton

| magnetic_moment.

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Proton affinity

The proton affinity (PA, Epa) of an anion or of a neutral atom or molecule is the negative of the enthalpy change in the reaction between above species and proton in the gas phase: These reactions are always exothermic in the gas phase, i.e. energy is released when the reaction advances in the direction shown and enthalpy is negative, while the proton affinity is positive.

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Proton magnetic moment

The proton magnetic moment is the magnetic dipole moment of the proton, symbol μp.

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Protonation

In chemistry, protonation is the addition of a proton (H+) to an atom, molecule, or ion, forming the conjugate acid.

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Prout's hypothesis

Prout's hypothesis was an early 19th-century attempt to explain the existence of the various chemical elements through a hypothesis regarding the internal structure of the atom.

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PS210 experiment

The PS210 experiment was the first experiment that led to the observation of antihydrogen atoms produced at the Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR) at CERN in 1995.

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Pseudocapacitance

Pseudocapacitance is the electrochemical storage of electricity in an electrochemical capacitor (Pseudocapacitor).

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Pseudocapacitor

Pseudocapacitors store electrical energy faradaically by electron charge transfer between electrode and electrolyte.

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Pseudopotential

In physics, a pseudopotential or effective potential is used as an approximation for the simplified description of complex systems.

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Psychokinesis

Psychokinesis (from Greek ψυχή "mind" and κίνησις "movement"), or telekinesis (from τηλε- "far off" and κίνηση "movement"), is an alleged psychic ability allowing a person to influence a physical system without physical interaction. Psychokinesis experiments have historically been criticized for lack of proper controls and repeatability. There is no convincing evidence that psychokinesis is a real phenomenon, and the topic is generally regarded as pseudoscience.

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Psychophysical parallelism

Psychophysical parallelism (or parallelism) is the philosophical theory that mental and bodily events occur together, without any causal interaction between them.

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Psygnosis

Psygnosis Limited was a video game developer and publisher headquartered at Wavertree Technology Park in Liverpool, England.

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Pulsed laser deposition

Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) is a physical vapor deposition (PVD) technique where a high-power pulsed laser beam is focused inside a vacuum chamber to strike a target of the material that is to be deposited.

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Pushchino

Pushchino (p) is a town in Moscow Oblast, Russia, an important scientific center of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

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Pyramidal alkene

Pyramidal alkenes are alkenes in which the two carbon atoms making up the double bond are not coplanar with their four substituents.

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Pyrazine

Pyrazine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound with the chemical formula C4H4N2.

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QCD vacuum

Th Quantum Chromodynamic Vacuum or QCD vacuum is the vacuum state of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).

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Quadruple bond

A quadruple bond is a type of chemical bond between two atoms involving eight electrons.

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Quantum

In physics, a quantum (plural: quanta) is the minimum amount of any physical entity (physical property) involved in an interaction.

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Quantum chromodynamics binding energy

The quantum chromodynamics binding energy (QCD binding energy), gluon binding energy or chromodynamic binding energy is the energy binding quarks together into hadrons.

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Quantum computing

Quantum computing is computing using quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement.

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Quantum dot

Quantum dots (QD) are very small semiconductor particles, only several nanometres in size, so small that their optical and electronic properties differ from those of larger particles.

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Quantum electrochemistry

The scientific school of Quantum electrochemistry began to form in the 1960s under Revaz Dogonadze.

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Quantum electrodynamics

In particle physics, quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics.

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Quantum geometry

In theoretical physics, quantum geometry is the set of mathematical concepts generalizing the concepts of geometry whose understanding is necessary to describe the physical phenomena at distance scales comparable to Planck length.

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Quantum gravity

Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics, and where quantum effects cannot be ignored, such as near compact astrophysical objects where the effects of gravity are strong.

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Quantum mechanical scattering of photon and nucleus

In pair production, a photon creates an electron positron pair.

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Quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics, quantum theory, the wave mechanical model, or matrix mechanics), including quantum field theory, is a fundamental theory in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles.

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Quantum number

Quantum numbers describe values of conserved quantities in the dynamics of a quantum system.

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Quantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey

Quantum Quest: A Cassini Space Odyssey (originally titled as 2004: A Light Knight's Odyssey) is a 2010 animated educational sci-fi adventure film, written by Harry 'Doc' Kloor and directed by Kloor and Dan St. Pierre, as a science fiction film that takes the viewer on an atomic adventure in space.

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Quantum-mechanical explanation of intermolecular interactions

In the natural sciences, an intermolecular force is an attraction between two molecules or atoms.

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Quantum-optical spectroscopy

Quantum-optical spectroscopyKira, M.; Koch, S. (2006).

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Quark–gluon plasma

A quark–gluon plasma (QGP) or quark soup is a state of matter in quantum chromodynamics (QCD) which exists at extremely high temperature and/or density.

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Quinolone antibiotic

A quinolone antibiotic is any member of a large group of broad-spectrum bactericides that share a bicyclic core structure related to the compound 4-quinolone.

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Rabi cycle

In physics, the Rabi cycle (or Rabi flop) is the cyclic behaviour of a two-level quantum system in the presence of an oscillatory driving field.

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Rabi problem

The Rabi problem concerns the response of an atom to an applied harmonic electric field, with an applied frequency very close to the atom's natural frequency.

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Racah parameter

When an atom has more than one electron there will be some electrostatic repulsion between those electrons.

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Radiation protection

Radiation protection, sometimes known as radiological protection, is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as "The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this".

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Radiation trapping

Radiation trapping, imprisonment of resonance radiation, radiative transfer of spectral lines, line transfer or radiation diffusion is a phenomenon in physics whereby radiation may be "trapped" in a system as it is emitted by one atom and absorbed by another.

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Radical (chemistry)

In chemistry, a radical (more precisely, a free radical) is an atom, molecule, or ion that has an unpaired valence electron.

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Radical disproportionation

Radicals in chemistry are defined as reactive atoms or molecules that contain unpaired electrons in an open shell.

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Radio

Radio is the technology of using radio waves to carry information, such as sound, by systematically modulating properties of electromagnetic energy waves transmitted through space, such as their amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width.

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Radio wave

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light.

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Radio-Activity

Radio-Activity (German title: Radio-Aktivität) is the fifth studio album by German electronic band Kraftwerk, released in October 1975.

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Radioactive tracer

A radioactive tracer, or radioactive label, is a chemical compound in which one or more atoms have been replaced by a radionuclide so by virtue of its radioactive decay it can be used to explore the mechanism of chemical reactions by tracing the path that the radioisotope follows from reactants to products.

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Radionuclide

A radionuclide (radioactive nuclide, radioisotope or radioactive isotope) is an atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable.

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Rafik Khachatryan

Rafik Khachatryan (Ռաֆիկ Գարեգինի Խաչատրյան; October 7, 1937 – January 16, 1993) was an Armenian sculptor.

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Rainer Blatt

Rainer Blatt (born 8 September 1952) is a German-Austrian experimental physicist.

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Raman cooling

In atomic physics, Raman cooling is a sub-recoil cooling technique that allows the cooling of atoms using optical methods below the limitations of Doppler cooling, limited by the recoil energy of a photon given to an atom.

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Raman scattering

Raman scattering or the Raman effect is the inelastic scattering of a photon by molecules which are excited to higher vibrational or rotational energy levels.

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Ramsauer–Townsend effect

The Ramsauer–Townsend effect, also sometimes called the Ramsauer effect or the Townsend effect, is a physical phenomenon involving the scattering of low-energy electrons by atoms of a noble gas.

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Randomness

Randomness is the lack of pattern or predictability in events.

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Reaction intermediate

A reaction intermediate or an intermediate is a molecular entity that is formed from the reactants (or preceding intermediates) and reacts further to give the directly observed products of a chemical reaction.

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Recombination (cosmology)

In cosmology, recombination refers to the epoch at which charged electrons and protons first became bound to form electrically neutral hydrogen atoms.

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Recrystallization (metallurgy)

Recrystallization is a process by which deformed grains are replaced by a new set of defects-free grains that nucleate and grow until the original grains have been entirely consumed.

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Redox

Redox (short for reduction–oxidation reaction) (pronunciation: or) is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed.

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Redshift

In physics, redshift happens when light or other electromagnetic radiation from an object is increased in wavelength, or shifted to the red end of the spectrum.

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Reductive dechlorination

Reductive dechlorination is degradation of chlorinated organic compounds by chemical reduction with release of inorganic chloride ions.

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Rees's Cyclopædia

Rees's Cyclopædia, in full The Cyclopædia; or, Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature was an important 19th-century British encyclopædia edited by Rev.

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Reflexive self-consciousness

Reflexive self-consciousness is a concept, related to that of enlightenment, formulated by Eugene Halliday during the 1940s-1950s in England.

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Reionization

In the field of Big Bang theory, and cosmology, reionization is the process that caused the matter in the universe to reionize after the lapse of the "dark ages".

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Relative atomic mass

Relative atomic mass (symbol: A) or atomic weight is a dimensionless physical quantity defined as the ratio of the average mass of atoms of a chemical element in a given sample to one unified atomic mass unit.

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Relative direction

The most common relative directions are left, right, forward(s), backward(s), up, and down.

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Relative volatility

Relative volatility is a measure comparing the vapor pressures of the components in a liquid mixture of chemicals.

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Relativistic quantum mechanics

In physics, relativistic quantum mechanics (RQM) is any Poincaré covariant formulation of quantum mechanics (QM).

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Relativistic wave equations

In physics, specifically relativistic quantum mechanics (RQM) and its applications to particle physics, relativistic wave equations predict the behavior of particles at high energies and velocities comparable to the speed of light.

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Remote viewing

Remote viewing (RV) is the practice of seeking impressions about a distant or unseen target, purportedly using extrasensory perception (ESP) or "sensing" with the mind.

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Renormalization

Renormalization is a collection of techniques in quantum field theory, the statistical mechanics of fields, and the theory of self-similar geometric structures, that are used to treat infinities arising in calculated quantities by altering values of quantities to compensate for effects of their self-interactions.

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Repeat unit

A repeat unit or repeating unit is a part of a polymer whose repetition would produce the complete polymer chain (except for the end-groups) by linking the repeat units together successively along the chain, like the beads of a necklace.

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Resonance

In physics, resonance is a phenomenon in which a vibrating system or external force drives another system to oscillate with greater amplitude at specific frequencies.

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Resonance ionization

Resonance ionization is a process in optical physics used to excite a specific atom (or molecule) beyond its ionization potential to form an ion using a beam of photons irradiated from a pulsed laser light.

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Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization

Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) is a technique applied to the spectroscopy of atoms and small molecules.

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Rest frame

In special relativity the rest frame of a particle is the coordinate system (frame of reference) in which the particle is at rest.

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Reverse diffusion

Reverse diffusion refers to a situation where the transport of particles (atoms or molecules) in a medium occurs towards regions of higher concentration gradients, opposite to that observed during diffusion.

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Ribonucleotide

In biochemistry, a ribonucleotide or ribotide is a nucleotide containing ribose as its pentose component.

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Ribulose

Ribulose is a ketopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including a ketone functional group.

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Richard Laming

Richard Laming (c. 1798–3 May 1879) was a British surgeon, natural philosopher, inventor, chemist and industrialist.

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Ridged mirror

In atomic physics, a ridged mirror (or ridged atomic mirror, or Fresnel diffraction mirror) is a kind of atomic mirror, designed for the specular reflection of neutral particles (atoms) coming at the grazing incidence angle, characterised in the following: in order to reduce the mean attraction of particles to the surface and increase the reflectivity, this surface has narrow ridges.

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Riken

is a large research institute in Japan.

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Ring flip

Ring flipping (also known as ring inversion or ring reversal) is a phenomenon involving the interconversion (by rotation) about single bonds of cyclic conformers having equivalent ring shapes but not necessarily equivalent spatial positions of substituent atoms.

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Ring-opening polymerization

In polymer chemistry, ring-opening polymerization (ROP) is a form of chain-growth polymerization, in which the terminal end of a polymer chain acts as a reactive center where further cyclic monomers can react by opening its ring system and form a longer polymer chain (see figure).

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Robert Schmieder

Robert William Schmieder (born July 10, 1941) is an American scientist and explorer.

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Roman Frederick Starzl

Roman Frederick Starzl (1899–1976) was an American author.

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Rosette Nebula

The Rosette Nebula (also known as Caldwell 49) is a large spherical H II region (circular in appearance) located near one end of a giant molecular cloud in the Monoceros region of the Milky Way Galaxy.

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Rosicrucian Fellowship

The Rosicrucian Fellowship (TRF) ("An International Association of Christian Mystics") was founded in 1909 by Max Heindel with the aim of heralding the Aquarian Age and promulgating "the true Philosophy" of the Rosicrucians.

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Rubidium

Rubidium is a chemical element with symbol Rb and atomic number 37.

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Rudolf Grimm

Rudolf Grimm (born 10 November 1961) is an experimental physicist from Austria.

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Rumford Prize

Founded in 1796, the Rumford Prize, awarded by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, is one of the oldest scientific prizes in the United States.

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Ruth R. Benerito

Ruth Mary Rogan Benerito (January 12, 1916 – October 5, 2013) was an American chemist and inventor known for her work related to the textile industry, notably including the development of wash-and-wear cotton fabrics.

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Rutherford model

The Rutherford model is a model of the atom devised by Ernest Rutherford.

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Rutherford scattering

Rutherford scattering is the elastic scattering of charged particles by the Coulomb interaction.

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Rydberg atom

A Rydberg atom is an excited atom with one or more electrons that have a very high principal quantum number.

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Rydberg state

The Rydberg states of an atom or molecule are electronically excited states with energies that follow the Rydberg formula as they converge on an ionic state with an ionization energy.

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S. P. Meek

Sterner St.

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Sacrificial metal

A sacrificial metal is a metal used as a sacrificial anode in cathodic protection that corrodes to prevent a primary metal from corrosion, galvanization or rusting.

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Salvinorin A

Salvinorin A is the main active psychotropic molecule in Salvia divinorum, a Mexican plant which has a long history of use as an entheogen by indigenous Mazatec shamans.

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Sample preparation in mass spectrometry

Sample preparation for mass spectrometry is used for the optimization of a sample for analysis in a mass spectrometer (MS).

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Satellite galaxy

A satellite galaxy is a smaller companion galaxy that travels on bound orbits within the gravitational potential of a more massive and luminous host galaxy (also known as the primary galaxy).

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Saturated absorption spectroscopy

In experimental atomic physics, saturated absorption spectroscopy or Doppler-free spectroscopy is a set-up that enables the precise determination of the transition frequency of an atom between its ground state and an optically excited state.

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Saturated and unsaturated compounds

In organic chemistry, a saturated compound is a chemical compound that has single bonds.

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Saul Dushman

Saul Dushman (July 12, 1883 – July 7, 1954) was a Russian-American physical chemist.

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Sébastien Basson

Sébastien Basson, Latinized as Sebastianus Basso, was a French physician and natural philosopher of the beginning of the seventeenth century.

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Scanning electron microscope

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons.

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Scanning tunneling spectroscopy

Scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS), an extension of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), is used to provide information about the density of electrons in a sample as a function of their energy.

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Schrödinger equation

In quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation is a mathematical equation that describes the changes over time of a physical system in which quantum effects, such as wave–particle duality, are significant.

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Schrödinger's cat

Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment, sometimes described as a paradox, devised by Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in 1935.

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Science

R. P. Feynman, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.1, Chaps.1,2,&3.

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Science and engineering in Manchester

Manchester is one of the principal cities of the United Kingdom, gaining city status in 1853, thus becoming the first new city in over 300 years since Bristol in 1542.

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Science News

Science News is an American bi-weekly magazine devoted to short articles about new scientific and technical developments, typically gleaned from recent scientific and technical journals.

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Scientific formalism

Scientific formalism is a broad term for a family of approaches to the presentation of science.

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Scientific realism

Scientific realism is the view that the universe described by science is real regardless of how it may be interpreted.

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Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.

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Scientific theory

A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can be repeatedly tested, in accordance with the scientific method, using a predefined protocol of observation and experiment.

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Scintigraphy

Scintigraphy ("scint", Latin scintilla, spark) is a diagnostic test in nuclear medicine, where radioisotopes attached to drugs that travel to a specific organ or tissue (radiopharmaceuticals) are taken internally and the emitted gamma radiation is captured by external detectors (gamma cameras) to form two-dimensional images in a similar process to the capture of x-ray images.

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Scottish inventions and discoveries

Scottish inventions and discoveries are objects, processes or techniques either partially or entirely invented, innovated or discovered by a person born in or descended from Scotland.

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Seesaw molecular geometry

Disphenoidal or Seesaw is a type of molecular geometry where there are four bonds to a central atom with overall C2v symmetry.

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Selection rule

In physics and chemistry, a selection rule, or transition rule, formally constrains the possible transitions of a system from one quantum state to another.

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Sememe

A sememe is a semantic language unit of meaning, analogous to a morpheme.

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Sesquioxide

A sesquioxide is an oxide containing three atoms of oxygen with two atoms (or radicals) of another element.

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Sewage treatment

Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater, primarily from household sewage.

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Shneior Lifson

Shneior Lifson (שניאור ליפסון; born 18 March 1914 in Tel Aviv – died 22 January 2001 in Rehovot), was an Israeli chemical physicist, scientific director of the Weizmann Institute of Science, a founder of the Open University of Israel, laureate of the 1969 Israel Prize in the life sciences.

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Sigmatropic reaction

A sigmatropic reaction in organic chemistry is a pericyclic reaction wherein the net result is one σ-bond is changed to another σ-bond in an uncatalyzed intramolecular process.

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Silenes

Silene, or silalkenes,Philip P. Power "pi-Bonding and the Lone Pair Effect in Multiple Bonds between Heavier Main Group Elements" Chemical Reviews, 1999, 99, 3462.

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Silicyne

Silicynes are allotropes of silicon.

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Silylene

Silylenes are chemical compounds containing a divalent silicon atom without any electrical charge.

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Simplified molecular-input line-entry system

The simplified molecular-input line-entry system (SMILES) is a specification in form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings.

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Single bond

In chemistry, a single bond is a chemical bond between two atoms involving two valence electrons.

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Single Shot (disambiguation)

Single Shot may refer to.

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Slaframine

Slaframine is an indolizidine alkaloidal mycotoxin that generally causes salivation (slobbers) in most animals.

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Slater integrals

In mathematics and mathematical physics, Slater integrals are certain integrals of products of three spherical harmonics.

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Smale's problems

Smale's problems are a list of eighteen unsolved problems in mathematics that was proposed by Steve Smale in 1998, republished in 1999.

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Small modular reactor

Small modular reactors (SMRs) are a type of nuclear fission reactor which are smaller than conventional reactors, and manufactured at a plant and brought to a site to be fully constructed.

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SMKA Sabak Bernam

SMKA Tun Hajah Rahah or Tun Hajah Rahah Religious National Secondary School (المدرسة الثانوية الوطنية الدينية سابق برنم; Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama Tun Hajah Rahah) is a Malaysia educational institution established in 1982.

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Sodium layer

The sodium layer is a layer of neutral atoms of sodium within Earth's mesosphere.

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Sodium tail of the Moon

The Moon has been shown to have a "tail" of sodium atoms too faint to be detected by the human eye.

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Soft error

In electronics and computing, a soft error is a type of error where a signal or datum is wrong.

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Soft matter

Soft matter or soft condensed matter is a subfield of condensed matter comprising a variety of physical systems that are deformed or structurally altered by thermal or mechanical stress of the magnitude of thermal fluctuations.

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Sokobond

Sokobond is a puzzle video game created by Alan Hazelden and Harry Lee.

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Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance

Solid-state NMR (SSNMR) spectroscopy is a kind of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, characterized by the presence of anisotropic (directionally dependent) interactions.

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Solid-state physics

Solid-state physics is the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy.

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Sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

Sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (SASER) refers to a device that emits acoustic radiation.

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Space charge

Space charge is a concept in which excess electric charge is treated as a continuum of charge distributed over a region of space (either a volume or an area) rather than distinct point-like charges.

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Space-filling model

In chemistry, a space-filling model, also known as a calotte model, is a type of three-dimensional (3D) molecular model where the atoms are represented by spheres whose radii are proportional to the radii of the atoms and whose center-to-center distances are proportional to the distances between the atomic nuclei, all in the same scale.

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Spall

Spall is flakes of a material that are broken off a larger solid body and can be produced by a variety of mechanisms, including as a result of projectile impact, corrosion, weathering, cavitation, or excessive rolling pressure (as in a ball bearing).

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Spectral hole burning

Spectral hole burning is the frequency-selective bleaching of the absorption spectrum of a material, which leads to an increased transmission (a "spectral hole") at the selected frequency.

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Spectral line

A spectral line is a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum, resulting from emission or absorption of light in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies.

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Spectral line shape

Spectral line shape describes the form of a feature, observed in spectroscopy, corresponding to an energy change in an atom, molecule or ion.

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Spectral theory

In mathematics, spectral theory is an inclusive term for theories extending the eigenvector and eigenvalue theory of a single square matrix to a much broader theory of the structure of operators in a variety of mathematical spaces.

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Spectrometer

A spectrometer is a scientific instrument used to separate and measure spectral components of a physical phenomenon.

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Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation.

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Specular reflection

Specular reflection, also known as regular reflection, is the mirror-like reflection of waves, such as light, from a surface.

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Spider-Girl

Spider-Girl (May "Mayday" Parker) is a fictional superheroine appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.

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Spin ice

A spin ice is a magnetic substance that does not have a single minimal-energy state.

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Spin quantum number

In atomic physics, the spin quantum number is a quantum number that parameterizes the intrinsic angular momentum (or spin angular momentum, or simply spin) of a given particle.

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Spin-exchange interaction

In quantum mechanics, a spin-exchange interaction preserves total angular momentum of the system but may allow other aspects of the system to change.

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Spiritual evolution

Spiritual evolution is the philosophical, theological, esoteric or spiritual idea that nature and human beings and/or human culture evolve: either extending from an established cosmological pattern (ascent), or in accordance with certain pre-established potentials.

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Splitting Adam

Splitting Adam is a Canadian contemporary rock band from Vancouver consisting of five band members: Seren (lead vocals), Thompson (guitar / keyboards / vocals), Antonio (guitar), Rob (bass) and Jordo (drums).

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Spontaneous emission

Spontaneous emission is the process in which a quantum mechanical system (such as an atom, molecule or subatomic particle) transitions from an excited energy state to a lower energy state (e.g., its ground state) and emits a quantum in the form of a photon.

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Spring (device)

A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy.

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Squeezed coherent state

In physics, a squeezed coherent state is a quantum state that is usually described by two non-commuting observables having continuous spectra of eigenvalues.

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Stannatrane

A stannatrane (IUPAC: 1-aza-5-stannabicycloundecane) is a tin-based atrane belonging to the larger class of organostannanes.

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Star-shaped polymer

Star-shaped polymers are the simplest class of branched polymers with a general structure consisting of several (more than three) linear chains connected to a central core.

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State of matter

In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist.

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Static secondary-ion mass spectrometry

Static secondary-ion mass spectrometry, or static SIMS is a secondary ion mass spectrometry technique for chemical analysis including elemental composition and chemical structure of the uppermost atomic or molecular layer of a solid which may be a metal, semiconductor or plastic with insignificant disturbance to its composition and structure.

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Stefan Janos (physicist)

Stefan Janos (Slovak Štefan Jánoš, born December 22, 1943, Kuchyňa, Slovakia) is a Slovak-Swiss university physicist and professor, founder of very low temperature physics in Slovakia.

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Stereocenter

In a molecule, a stereocenter is a particular instance of a stereogenic element that is geometrically a point.

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Stereochemistry

Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, involves the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation.

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Stern–Gerlach experiment

The Stern–Gerlach experiment demonstrated that the spatial orientation of angular momentum is quantized.

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Steviol glycoside

Steviol glycosides are the chemical compounds responsible for the sweet taste of the leaves of the South American plant Stevia rebaudiana (Asteraceae) and the main ingredients (or precursors) of many sweeteners marketed under the generic name stevia and several trade names.

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Stick-slip phenomenon

The stick-slip phenomenon, also known as the slip-stick phenomenon or simply stick-slip, is the spontaneous jerking motion that can occur while two objects are sliding over each other.

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Sticking coefficient

Sticking coefficient is the term used in surface physics to describe the ratio of the number of adsorbate atoms (or molecules) that adsorb, or "stick", to a surface to the total number of atoms that impinge upon that surface during the same period of time.

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Stimulated emission

Stimulated emission is the process by which an incoming photon of a specific frequency can interact with an excited atomic electron (or other excited molecular state), causing it to drop to a lower energy level.

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Stimulated Raman adiabatic passage

Stimulated Raman adiabatic passage (STIRAP) is a process that permits transfer of a population between two applicable quantum states via at least two coherent electromagnetic (light) pulses.

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Stjepan Mohorovičić

Stjepan Mohorovičić (August 20, 1890 – February 13, 1980) was a Croatian physicist, geophysicist and meteorologist.

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Stockmayer potential

The Stockmayer potential is a mathematical model for representing the interactions between pairs of atoms or molecules.

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Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry is the calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions.

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Stokes shift

Stokes shift is the difference (in wavelength or frequency units) between positions of the band maxima of the absorption and emission spectra (fluorescence and Raman being two examples) of the same electronic transition.

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Strain energy

In physics, strain energy is the energy stored by a system undergoing deformation.eh for U.

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Strained silicon

Strained silicon is a layer of silicon in which the silicon atoms are stretched beyond their normal interatomic distance.

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Strangers (Malibu Comics)

The Strangers is the title of a comic book series created and written by Steve Englehart.

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String theory

In physics, string theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings.

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Strong interaction

In particle physics, the strong interaction is the mechanism responsible for the strong nuclear force (also called the strong force or nuclear strong force), and is one of the four known fundamental interactions, with the others being electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and gravitation.

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Strontianite

Strontianite (SrCO3) is an important raw material for the extraction of strontium.

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Structural analog

A structural analog, also known as a chemical analog or simply an analog, is a compound having a structure similar to that of another compound, but differing from it in respect to a certain component.

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Structural theory

In chemistry, structural theory explains the large variety in chemical compounds in terms of atoms making up molecules, the order in which atoms are put together in molecules and the electrons that hold them together.

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Structure

Structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized.

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Structure formation

In physical cosmology, structure formation is the formation of galaxies, galaxy clusters and larger structures from small early density fluctuations.

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Stuart A. Rice

Stuart Alan Rice (born January 6, 1932) is an American theoretical chemist and physical chemist.

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Stylus

A stylus, plural styli or styluses, is a writing utensil or a small tool for some other form of marking or shaping, for example, in pottery.

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Subatomic particle

In the physical sciences, subatomic particles are particles much smaller than atoms.

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Subatomic scale

The subatomic scale is the domain of physical size that encompasses objects smaller than an atom.

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Substituent

In organic chemistry and biochemistry, a substituent is an atom or group of atoms which replaces one or more hydrogen atoms on the parent chain of a hydrocarbon, becoming a moiety of the resultant new molecule.

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Substitution reaction

Substitution reaction (also known as single displacement reaction or single substitution reaction) is a chemical reaction during which one functional group in a chemical compound is replaced by another functional group.

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Sulfate

The sulfate or sulphate (see spelling differences) ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula.

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Sulfhemoglobinemia

Sulfhemoglobinemia (or sulfhaemoglobinaemia) is a rare condition in which there is excess sulfhemoglobin (SulfHb) in the blood.

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Sulfonanilide

A sulfonanilide group is functional group that is a type of sulfonamide group which contains a sulfur atom bonded to two oxygen, one carbon atom, and one nitrogen contained within a derivative of aniline.

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Sulfonyl halide

Sulfonyl halide groups occur when a sulfonyl functional group is singly bonded to a halogen atom.

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Superalloy

A superalloy, or high-performance alloy, is an alloy that exhibits several key characteristics: excellent mechanical strength, resistance to thermal creep deformation, good surface stability, and resistance to corrosion or oxidation.

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Superatom

A superatom is any cluster of atoms that seem to exhibit some of the properties of elemental atoms.

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Superconducting quantum computing

Superconducting quantum computing is an implementation of a quantum computer in superconducting electronic circuits.

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Superlens

A superlens, or super lens, is a lens which uses metamaterials to go beyond the diffraction limit.

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Surface

A surface, as the term is most generally used, is the outermost or uppermost layer of a physical object or space.

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Surface core level shift

A surface core level shift (SCS) is a kind of core-level shift that often emerges in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy spectra of surface atoms.

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Surface layering

Surface layering is a quasi-crystalline structure at the surfaces of otherwise disordered liquids, where atoms or molecules of even the simplest liquid are stratified into well-defined layers parallel to the surface.

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Surface reconstruction

Surface reconstruction refers to the process by which atoms at the surface of a crystal assume a different structure than that of the bulk.

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Susan Sto Helit

Susan Sto Helit (also spelled Sto-Helit), once referred to as Susan Death, is a fictional character in Terry Pratchett's Discworld series of fantasy novels.

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Swarts fluorination

Swarts fluorination is a process whereby the chlorine atoms in a compound - generally an organic compound, but experiments have been performed using silanes - are replaced with fluorine, by treatment with antimony trifluoride in the presence of chlorine or of antimony pentachloride.

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Sydney New Year's Eve 2007–08

Sydney New Year's Eve 2007–08 was the 13th Sydney New Year's Eve held at Sydney Harbour on the evening of 31 December 2007 and in the early hours of 1 January 2008.

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Symmetry-adapted perturbation theory

Symmetry-Adapted Perturbation Theory or SAPT is a methodology in electronic structure theory developed to describe non-covalent interactions between atoms and/or molecules.

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Synthetic element

In chemistry, a synthetic element is a chemical element that does not occur naturally on Earth, and can only be created artificially.

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Talbot effect

The Talbot effect is a near-field diffraction effect first observed in 1836 by Henry Fox Talbot.

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Technological convergence

This article describe science and technology convergence, with illustrations to convergence of emerging technologies (NBIC, nano-, bio-, info- and cognitive technologies) and convergence of media technology.

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Teleportation in fiction

This is a list of notable works of fiction which include teleportation in any form.

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Tellurium

Tellurium is a chemical element with symbol Te and atomic number 52.

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Terahertz metamaterial

A terahertz metamaterial is a class of composite metamaterials designed to interact at terahertz (THz) frequencies.

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Term symbol

In quantum mechanics, the term symbol is an abbreviated description of the (total) angular momentum quantum numbers in a multi-electron atom (however, even a single electron can be described by a term symbol).

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Tetrahedral molecular geometry

In a tetrahedral molecular geometry, a central atom is located at the center with four substituents that are located at the corners of a tetrahedron.

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Tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate

Tetrakisborate is an anion with chemical formula −, which is commonly abbreviated as − as the boron atom (B) is surrounded by four fluorinated aryl (ArF) groups.

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Tetrarhodium dodecacarbonyl

Tetrarhodium dodecacarbonyl is the chemical compound with the formula Rh4(CO)12.

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Tetrathionate

The tetrathionate anion,, is a sulfur oxoanion derived from the compound tetrathionic acid, H2S4O6.

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Tetravalence

In chemistry, tetravalence is the state of an atom with four valence electrons available for covalent chemical bonding in its outermost electron shell, giving the atom a chemical valence of four.

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The Age of Spiritual Machines

The Age of Spiritual Machines is a non-fiction book by inventor and futurist Ray Kurzweil about artificial intelligence and the future course of humanity.

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The Astonishing Hypothesis

The Astonishing Hypothesis is a 1994 book by scientist Francis Crick about consciousness.

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The central science

Chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the physical sciences, which include chemistry, with the life sciences and applied sciences such as medicine and engineering.

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The Diamond Age

The Diamond Age: Or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer is a science fiction novel by American writer Neal Stephenson.

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The End of Time (book)

The End of Time: The Next Revolution in Our Understanding of the Universe, also sold with the alternate subtitle The Next Revolution in Physics, is a 1999 popular science book in which the author Julian Barbour argues that time exists merely as an illusion.

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The Feynman Lectures on Physics

The Feynman Lectures on Physics is a physics textbook based on some lectures by Richard P. Feynman, a Nobel laureate who has sometimes been called "The Great Explainer".

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The Fly (George Langelaan)

"The Fly" is a short story by George Langelaan that was published in the June 1957 issue of Playboy magazine.

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The Incandescent Ones

The Incandescent Ones is a science fiction novel by astrophysicist Fred Hoyle and his son Geoffrey Hoyle.

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The Light Brigade (The Outer Limits)

"The Light Brigade" is an episode of The Outer Limits television series that first aired on 23 June 1996, during the second season.

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The Mechanical Universe

The Mechanical Universe...

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The Moon is made of green cheese

"The Moon is made of green cheese" is a statement referring to a fanciful belief that the Moon is composed of cheese.

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The Mystery of Matter (film)

The Mystery of Matter: Search for the Elements is a 2014 American documentary film, which premiered nationwide on August 19, 2015.

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The Sceptical Chymist

The Sceptical Chymist: or Chymico-Physical Doubts & Paradoxes is the title of a book by Robert Boyle, published in London in 1661.

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The Sifl and Olly Show

The Sifl and Olly Show is a comedy TV series that incorporates sock puppets, animation, and musical performances.

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The Sliced-Crosswise Only-On-Tuesday World

"The Sliced-Crosswise Only-On-Tuesday World" is a science fiction short story by American writer Philip José Farmer, first published in 1971 in New Dimensions 1: Fourteen Original Science Fiction Stories. The story later formed the basis for Farmer's Dayworld trilogy of novels.

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Theoretical physics

Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena.

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Theory of everything

A theory of everything (ToE), final theory, ultimate theory, or master theory is a hypothetical single, all-encompassing, coherent theoretical framework of physics that fully explains and links together all physical aspects of the universe.

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There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom

"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" was a lecture given by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959.

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Thermal decomposition

Thermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a chemical decomposition caused by heat.

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Thermal ellipsoid

Thermal ellipsoids, more formally termed atomic displacement parameters, are ellipsoids used in crystallography to indicate the magnitudes and directions of the thermal vibration of atoms in crystal structures.

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Thermionic emission

Thermionic emission is the thermally induced flow of charge carriers from a surface or over a potential-energy barrier.

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Thermodynamic limit

The thermodynamic limit, or macroscopic limit, of a system in statistical mechanics is the limit for a large number N of particles (e.g., atoms or molecules) where the volume is taken to grow in proportion with the number of particles.

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Thermodynamic temperature

Thermodynamic temperature is the absolute measure of temperature and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics.

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Thermoluminescence dating

Thermoluminescence dating (TL) is the determination, by means of measuring the accumulated radiation dose, of the time elapsed since material containing crystalline minerals was either heated (lava, ceramics) or exposed to sunlight (sediments).

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Thermoset polymer matrix

A thermoset polymer matrix is a synthetic polymer reinforcement first developed for structural applications, such as glass-reinforced plastic radar domes on aircraft and graphite-epoxy payload bay doors on the space shuttle.

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Thin film

A thin film is a layer of material ranging from fractions of a nanometer (monolayer) to several micrometers in thickness.

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Thiophenol

Thiophenol is an organosulfur compound with the formula C6H5SH, sometimes abbreviated as PhSH.

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Third grade

Third grade (equivalent to Primary 4 in the UK) is a year of primary education in many countries.

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Thomas precession

In physics, the Thomas precession, named after Llewellyn Thomas, is a relativistic correction that applies to the spin of an elementary particle or the rotation of a macroscopic gyroscope and relates the angular velocity of the spin of a particle following a curvilinear orbit to the angular velocity of the orbital motion.

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Thomson problem

The objective of the Thomson problem is to determine the minimum electrostatic potential energy configuration of N electrons constrained to the surface of a unit sphere that repel each other with a force given by Coulomb's law.

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Thrace

Thrace (Modern Θράκη, Thráki; Тракия, Trakiya; Trakya) is a geographical and historical area in southeast Europe, now split between Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south and the Black Sea to the east.

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Three-center two-electron bond

A three-center two-electron bond is an electron-deficient chemical bond where three atoms share two electrons.

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Thyroid hormones

Thyroid hormones are two hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, namely triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).

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Tight binding

In solid-state physics, the tight-binding model (or TB model) is an approach to the calculation of electronic band structure using an approximate set of wave functions based upon superposition of wave functions for isolated atoms located at each atomic site.

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Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics

A timeline of atomic and subatomic physics.

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Timeline of chemistry

The timeline of chemistry lists important works, discoveries, ideas, inventions, and experiments that significantly changed humanity's understanding of the modern science known as chemistry, defined as the scientific study of the composition of matter and of its interactions.

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Timeline of materials technology

Major innovations in materials technology.

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Timeline of microscope technology

Timeline of microscope technology.

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Timeline of natural history

This timeline of natural history summarizes significant geological and biological events from the formation of the Earth to the arrival of modern humans.

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Timeline of physical chemistry

The timeline of physical chemistry lists the sequence of physical chemistry theories and discoveries in chronological order.

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Timeline of quantum mechanics

This timeline of quantum mechanics shows the key steps, precursors and contributors to the development of quantum mechanics, quantum field theories and quantum chemistry.

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Timeline of science fiction

This is a timeline of science fiction as a literary tradition.

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Timeline of scientific experiments

The timeline below shows the date of publication of major scientific experiments.

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Timeline of the formation of the Universe

This is a timeline of the formation and subsequent evolution of the Universe from the Big Bang (13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago) to the present day.

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Titano

Titano the Super-Ape is a fictional character, a supervillain that appears in American comic books published by DC Comics, primarily as a foe of Superman.

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Tonks–Girardeau gas

In physics, a Tonks–Girardeau gas is a Bose gas in which the repulsive interactions between bosonic particles confined to one dimension dominate the physics of the system.

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Tooth decay

Tooth decay, also known as dental caries or cavities, is a breakdown of teeth due to acids made by bacteria.

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Top quark

The top quark, also known as the t quark (symbol: t) or truth quark, is the most massive of all observed elementary particles.

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Topological order

In physics, topological order is a kind of order in the zero-temperature phase of matter (also known as quantum matter).

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Topology (chemistry)

In chemistry, topology provides a convenient way of describing and predicting the molecular structure within the constraints of three-dimensional (3-D) space.

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Toroidal ring model

The toroidal ring model, known originally as the Parson magneton or magnetic electron, is also known as the plasmoid ring, vortex ring, or helicon ring.

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Townsend discharge

The Townsend discharge or Townsend avalanche is a gas ionisation process where free electrons are accelerated by an electric field, collide with gas molecules, and consequently free additional electrons.

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Transcendental idealism

Transcendental idealism is a doctrine founded by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the 18th century.

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Transferability (chemistry)

Transferability, in chemistry, is the assumption that a chemical property that is associated with an atom or a functional group in a molecule will have a similar (but not identical) value in a variety of different circumstances.

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Transition of state

In quantum mechanics, particularly Perturbation theory, a transition of state is a change from an initial quantum state to a final one.

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Translational partition function

In statistical mechanics, the translational partition function, q_T is that part of the partition function resulting from the movement (translation) of the center of mass.

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Transparency and translucency

In the field of optics, transparency (also called pellucidity or diaphaneity) is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without being scattered.

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Transuranium element

The transuranium elements (also known as transuranic elements) are the chemical elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (the atomic number of uranium).

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TraPPE force field

Transferable Potentials for Phase Equilibria (TraPPE) is a family of molecular mechanics force fields developed mainly by the research group of J. Ilja Siepmann at the University of Minnesota.

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Tree of knowledge system

The tree of knowledge (ToK) system is a theoretical approach to the unification of psychology developed by Gregg Henriques, associate professor and director of the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University.

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Triatomic molecule

Triatomic molecules are molecules composed of three atoms, of either the same or different chemical elements.

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Triazine

A triazine is class of nitrogen-containing heterocycles.

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Tribasic acid

A tribasic acid is an acid that has three hydrogen ions to donate to a base in an acid-base reaction.

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Trifid Nebula

The Trifid Nebula (catalogued as Messier 20 or M20 and as NGC 6514) is an H II region located in Sagittarius.

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Trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry

In chemistry, a trigonal pyramid is a molecular geometry with one atom at the apex and three atoms at the corners of a trigonal base, resembling a tetrahedron (not to be confused with the tetrahedral geometry).

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Trihexagonal tiling

In geometry, the trihexagonal tiling is one of 11 uniform tilings of the Euclidean plane by regular polygons.

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Triisopropylamine

Triisopropylamine is an organic chemical compound consisting of three isopropyl groups bound to a central nitrogen atom.

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Trimethylaluminium

Trimethylaluminium is one of the simplest examples of an organoaluminium compound.

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Triose

A triose is a monosaccharide, or simple sugar, containing three carbon atoms.

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Triple bond

A triple bond in chemistry is a chemical bond between two atoms involving six bonding electrons instead of the usual two in a covalent single bond.

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Triplet state

In quantum mechanics, a triplet is a quantum state of a system with a spin of quantum number s.

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Tropylium cation

In organic chemistry, the tropylium ion is an aromatic species with a formula of +. Its name derives from the molecule tropine (itself named for the molecule atropine).

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Tungsten pentoxide

Tungsten pentoxide was reported in early literature but proved to have the stoichiometry W18O49.

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Tunnel ionization

Tunnel ionization is a process in which electrons in an atom (or a molecule) pass through the potential barrier and escape from the atom (or molecule).

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Tweezers

Tweezers are small tools used for picking up objects too small to be easily handled with the human fingers.

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Two-dimensional materials

2D Materials, sometimes referred to as single layer materials, are crystalline materials consisting of a single layer of atoms.

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Ultrabright electron

Ultrabright Electrons are an advanced atomic imaging tool that can allow scientists to view atoms and molecules in motion.

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Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet (UV) is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays.

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Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy

Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometry (UV–Vis or UV/Vis) refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in the ultraviolet-visible spectral region.

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Umesh Waghmare

Umesh Waghmare is an Indian physicist and professor at the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research working in Computational Materials theory.

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Unarius Academy of Science

Unarius is a non-profit organization founded in 1954 in Los Angeles, California and headquartered in El Cajon, California.

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United States Department of Energy

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) is a cabinet-level department of the United States Government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material.

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Universal force field

Universal force field (UFF) is an all atom potential containing parameters for every atom.

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Universe

The Universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy.

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University of Cambridge

The University of Cambridge (informally Cambridge University)The corporate title of the university is The Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of Cambridge.

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University of Copenhagen

The University of Copenhagen (UCPH) (Københavns Universitet) is the oldest university and research institution in Denmark.

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University Physics

University Physics is the name of a two-volume physics textbook written by Hugh Young and Roger Freedman.

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Unobservable

An unobservable (also called impalpable) is an entity whose existence, nature, properties, qualities or relations are not directly observable by humans.

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Unpaired electron

In chemistry, an unpaired electron is an electron that occupies an orbital of an atom singly, rather than as part of an electron pair.

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Unsaturated fat

An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain.

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Unsaturated hydrocarbon

Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that have double or triple covalent bonds between adjacent carbon atoms.

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Unweaving the Rainbow

Unweaving the Rainbow: Science, Delusion and the Appetite for Wonder is a 1998 book by Richard Dawkins, in which the author discusses the relationship between science and the arts from the perspective of a scientist.

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Uranium hydride

Uranium hydride, also called uranium trihydride (UH3), is an inorganic compound and a hydride of uranium.

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Uranium-238

Uranium-238 (238U or U-238) is the most common isotope of uranium found in nature, with a relative abundance of 99%.

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Uranium–lead dating

Uranium–lead dating, abbreviated U–Pb dating, is one of the oldestBoltwood, B.B., 1907, On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements.

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Uranus

Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun.

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USS George Eastman (YAG-39)

USS George Eastman (YAG-39), a "Liberty-type" cargo ship, was laid down under Maritime Commission contract on 24 March 1943 by Permanente Metals Corp., Yard 2, Richmond, California; launched on 20 April 1943; sponsored by Mrs.

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Vacancy defect

In crystallography, a vacancy is a type of point defect in a crystal.

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Vacuum distillation

Vacuum distillation is a method of distillation performed under reduced pressure.

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Vaiśeṣika Sūtra

Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, also called Kanada sutra, is an ancient Sanskrit text at the foundation of the Vaisheshika school of Hindu philosophy.

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Vaisheshika

Vaisheshika or (वैशेषिक) is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy (Vedic systems) from ancient India.

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Valence electron

In chemistry, a valence electron is an outer shell electron that is associated with an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond if the outer shell is not closed; in a single covalent bond, both atoms in the bond contribute one valence electron in order to form a shared pair.

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Van der Waals molecule

A van der Waals molecule is a weakly bound complex of atoms or molecules held together by intermolecular attractions such as van der Waals forces or by hydrogen bonds.

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Van der Waals radius

The van der Waals radius, r, of an atom is the radius of an imaginary hard sphere representing the distance of closest approach for another atom.

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Vector magnetograph

A vector magnetograph is a type of imaging telescope that can estimate the 3-D vector of the magnetic field on a distant body with a resolved line spectrum.

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Vector model of the atom

In physics, in particular quantum mechanics, the vector model of the atom is a model of the atom in terms of angular momentum.

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Vector space

A vector space (also called a linear space) is a collection of objects called vectors, which may be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers, called scalars.

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Venus Flytrap (WKRP in Cincinnati)

Venus Flytrap is a character on the television situation comedy WKRP in Cincinnati (1978–82), played by Tim Reid.

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Vertex model

A vertex model is a type of statistical mechanics model in which the Boltzmann weights are associated with a vertex in the model (representing an atom or particle).

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Vethathiri Maharishi

Yogiraj Shri Vethathiri Maharishi (14 August 1911 – 28 March 2006) was a spiritual leader, world peace activist, scientist, Philosopher, Siddha, Ayurvedic, Homeopathic practitioner and founder-trustee of the World Community Service Center in 1958 in Chennai.

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Vibrational bond

A vibrational bond is a chemical bond that happens between two very large atoms, like bromine, and a very small atom, like hydrogen, at very high energy states.

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Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules

To determine the vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules, the rotation and vibration of linear molecules are taken into account to predict which vibrational (normal) modes are active in the infrared spectrum and the Raman spectrum.

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Viehland–Mason theory

The Viehland–Mason theory is a two-temperature theory for charged and neutral atoms, which explains how trace ions can have a substantially different temperature than dilute gas atoms.

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Viscous stress tensor

The viscous stress tensor is a tensor used in continuum mechanics to model the part of the stress at a point within some material that can be attributed to the strain rate, the rate at which it is deforming around that point.

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Visualization (graphics)

Visualization or visualisation (see spelling differences) is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message.

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Vitamin B12-binding domain

In molecular biology, the vitamin B12-binding domain is a protein domain which binds to cobalamin (vitamin B12).

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Vitrification

Vitrification (from Latin vitreum, "glass" via French vitrifier) is the transformation of a substance into a glass, that is to say a non-crystalline amorphous solid.

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Volatility (chemistry)

In chemistry and physics, volatility is quantified by the tendency of a substance to vaporize.

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Volumetric heat capacity

Volumetric heat capacity (VHC), also termed volume-specific heat capacity, describes the ability of a given volume of a substance to store internal energy while undergoing a given temperature change, but without undergoing a phase transition.

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Voodoo Science

Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud is a book published in 2000 by physics professor Robert L. Park, critical of research that falls short of adhering to the scientific method.

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W and Z bosons

The W and Z bosons are together known as the weak or more generally as the intermediate vector bosons. These elementary particles mediate the weak interaction; the respective symbols are,, and.

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Wallace Wade

William Wallace Wade (June 15, 1892 – October 7, 1986) was an American football player and coach of football, basketball, and baseball.

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Walt Disney Treasures: Wave Three

The third wave of Walt Disney Treasures was released on May 18, 2004.

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Walter Grotrian

Walter Robert Wilhelm Grotrian (21 April 1890 in Aachen; † 3 March 1954 in Potsdam) was a German astronomer and astrophysicist.

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Ward Plummer

E.

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Warm–hot intergalactic medium

The warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM) refers to a sparse, warm-to-hot (105 to 107 K) plasma that cosmologists believe to exist in the spaces between galaxies and to contain 40–50% of the baryons (that is, 'normal matter' which exists as plasma or as atoms and molecules, in contrast to dark matter) in the universe at the current epoch.

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Water

Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth's streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms.

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Water vapor

No description.

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Weber electrodynamics

Weber electrodynamics is an alternative to Maxwell electrodynamics developed by Wilhelm Eduard Weber.

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Western culture

Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization, Occidental culture, the Western world, Western society, European civilization,is a term used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief systems, political systems and specific artifacts and technologies that have some origin or association with Europe.

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Wet electrons

Wet electrons, which occur on the surface of metal oxides, are a transition state for electrons between the solid and liquid states of matter.

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Wet nanotechnology

Wet nanotechnology (also known as wet nanotech) involves working up to large masses from small ones.

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Wetting layer

In experimental physics, a wetting layer is an initial layer of atoms that is epitaxially grown on a surface upon which self-assembled quantum dots or thin films are created.

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White dwarf

A white dwarf, also called a degenerate dwarf, is a stellar core remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter.

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Whole number rule

The whole number rule states that the masses of the isotopes are whole number multiples of the mass of the hydrogen atom.

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Wigner effect

The Wigner effect (named for its discoverer, Eugene Wigner), also known as the discomposition effect or Wigner's Disease, is the dislocation of atoms in a solid caused by neutron radiation.

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Wigner–Seitz cell

The Wigner–Seitz cell, named after Eugene Wigner and Frederick Seitz, is a type of Voronoi cell used in the study of crystalline material in solid-state physics.

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Wilhelm Wien

Wilhelm Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz Wien (13 January 1864 – 30 August 1928) was a German physicist who, in 1893, used theories about heat and electromagnetism to deduce Wien's displacement law, which calculates the emission of a blackbody at any temperature from the emission at any one reference temperature.

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Willem Ouweneel

Willem Johannes Ouweneel (born 2 June 1944 in Zaandam) is a Dutch biologist, philosopher and theologian.

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William Kingdon Clifford

William Kingdon Clifford FRS (4 May 1845 – 3 March 1879) was an English mathematician and philosopher.

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William Prout

William Prout FRS (15 January 1785 – 9 April 1850) was an English chemist, physician, and natural theologian.

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William Robert Grove

Sir William Robert Grove, PC, FRS FRSE (11 July 1811 – 1 August 1896) was a Welsh judge and physical scientist.

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William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, (26 June 1824 – 17 December 1907) was a Scots-Irish mathematical physicist and engineer who was born in Belfast in 1824.

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Winston H. Bostick

Winston H. Bostick (March 5, 1916 – January 19, 1991) was an American physicist who discovered plasmoids, plasma focus, and plasma vortex phenomena.

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Withington

Withington is a suburb of south Manchester, England.

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Wolfgang Ketterle

Wolfgang Ketterle (born 21 October 1957) is a German physicist and professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

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Wouthuysen–Field coupling

Wouthuysen–Field coupling, or the Wouthuysen–Field effect, is a mechanism that couples the excitation temperature, also called the spin temperature, of neutral hydrogen to Lyman-alpha radiation.

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X-ray

X-rays make up X-radiation, a form of electromagnetic radiation.

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X-ray absorption fine structure

X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) is a specific structure observed in X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS).

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X-ray astronomy

X-ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy which deals with the study of X-ray observation and detection from astronomical objects.

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X-ray crystallography

X-ray crystallography is a technique used for determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline atoms cause a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions.

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X-ray detector

X-ray detectors are devices used to measure the flux, spatial distribution, spectrum, and/or other properties of X-rays.

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X-ray fluorescence

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the emission of characteristic "secondary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by bombarding with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays.

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X-ray fluorescence holography

X-ray fluorescence holography (XFH) is a holography method with atomic resolution based on atomic fluorescence.

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X-ray tube

An X-ray tube is a vacuum tube that converts electrical input power into X-rays.

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Xeno nucleic acid

Xeno nucleic acid (XNA) is a synthetic alternative to the natural nucleic acids DNA and RNA as information-storing biopolymers that differs in the sugar backbone.

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Xenon

Xenon is a chemical element with symbol Xe and atomic number 54.

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Xylene

Xylene (from Greek ξύλο, xylo, "wood"), xylol or dimethylbenzene is any one of three isomers of dimethylbenzene, or a combination thereof.

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Xylulose

Xylulose is a ketopentose, a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including a ketone functional group.

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XYZ file format

The XYZ file format is a chemical file format.

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Yajaira Sierra Sastre

Dr.

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Ycf9 protein domain

In molecular biology, the PsbZ (Ycf9) is a protein domain, which is low in molecular weight.

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Ylem

Ylem is a term that was used by George Gamow, his student Ralph Alpher, and their associates in the late 1940s for a hypothetical original substance or condensed state of matter, which became subatomic particles and elements as we understand them today.

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Ylide

A ylide or ylid is a neutral dipolar molecule containing a formally negatively charged atom (usually a carbanion) directly attached to a heteroatom with a formal positive charge (usually nitrogen, phosphorus or sulfur), and in which both atoms have full octets of electrons.

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Yojana

A Yojana (Sanskrit: योजन) is a Vedic measure of distance that was used in ancient India.

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Yoon Kyung-byung

Yoon Kyung-byung is a South Korean chemist.

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Yuan T. Lee

Yuan Tseh Lee (born 19 November 1936) is a Taiwanese chemist.

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Yuksporite

Yuksporite is a rare inosilicate mineral with double width, unbranched chains, and the complicated chemical formula K4(Ca,Na)14Sr2Mn(Ti,Nb)4(O,OH)4(Si6O17)2(Si2O7)3(H2O,OH)3.

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Z-matrix (chemistry)

In chemistry, the Z-matrix is a way to represent a system built of atoms.

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Z8 GND 5296

z8_GND_5296 is a dwarf galaxy discovered in October 2013 which has the highest redshift that has been confirmed through the Lyman-alpha emission line of hydrogen, placing it among the oldest and most distant known galaxies at approximately from Earth.

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Zirconium disilicide

Zirconium(IV) silicide is an inorganic chemical compound with the chemical formula ZrSi2, consisting of zirconium and silicon atoms.

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0

0 (zero) is both a number and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.

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1-Decanol

1-Decanol is a straight chain fatty alcohol with ten carbon atoms and the molecular formula C10H21OH.

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1-Nonanol

1-Nonanol is a straight chain fatty alcohol with nine carbon atoms and the molecular formula CH3(CH2)8OH.

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1-Pentanol

1-Pentanol, (or n-pentanol, pentan-1-ol), is an alcohol with five carbon atoms and the molecular formula C5H11OH.

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1661 in England

Events from the year 1661 in England.

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1898 in science

The year 1898 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.

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1904 in science

The year 1904 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.

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1911

A highlight was the race for the South Pole.

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1911 in science

The year 1911 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.

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1988 in science

The year 1988 in science and technology involved many significant events, some listed below.

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1994 in science

The year 1994 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below.

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1s Slater-type function

A normalized 1s Slater-type function is a function which is used in the descriptions of atoms and in a broader way in the description of atoms in molecules.

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2-Methylhexane

2-Methylhexane (C7H16, also known as isoheptane, ethylisobutylmethane) is an isomer of heptane.

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2007 Universal Forum of Cultures

The Universal Forum of Cultures Monterrey 2007 was an international civil-society event that took place in the city of Monterrey, Mexico, starting on September and ending in December of mentioned year.

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2010

2010 was designated as.

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2011 in science

The year 2011 involved many significant scientific events, including the first artificial organ transplant, the launch of China's first space station and the growth of the world population to seven billion.

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2012 in science

The year 2012 involved many significant scientific events and discoveries, including the first orbital rendezvous by a commercial spacecraft, the discovery of a particle highly similar to the long-sought Higgs boson, and the near-eradication of guinea worm disease.

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2017 in science

A number of significant scientific events occurred in 2017.

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20th century

The 20th century was a century that began on January 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 2000.

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20th century in science

Science advanced dramatically during the 20th century.

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22 nanometer

The 22 nanometer (22 nm) node is the process step following the 32 nm in CMOS semiconductor device fabrication.

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310 helix

A 310 helix is a type of secondary structure found in proteins and polypeptides.

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4+3 cycloaddition

A Cycloaddition is a cycloaddition between a 4 atom pi-system and a 3 atom pi-system to form a seven-membered ring.

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440 BC

Year 440 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar.

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5 nanometer

In semiconductor manufacturing, the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors defines the 5 nanometer (5 nm) node as the technology node following the 7 nm node.

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5-HT3 antagonist

The 5-HT3 antagonists, informally known as "setrons", are a class of drugs that act as receptor antagonists at the 5-HT3 receptor, a subtype of serotonin receptor found in terminals of the vagus nerve and in certain areas of the brain.

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5th century BC

The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC.

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60 (number)

60 (sixty) is the natural number following 59 and preceding 61.

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65-nanometer process

The 65-nanometer (65 nm) process is advanced lithographic node used in volume CMOS semiconductor fabrication.

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7

7 (seven) is the natural number following 6 and preceding 8.

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Ancient atom, Atom and Atomic Theory, Atomic chemical, Atomic structure, Atomic system, Atoms, Bound-bound, Bound-bound transition, Chemical Atom, Chemical atom, Monoelectronic, Multielectron atom, Number of atoms on Earth, Polyelectronic, Polyelectronic atoms, Structure of the atom.

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom