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289 relations: Achaemenid Empire, Acropolis of Athens, Agrarian society, Agriculture, Akkadian Empire, Akkadian language, Alluvial plain, Amazon basin, Americas, Amri, Sindh, Anatolia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Near East, Andes, Archaeology, Archaic Greece, Arthashastra, Asia, Aspero, Assyria, Aztecs, Áncash Region, Babylonia, Bamboo Annals, Bhirrana, Bloodletting in Mesoamerica, Bronze, Bronze Age, Caral, Casma/Sechin culture, Cemetery H culture, Chalcolithic, Chanakya, Chantuto Archaeological Site, Charles Higham (archaeologist), Charles Rollin, Chavín culture, Chavín de Huantar, Chengtoushan, Chert, China, Chinchorro culture, Chinese nationalism, Christopher Knight (author), Chronology of the ancient Near East, Circa, City, Civilization, Classical Greece, ..., Climate change, Coatzacoalcos River, College Board, Colosseum, Columbia Encyclopedia, Courtyard, Coxcatlan Cave, Cradle of Humankind, Cuneiform script, Cycladic culture, Cylinder seal, Date palm, Deity, Dholavira, Discover (magazine), Divination, Domestication, Dye, Dynasty of Isin, Eannatum, Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia), East Asia, Ecuador, Edmund Spenser, Elam, Elite, Enmerkar, Epi-Olmec culture, Eridu, Erligang culture, Erlitou culture, Eurasia, Fertile Crescent, First Babylonian dynasty, Ganges, Genetics, Ghaggar-Hakra River, Gilgamesh, Gourd, Granary, Greco-Roman world, Greek Dark Ages, Gutian dynasty of Sumer, Gutian people, Hallucinogen, Han dynasty, Harappa, Haryana, Hellenistic period, Henan, Hexahedron, Hindu nationalism, Historical urban community sizes, History, History of China, History of chocolate, History of India, History of the world, Huaca Prieta, Huaricanga, Ibiblio, In Search of the Cradle of Civilization, Inca Empire, India, Indian subcontinent, Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Gangetic Plain, Indus River, Indus script, Indus Valley Civilisation, Infobase Publishing, Iran, Iranian Plateau, Izapa, Jade use in Mesoamerica, Jemdet Nasr period, Jericho, Jhusi, Jiahu, Jiahu symbols, Kalibangan, Kassites, Kot Diji, La Venta, Lagash, Lahuradewa, Lapis lazuli, Levant, List of cities of the ancient Near East, Longshan culture, Lothal, Lugalbanda, Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Magnetite, Mahajanapada, Majiayao culture, Margaret Munn-Rankin, Maurya Empire, Maya civilization, Maya peoples, Megalith, Mehrgarh, Memphis, Egypt, Mesoamerica, Mesoamerican ballgame, Mesoamerican writing systems, Mesopotamia, Metallurgy, Metalworking, Mexico, Middle Assyrian Empire, Millet, Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China, Minoan civilization, Mitanni, Mohenjo-daro, Mokaya, Monsoon, Morphology (biology), Mycenaean Greece, Nanda Empire, National Gallery of Art, National mysticism, Natufian culture, Near East, Neo-Assyrian Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Neolithic, Neolithic Greece, Neolithic Revolution, Neolithic signs in China, Nomad, Norte Chico civilization, North Caucasus, North China, North China Plain, Obsidian use in Mesoamerica, Old Assyrian Empire, Olmec colossal heads, Olmecs, Oracle bone script, Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Palynology, Pantheon (religion), Pea, Peiligang culture, Peru, Peter Clift, Pictogram, Pottery, Pre-Pottery Neolithic A, Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, Prehistory, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Proto-writing, Pseudoarchaeology, Pseudohistory, Qin dynasty, Quipu, Rakhigarhi, Rehman Dheri, Republicanism, River, Roman Empire, Rome, Rupnagar, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, Sanitation, Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation, Sanxingdui, Sarasvati River, Sargon of Akkad, Science (journal), Sechín River, Sechin Bajo, Sedentism, Seleucid Empire, Semitic languages, Sesame, Shang dynasty, Shuruppak, Sierra de los Tuxtlas, Siltation, Sindh, Sipacate, Snuff (tobacco), Social class, Social structure, South America, Spondylus, Spring and Autumn period, Springer Science+Business Media, Staff God, Stratum, Sumer, Sumerian King List, Supernatural, Tabasco, Tectonics, Tehuacán, The Urantia Book, Theocracy, Theory, Third Dynasty of Ur, Tin, Tres Zapotes, Ubaid period, University of Chicago Press, Ur, Urban revolution, Urbanization, Uruk, Uruk period, V. Gordon Childe, Vedic period, Warehouse, Warring States period, Wars of the Diadochi, Wastewater, Water buffalo, Water well, Western Christianity, Western culture, Western Zhou, Written Chinese, Xia dynasty, Xinzheng, Yamuna, Yangshao culture, Yanshi, Yellow River, Zaña Valley, Zhob River, Zhou dynasty, Ziggurat, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, 31st century BC, 4th millennium BC. Expand index (239 more) »
Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire, also called the First Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great.
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Acropolis of Athens
The Acropolis of Athens is an ancient citadel located on a rocky outcrop above the city of Athens and contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic significance, the most famous being the Parthenon.
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Agrarian society
An agrarian society (or agricultural society) is any society whose economy is based on producing and maintaining crops and farmland.
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Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of land and breeding of animals and plants to provide food, fiber, medicinal plants and other products to sustain and enhance life.
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Akkadian Empire
The Akkadian Empire was the first ancient Semitic-speaking empire of Mesopotamia, centered in the city of Akkad and its surrounding region, also called Akkad in ancient Mesopotamia in the Bible.
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Akkadian language
Akkadian (akkadû, ak-ka-du-u2; logogram: URIKI)John Huehnergard & Christopher Woods, "Akkadian and Eblaite", The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages.
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Alluvial plain
An alluvial plain is a largely flat landform created by the deposition of sediment over a long period of time by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms.
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Amazon basin
The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries.
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Americas
The Americas (also collectively called America)"America." The Oxford Companion to the English Language.
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Amri, Sindh
Amri is an ancient settlement in Dadu district Sindh province of Pakistan that goes back to 3600 BC.
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Anatolia
Anatolia (Modern Greek: Ανατολία Anatolía, from Ἀνατολή Anatolḗ,; "east" or "rise"), also known as Asia Minor (Medieval and Modern Greek: Μικρά Ἀσία Mikrá Asía, "small Asia"), Asian Turkey, the Anatolian peninsula, or the Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey.
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Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River - geographically Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt, in the place that is now occupied by the countries of Egypt and Sudan.
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Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 13th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (AD 600).
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Ancient Near East
The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq, southeast Turkey, southwest Iran, northeastern Syria and Kuwait), ancient Egypt, ancient Iran (Elam, Media, Parthia and Persia), Anatolia/Asia Minor and Armenian Highlands (Turkey's Eastern Anatolia Region, Armenia, northwestern Iran, southern Georgia, and western Azerbaijan), the Levant (modern Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, and Jordan), Cyprus and the Arabian Peninsula.
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Andes
The Andes or Andean Mountains (Cordillera de los Andes) are the longest continental mountain range in the world.
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Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of humanactivity through the recovery and analysis of material culture.
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Archaic Greece
Archaic Greece was the period in Greek history lasting from the eighth century BC to the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, following the Greek Dark Ages and succeeded by the Classical period.
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Arthashastra
The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy, written in Sanskrit.
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Asia
Asia is Earth's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres.
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Aspero
Aspero is a well-studied Late Preceramic site of the ancient Norte Chico civilization, located at the mouth of the Supe river on the north-central Peruvian coast.
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Assyria
Assyria, also called the Assyrian Empire, was a major Semitic speaking Mesopotamian kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East and the Levant.
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Aztecs
The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521.
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Áncash Region
Ancash (Anqash) (Áncash) is a region of northern Peru.
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Babylonia
Babylonia was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq).
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Bamboo Annals
The Bamboo Annals, also known as the Ji Tomb Annals, is a chronicle of ancient China.
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Bhirrana
Bhirrana, also Bhirdana and Birhana, (भिरड़ाना) is a small village located in Fatehabad District, in the Indian state of Haryana.
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Bloodletting in Mesoamerica
Bloodletting was the ritualized self-cutting or piercing of an individual's body that served a number of ideological and cultural functions within ancient Mesoamerican societies, in particular the Maya.
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Bronze
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12% tin and often with the addition of other metals (such as aluminium, manganese, nickel or zinc) and sometimes non-metals or metalloids such as arsenic, phosphorus or silicon.
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Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, and in some areas proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization.
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Caral
Caral, or Caral-Chupacigarro, was a large settlement in the Supe Valley, near Supe, Barranca Province, Peru, some north of Lima.
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Casma/Sechin culture
The Casma/Sechin culture (alternatively Sechin Complex) (c. 3600 BCE - 200 BCE) of Peru refers to the large concentration of pre-historic ruins in the valleys of the Casma River and its tributary the Sechin River and along the nearby coast of the Pacific Ocean.
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Cemetery H culture
The Cemetery H culture was a Bronze Age culture in the Punjab region of what is now Pakistan and north-western India, from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE.
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Chalcolithic
The Chalcolithic (The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), p. 301: "Chalcolithic /,kælkəl'lɪθɪk/ adjective Archaeology of, relating to, or denoting a period in the 4th and 3rd millennium BCE, chiefly in the Near East and SE Europe, during which some weapons and tools were made of copper. This period was still largely Neolithic in character. Also called Eneolithic... Also called Copper Age - Origin early 20th cent.: from Greek khalkos 'copper' + lithos 'stone' + -ic". χαλκός khalkós, "copper" and λίθος líthos, "stone") period or Copper Age, in particular for eastern Europe often named Eneolithic or Æneolithic (from Latin aeneus "of copper"), was a period in the development of human technology, before it was discovered that adding tin to copper formed the harder bronze, leading to the Bronze Age.
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Chanakya
Chanakya (IAST:,; fl. c. 4th century BCE) was an Indian teacher, philosopher, economist, jurist and royal advisor.
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Chantuto Archaeological Site
The Chantuto Archaeological Site is located in the Soconusco region of coastal Chiapas state, Mexico.
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Charles Higham (archaeologist)
Charles Frank Wandesforde Higham (born 1939) is a British-born New Zealand archaeologist most noted for his work in Southeast Asia.
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Charles Rollin
Charles Rollin (January 30, 1661 in Paris - December 14, 1741 in Paris) was a French historian and educator, whose popularity in his time combined with becoming forgotten by later generations makes him an epithet, applied to historians such as Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi.
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Chavín culture
The Chavín culture is an extinct, prehistoric civilization, named for Chavín de Huantar, the principal archaeological site at which its artifacts have been found.
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Chavín de Huantar
Chavín de Huántar is an archaeological site in Peru, containing ruins and artifacts constructed beginning at least by 1200 BC and occupied by later cultures until around 400-500 BC by the Chavín, a major pre-Inca culture.
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Chengtoushan
Chengtoushan was a Neolithic settlement located on the northwestern edge of Dongting Lake in Li County, Hunan, China.
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Chert
Chert is a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline silica, the mineral form of silicon dioxide (SiO2).
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China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a unitary one-party sovereign state in East Asia and the world's most populous country, with a population of around /1e9 round 3 billion.
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Chinchorro culture
The Chinchorro culture of South America was a preceramic culture that lasted from 9,000 to 3,500 years BP (7,000 to 1,500 BC).
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Chinese nationalism
Chinese nationalism is the form of nationalism in China which asserts that the Chinese people are a nation and promotes the cultural and national unity of the Chinese.
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Christopher Knight (author)
Christopher Knight is an author who has written several books dealing with theories such as 366-degree geometry and the origins of Freemasonry.
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Chronology of the ancient Near East
The chronology of the ancient Near East provides a framework of dates for various events, rulers and dynasties.
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Circa
Circa, usually abbreviated c., ca. or ca (also circ. or cca.), means "approximately" in several European languages (and as a loanword in English), usually in reference to a date.
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City
A city is a large human settlement.
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Civilization
A civilization or civilisation (see English spelling differences) is any complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification imposed by a cultural elite, symbolic systems of communication (for example, writing systems), and a perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment.
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Classical Greece
Classical Greece was a period of around 200 years (5th and 4th centuries BC) in Greek culture.
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Climate change
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years).
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Coatzacoalcos River
The Coatzacoalcos is a large river that feeds mainly the south part of the state of Veracruz; it originates in the Sierra de Niltepec and crosses the state of Oaxaca in the region of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, flowing for toward the Gulf of Mexico.
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College Board
College Board is an American non-profit organization that was formed in December 1899 as the College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) to expand access to higher education.
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Colosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian: Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy.
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Columbia Encyclopedia
The Columbia Encyclopedia is a one-volume encyclopedia produced by Columbia University Press and in the last edition, sold by the Gale Group.
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Courtyard
A courtyard or court is a circumscribed area, often surrounded by a building or complex, that is open to the sky.
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Coxcatlan Cave
Coxcatlan Cave is a Mesoamerican archaeological site in the Tehuacán Valley of Puebla, Mexico.
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Cradle of Humankind
The Cradle of Humankind is a paleoanthropological site about northwest of Johannesburg, South Africa, in the Gauteng province.
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Cuneiform script
Cuneiform script, one of the earliest systems of writing, was invented by the Sumerians.
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Cycladic culture
Cycladic culture (also known as Cycladic civilisation or, chronologically, as Cycladic chronology) was a Bronze Age culture (c.3200–c.1050) found throughout the islands of the Cyclades in the Aegean Sea.
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Cylinder seal
A cylinder seal is a small round cylinder, typically about one inch in length, engraved with written characters or figurative scenes or both, used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface, generally wet clay.
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Date palm
Phoenix dactylifera, commonly known as date or date palm, is a flowering plant species in the palm family, Arecaceae, cultivated for its edible sweet fruit.
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Deity
A deity is a supernatural being considered divine or sacred.
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Dholavira
Dholavira (ધોળાવીરા) is an archaeological site at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District, in the state of Gujarat in western India, which has taken its name from a modern-day village south of it.
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Discover (magazine)
Discover is an American general audience science magazine launched in October 1980 by Time Inc.
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Divination
Divination (from Latin divinare "to foresee, to be inspired by a god", related to divinus, divine) is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual.
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Domestication
Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which one group of organisms assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another group to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that second group.
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Dye
A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied.
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Dynasty of Isin
The Dynasty of Isin refers to the final ruling dynasty listed on the Sumerian King List (SKL).
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Eannatum
Eannatum (𒂍𒀭𒈾𒁺) was a Sumerian king of Lagash; he established one of the first verifiable empires in history.
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Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)
The Early Dynastic period (abbreviated ED period or ED) is an archaeological culture in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) that is generally dated to c. 2900–2350 BC and was preceded by the Uruk and Jemdet Nasr periods.
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East Asia
East Asia is the eastern subregion of the Asian continent, which can be defined in either geographical or ethno-cultural "The East Asian cultural sphere evolves when Japan, Korea, and what is today Vietnam all share adapted elements of Chinese civilization of this period (that of the Tang dynasty), in particular Buddhism, Confucian social and political values, and literary Chinese and its writing system." terms.
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Ecuador
Ecuador (Ikwadur), officially the Republic of Ecuador (República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Ikwadur Ripuwlika), is a representative democratic republic in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.
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Edmund Spenser
Edmund Spenser (1552/1553 – 13 January 1599) was an English poet best known for The Faerie Queene, an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. He is recognized as one of the premier craftsmen of nascent Modern English verse, and is often considered one of the greatest poets in the English language.
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Elam
Elam (Elamite: haltamti, Sumerian: NIM.MAki) was an ancient Pre-Iranian civilization centered in the far west and southwest of what is now modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq.
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Elite
In political and sociological theory, the elite (French élite, from Latin eligere) are a small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a society.
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Enmerkar
Enmerkar (𒂗𒈨𒅕𒃸) is a legendary king listed as the builder of the Sumerian city of Uruk.
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Epi-Olmec culture
The Epi-Olmec culture was a cultural area in the central region of the present-day Mexican state of Veracruz.
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Eridu
Eridu (Sumerian:, NUN.KI/eridugki; Akkadian: irîtu; modern Arabic: Tell Abu Shahrain) is an archaeological site in southern Mesopotamia (modern Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq).
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Erligang culture
The Erligang culture is a Bronze Age urban civilization and archaeological culture in China that existed from approximately 1510 to 1460 BC.
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Erlitou culture
The Erlitou culture was an early Bronze Age urban society and archaeological culture that existed in the Yellow River valley from approximately 1900 to 1500 BC.
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Eurasia
Eurasia is a combined continental landmass of Europe and Asia.
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Fertile Crescent
The Fertile Crescent (also known as the "cradle of civilization") is a crescent-shaped region where agriculture and early human civilizations like the Sumer and Ancient Egypt flourished due to inundations from the surrounding Nile, Euphrates, and Tigris rivers.
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First Babylonian dynasty
The chronology of the first dynasty of Babylonia (also First Babylonian Empire) is debated as there is a Babylonian King List A and a Babylonian King List B. In this chronology, the regnal years of List A are used due to their wide usage.
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Ganges
The Ganges, also known as Ganga, is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through the nations of India and Bangladesh.
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Genetics
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms.
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Ghaggar-Hakra River
The Ghaggar-Hakra River is an intermittent, endorheic river in India and Pakistan that flows only during the monsoon season.
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Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh was a historical king of the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, a major hero in ancient Mesopotamian mythology, and the protagonist of the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem written in Akkadian during the late second millennium BC.
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Gourd
A gourd is a plant of the family Cucurbitaceae, particularly Cucurbita and Lagenaria or the fruit of the two genera of Bignoniaceae "calabash tree", Crescentia and Amphitecna.
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Granary
A granary is a storehouse or room in a barn for threshed grain or animal feed.
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Greco-Roman world
The Greco-Roman world, Greco-Roman culture, or the term Greco-Roman; spelled Graeco-Roman in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth), when used as an adjective, as understood by modern scholars and writers, refers to those geographical regions and countries that culturally (and so historically) were directly, long-term, and intimately influenced by the language, culture, government and religion of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It is also better known as the Classical Civilisation. In exact terms the area refers to the "Mediterranean world", the extensive tracts of land centered on the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, the "swimming-pool and spa" of the Greeks and Romans, i.e. one wherein the cultural perceptions, ideas and sensitivities of these peoples were dominant. This process was aided by the universal adoption of Greek as the language of intellectual culture and commerce in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, and of Latin as the tongue for public management and forensic advocacy, especially in the Western Mediterranean. Though the Greek and the Latin never became the native idioms of the rural peasants who composed the great majority of the empire's population, they were the languages of the urbanites and cosmopolitan elites, and the lingua franca, even if only as corrupt or multifarious dialects to those who lived within the large territories and populations outside the Macedonian settlements and the Roman colonies. All Roman citizens of note and accomplishment regardless of their ethnic extractions, spoke and wrote in Greek and/or Latin, such as the Roman jurist and Imperial chancellor Ulpian who was of Phoenician origin, the mathematician and geographer Claudius Ptolemy who was of Greco-Egyptian origin and the famous post-Constantinian thinkers John Chrysostom and Augustine who were of Syrian and Berber origins, respectively, and the historian Josephus Flavius who was of Jewish origin and spoke and wrote in Greek.
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Greek Dark Ages
The Greek Dark Age, also called Greek Dark Ages, Homeric Age (named for the fabled poet, Homer) or Geometric period (so called after the characteristic Geometric art of the time), is the period of Greek history from the end of the Mycenaean palatial civilization around 1100 BC to the first signs of the Greek poleis, city states, in the 9th century BC.
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Gutian dynasty of Sumer
The Gutian dynasty (Sumerian:, gu-ti-umKI) was a dynasty that came to power in Mesopotamia c. 2154—2112 BC after displacing the "Sargonic" dynasty.
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Gutian people
The Guti or Quti, also known by the derived exonyms Gutians or Guteans, were a nomadic people of the Zagros Mountains (on the border of modern Iran and Iraq) during ancient times.
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Hallucinogen
A hallucinogen is a psychoactive agent which can cause hallucinations, perceptual anomalies, and other substantial subjective changes in thoughts, emotion, and consciousness.
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Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China (206 BC–220 AD), preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the "Han Chinese" and the Chinese script is referred to as "Han characters". It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BC–9 AD) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD). The emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States. From the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD. The Han dynasty saw an age of economic prosperity and witnessed a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalized the private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, but these government monopolies were repealed during the Eastern Han dynasty. Science and technology during the Han period saw significant advances, including the process of papermaking, the nautical steering ship rudder, the use of negative numbers in mathematics, the raised-relief map, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy, and a seismometer for measuring earthquakes employing an inverted pendulum. The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BC. After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empresses dowager, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty would eventually collapse and ceased to exist.
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Harappa
Harappa (Urdu/ہڑپّہ) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about west of Sahiwal.
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Haryana
Haryana, carved out of the former state of East Punjab on 1November 1966 on linguistic basis, is one of the 29 states in India.
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Hellenistic period
The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the subsequent conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year.
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Henan
Henan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country.
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Hexahedron
A hexahedron (plural: hexahedra) is any polyhedron with six faces.
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Hindu nationalism
Hindu nationalism has been collectively referred to as the expressions of social and political thought, based on the native spiritual and cultural traditions of the Indian subcontinent.
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Historical urban community sizes
These are estimated populations of historical cities over time.
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History
History (from Greek ἱστορία, historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation") is the study of the past as it is described in written documents.
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History of China
The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC,William G. Boltz, Early Chinese Writing, World Archaeology, Vol.
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History of chocolate
The history of chocolate begins in Mesoamerica.
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History of India
The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the advancement of civilisation from the Indus Valley Civilisation to the eventual blending of the Indo-Aryan culture to form the Vedic Civilisation; the rise of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism;Sanderson, Alexis (2009), "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo, Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009.
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History of the world
The history of the world is the history of humanity (or human history), as determined from archaeology, anthropology, genetics, linguistics, and other disciplines; and, for periods since the invention of writing, from recorded history and from secondary sources and studies.
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Huaca Prieta
Huaca Prieta is the site of a prehistoric settlement beside the Pacific Ocean in the Chicama Valley, just north of Trujillo, La Libertad Province, Peru.
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Huaricanga
Huaricanga is the earliest city of the Norte Chico civilization.
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Ibiblio
ibiblio (formerly SunSITE.unc.edu and MetaLab.unc.edu) is a "collection of collections," and hosts a diverse range of publicly available information and open source content, including software, music, literature, art, history, science, politics, and cultural studies.
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In Search of the Cradle of Civilization
In Search of the Cradle of Civilization: New Light on Ancient India is a 1995 book by Georg Feuerstein, Subhash Kak, and David Frawley in which the authors argue against the theories that Indo-European peoples arrived in India in the middle of the second millennium BC (Indo-Aryan migration) and support the concept of "Indigenous Aryans" and the Out of India theory.
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Inca Empire
The Inca Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu, "The Four Regions"), also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century.
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India
India (IAST), also called the Republic of India (IAST), is a country in South Asia.
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Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a southern region and peninsula of Asia, mostly situated on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas.
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Indo-Aryan peoples
Indo-Aryan peoples are a diverse Indo-European-speaking ethnolinguistic group of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages.
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Indo-Gangetic Plain
The Indo-Gangetic Plain, also known as the Indus-Ganga Plain and the North Indian River Plain, is a 255 million-hectare (630 million-acre) fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, the eastern parts of Pakistan, virtually all of Bangladesh and southern plains of Nepal.
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Indus River
The Indus River (also called the Sindhū) is one of the longest rivers in Asia.
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Indus script
The Indus script (also known as the Harappan script) is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus Valley Civilisation during the Kot Diji and Mature Harappan periods between 3500 and 1900 BCE.
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Indus Valley Civilisation
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation (5500–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
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Infobase Publishing
Infobase Publishing is an American publisher of reference book titles and textbooks geared towards the North American library, secondary school, and university-level curriculum markets.
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Iran
Iran (ایران), also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ایران), is a sovereign state in Western Asia. With over 81 million inhabitants, Iran is the world's 18th-most-populous country. Comprising a land area of, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East and the 17th-largest in the world. Iran is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. The country's central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, give it geostrategic importance. Tehran is the country's capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BCE. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BCE, reaching its greatest territorial size in the sixth century BCE, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley, becoming one of the largest empires in history. The Iranian realm fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion culminated in the establishment of the Parthian Empire, which was succeeded in the third century CE by the Sasanian Empire, a leading world power for the next four centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century CE, displacing the indigenous faiths of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism with Islam. Iran made major contributions to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential figures in art and science. After two centuries, a period of various native Muslim dynasties began, which were later conquered by the Turks and the Mongols. The rise of the Safavids in the 15th century led to the reestablishment of a unified Iranian state and national identity, with the country's conversion to Shia Islam marking a turning point in Iranian and Muslim history. Under Nader Shah, Iran was one of the most powerful states in the 18th century, though by the 19th century, a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to significant territorial losses. Popular unrest led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the country's first legislature. A 1953 coup instigated by the United Kingdom and the United States resulted in greater autocracy and growing anti-Western resentment. Subsequent unrest against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution and the establishment of an Islamic republic, a political system that includes elements of a parliamentary democracy vetted and supervised by a theocracy governed by an autocratic "Supreme Leader". During the 1980s, the country was engaged in a war with Iraq, which lasted for almost nine years and resulted in a high number of casualties and economic losses for both sides. According to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic, and has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader. Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate, and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world. Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, an agreement reached between Iran and the P5+1, was created on 14 July 2015, aimed to loosen the nuclear sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium. Iran is a founding member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC, and OPEC. It is a major regional and middle power, and its large reserves of fossil fuels – which include the world's largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves – exert considerable influence in international energy security and the world economy. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and eleventh-largest in the world. Iran is a multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, the largest being Persians (61%), Azeris (16%), Kurds (10%), and Lurs (6%).
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Iranian Plateau
The Iranian Plateau or the Persian Plateau is a geological formation in Western Asia and Central Asia.
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Izapa
Izapa is a very large pre-Columbian archaeological site located in the Mexican state of Chiapas; it is best known for its occupation during the Late Formative period.
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Jade use in Mesoamerica
The use of jade in Mesoamerica for symbolic and ideological ritual was highly influenced by its rarity and value among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Olmec, the Maya, and the various groups in the Valley of Mexico.
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Jemdet Nasr period
The Jemdet Nasr Period is an archaeological culture in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq).
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Jericho
Jericho (יְרִיחוֹ; أريحا) is a city in the Palestinian Territories and is located near the Jordan River in the West Bank.
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Jhusi
Jhusi or Jhunsi is a town and a nagar panchayat in Allahabad district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
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Jiahu
Jiahu was the site of a Neolithic settlement based in the central plain of ancient China, near the Yellow River.
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Jiahu symbols
Jiahu symbols refer to the 16 distinct markings on prehistoric artifacts found in Jiahu, a neolithic Peiligang culture site found in Henan, China, and excavated in 1999.
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Kalibangan
Kalibangān is a town located at on the left or southern banks of the Ghaggar (Ghaggar-Hakra River) in Tehsil Pilibangān, between Suratgarh and Hanumangarh in Hanumangarh District, Rajasthan, India 205 km.
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Kassites
The Kassites were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC (short chronology).
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Kot Diji
The ancient site at Kot Diji (کوٹ ڈیجی) was the forerunner of the Indus Civilization.
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La Venta
La Venta is a pre-Columbian archaeological site of the Olmec civilization located in the present-day Mexican state of Tabasco.
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Lagash
Lagash (cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian: Lagaš) is an ancient city located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Ash Shatrah, Iraq.
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Lahuradewa
Lahuradewa (Lat. 26°46' N; Long. 82°57' E) is located in Sant Kabir Nagar District, in Sarayupar (Trans-Sarayu) region of the Upper Gangetic Plain in Uttar Pradesh state of India.
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Lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli, or lapis for short, is a deep blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color.
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Levant
The Levant is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean.
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List of cities of the ancient Near East
The earliest cities in history appear in the ancient Near East.
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Longshan culture
The Longshan (or Lung-shan) culture, also sometimes referred to as the Black Pottery Culture, was a late Neolithic culture in the middle and lower Yellow River valley areas of northern China from about 3000 to 1900 BC.
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Lothal
Lothal is one of the southernmost cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization, located in the Bhāl region of the modern state of Gujarāt and first inhabited 3700 BCE.
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Lugalbanda
Lugalbanda (𒈗𒌉𒁕, young/fierce king) is a character found in Sumerian mythology and literature.
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Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Macedonia or Macedon (Μακεδονία, Makedonía) was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece.
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Magnetite
Magnetite is a rock mineral and one of the main iron ores, with the chemical formula Fe3O4.
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Mahajanapada
Mahājanapada (lit, from maha, "great", and janapada "foothold of a tribe, country") was one of the sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE.
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Majiayao culture
The Majiayao culture was a group of neolithic communities who lived primarily in the upper Yellow River region in eastern Gansu, eastern Qinghai and northern Sichuan, China.
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Margaret Munn-Rankin
Joan Margaret Munn-Rankin (29 July 1913 – 28 July 1981), known as Margaret Munn-Rankin and published as J. M. Munn-Rankin, was a British archaeologist, historian, and academic, who specialised in the ancient Near East.
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Maurya Empire
The Maurya Empire was a geographically-extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between 322 BCE and 180 BCE.
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Maya civilization
The Maya civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization developed by the Maya peoples, and noted for its hieroglyphic script—the only known fully developed writing system of the pre-Columbian Americas—as well as for its art, architecture, mathematics, calendar, and astronomical system.
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Maya peoples
The Maya peoples are a large group of Indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica.
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Megalith
A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones.
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Mehrgarh
Mehrgarh (Balochi: Mehrgaŕh; مهرګړ; مہرگڑھ), sometimes anglicized as Mehergarh or Mehrgar, is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500/2000 BCE) site located near the Bolan Pass on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan, Pakistan, to the west of the Indus River valley.
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Memphis, Egypt
Memphis (مَنْف; ⲙⲉⲙϥⲓ; Μέμφις) was the ancient capital of Aneb-Hetch, the first nome of Lower Egypt.
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Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is an important historical region and cultural area in the Americas, extending from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica, and within which pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries.
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Mesoamerican ballgame
The Mesoamerican ballgame was a sport with ritual associations played since 1400 BCSee Hill, Blake and Clark (1998); Schuster (1998).
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Mesoamerican writing systems
Mesoamerica, along with Mesopotamia and China, is among the three known places in the world where writing has developed independently.
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Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a historical region in West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq, Kuwait, parts of Northern Saudi Arabia, the eastern parts of Syria, Southeastern Turkey, and regions along the Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders.
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Metallurgy
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys.
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Metalworking
Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts, assemblies, or large-scale structures.
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Mexico
Mexico (México; Mēxihco), officially called the United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos) is a federal republic in the southern portion of North America.
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Middle Assyrian Empire
The Middle Assyrian Empire is the period in the history of Assyria between the fall of the Old Assyrian Empire in the 14th century BC and the establishment of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century BC.
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Millet
Millets (/ˈmɪlɪts/) are a group of highly variable small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food.
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Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China
The Ministry of Culture (MOC) was a ministry of the government of the People's Republic of China which was dissolved on March 19, 2018.
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Minoan civilization
The Minoan civilization was an Aegean Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean Islands which flourished from about 2600 to 1600 BC, before a late period of decline, finally ending around 1100.
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Mitanni
Mitanni (Hittite cuneiform; Mittani), also called Hanigalbat (Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform) in Assyrian or Naharin in Egyptian texts, was a Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria and southeast Anatolia from c. 1500 to 1300 BC.
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Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro (موئن جو دڙو, meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men'; موئن جو دڑو) is an archaeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan.
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Mokaya
Mokaya were pre-Olmec cultures of the Soconusco region in Mexico and parts of the Pacific coast of western Guatemala, an archaeological culture that developed a number of Mesoamerica’s earliest-known sedentary settlements.
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Monsoon
Monsoon is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea.
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Morphology (biology)
Morphology is a branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features.
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Mycenaean Greece
Mycenaean Greece (or Mycenaean civilization) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece, spanning the period from approximately 1600–1100 BC.
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Nanda Empire
The Nanda dynasty originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India during the 4th century BCE and lasted between 345–321 BCE.
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National Gallery of Art
The National Gallery of Art, and its attached Sculpture Garden, is a national art museum in Washington, D.C., located on the National Mall, between 3rd and 9th Streets, at Constitution Avenue NW.
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National mysticism
National mysticism (German Nationalmystik) is a form of nationalism which raises the nation to the status of numen or divinity.
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Natufian culture
The Epipaleolithic Natufian culture existed from around 12,500 to 9,500 BC in the Levant, a region in the Eastern Mediterranean.
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Near East
The Near East is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia.
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Neo-Assyrian Empire
The Neo-Assyrian Empire was an Iron Age Mesopotamian empire, in existence between 911 and 609 BC, and became the largest empire of the world up till that time.
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Neo-Babylonian Empire
The Neo-Babylonian Empire (also Second Babylonian Empire) was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 626 BC and ended in 539 BC.
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Neolithic
The Neolithic was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 10,200 BC, according to the ASPRO chronology, in some parts of Western Asia, and later in other parts of the world and ending between 4500 and 2000 BC.
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Neolithic Greece
Neolithic Greece is an archaeological term used to refer to the Neolithic phase of Greek history beginning with the spread of farming to Greece in 7000–6500 BC.
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Neolithic Revolution
The Neolithic Revolution, Neolithic Demographic Transition, Agricultural Revolution, or First Agricultural Revolution, was the wide-scale transition of many human cultures during the Neolithic period from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, making an increasingly larger population possible.
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Neolithic signs in China
Since the second half of the 20th century, inscriptions have been found on pottery in a variety of locations in China, such as Banpo near Xi'an, as well as on bone and bone marrows at Hualouzi, Chang'an County near Xi'an.
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Nomad
A nomad (νομάς, nomas, plural tribe) is a member of a community of people who live in different locations, moving from one place to another in search of grasslands for their animals.
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Norte Chico civilization
The Norte Chico civilization (also Caral or Caral-Supe civilization)The name is disputed.
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North Caucasus
The North Caucasus (p) or Ciscaucasia is the northern part of the Caucasus region between the Sea of Azov and Black Sea on the west and the Caspian Sea on the east, within European Russia.
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North China
North China (literally "China's north") is a geographical region of China, lying North of the Qinling Huaihe Line.
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North China Plain
The North China Plain is based on the deposits of the Yellow River and is the largest alluvial plain of China.
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Obsidian use in Mesoamerica
Obsidian is a naturally formed volcanic glass that was an important part of the material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.
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Old Assyrian Empire
The Old Assyrian Empire is one of four periods in which the history of Assyria is divided, the other three being the Early Assyrian Period, the Middle Assyrian Period, and the New Assyrian Period.
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Olmec colossal heads
The Olmec colossal heads are stone representations of human heads sculpted from large basalt boulders.
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Olmecs
The Olmecs were the earliest known major civilization in Mexico following a progressive development in Soconusco.
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Oracle bone script
Oracle bone script was the form of Chinese characters used on oracle bonesanimal bones or turtle plastrons used in pyromantic divinationin the late 2nd millennium BCE, and is the earliest known form of Chinese writing.
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Oxford English Dictionary
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is the main historical dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press.
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Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press (OUP) is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press.
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Palynology
Palynology is the "study of dust" (from palunō, "strew, sprinkle" and -logy) or "particles that are strewn".
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Pantheon (religion)
A pantheon (from Greek πάνθεον pantheon, literally "(a temple) of all gods", "of or common to all gods" from πᾶν pan- "all" and θεός theos "god") is the particular set of all gods of any polytheistic religion, mythology, or tradition.
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Pea
The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the pod fruit Pisum sativum.
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Peiligang culture
The Peiligang culture was a Neolithic culture in the Yi-Luo river basin (in modern Henan Province, China) that existed from 7000 to 5000 BC.
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Peru
Peru (Perú; Piruw Republika; Piruw Suyu), officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America.
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Peter Clift
Peter Clift is a British marine geologist and geophysicist specializing in the geology of Asia and the western Pacific.
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Pictogram
A pictogram, also called a pictogramme, pictograph, or simply picto, and in computer usage an icon, is an ideogram that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object.
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Pottery
Pottery is the ceramic material which makes up pottery wares, of which major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain.
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Pre-Pottery Neolithic A
Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) denotes the first stage in early Levantine and Anatolian Neolithic culture, dating BP.
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Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) is a Neolithic culture centered in upper Mesopotamia.
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Prehistory
Human prehistory is the period between the use of the first stone tools 3.3 million years ago by hominins and the invention of writing systems.
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) is the official scientific journal of the National Academy of Sciences, published since 1915.
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Proto-writing
Proto-writing consists of visible marks communicating limited information.
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Pseudoarchaeology
Pseudoarchaeology—also known as alternative archaeology, fringe archaeology, fantastic archaeology, or cult archaeology—refers to interpretations of the past from outside of the archaeological science community, which reject the accepted datagathering and analytical methods of the discipline.
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Pseudohistory
Pseudohistory is a form of pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort or misrepresent the historical record, often using methods resembling those used in legitimate historical research.
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Qin dynasty
The Qin dynasty was the first dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 206 BC.
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Quipu
Quipu (also spelled khipu) or talking knots, were recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by a number of cultures, particularly in the region of Andean South America.
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Rakhigarhi
Rakhigarhi, (राखीगढ़ी) or Rakhi Garhi (Rakhi Shahpur + Rakhi Khas), is a village in Hisar District in the state of Haryana in India, situated 150 kilometers to the northwest of Delhi.
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Rehman Dheri
Rehman Dheri or sometime Rahman Dheri is a Pre-Harappan Archaeological Site situated near Dera Ismail Khan in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
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Republicanism
Republicanism is an ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic under which the people hold popular sovereignty.
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River
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river.
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Roman Empire
The Roman Empire (Imperium Rōmānum,; Koine and Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, tr.) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa and Asia.
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Rome
Rome (Roma; Roma) is the capital city of Italy and a special comune (named Comune di Roma Capitale).
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Rupnagar
Rupnagar (formerly known as Ropar or Rupar), is a city and a municipal council in Rupnagar district in the Indian state of Punjab.
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San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán
San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán (or San Lorenzo) is the collective name for three related archaeological sites—San Lorenzo, Tenochtitlán and Potrero Nuevo—located in the southeast portion of the Mexican state of Veracruz.
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Sanitation
Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and adequate treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage.
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Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation
The ancient Indus Valley Civilisation of South Asia, including current day Pakistan and Northwest India, was prominent in hydraulic engineering, and had many water supply and sanitation devices that were the first of their kind.
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Sanxingdui
Sanxingdui is the name of an archaeological site and a major Bronze Age culture in modern Sichuan, China.
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Sarasvati River
Sarasvati River (Sanskrit: सरस्वती नदी, IAST: sárasvatī nadī) is one of the Rigvedic rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda and later Vedic and post-Vedic texts.
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Sargon of Akkad
Sargon of Akkad (Akkadian Šarru-ukīn or Šarru-kēn, also known as Sargon the Great) was the first ruler of the Semitic-speaking Akkadian Empire, known for his conquests of the Sumerian city-states in the 24th to 23rd centuries BC.
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Science (journal)
Science, also widely referred to as Science Magazine, is the peer-reviewed academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and one of the world's top academic journals.
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Sechín River
Sechín River in Peru, Ancash Region remains dry for long seasons, increasing its volume at times of rain in the mountain range.
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Sechin Bajo
Sechin Bajo is a large archaeological site with ruins dating from 3500 BCE to 1300 BCE, making it one of the oldest centers of civilization in the Western Hemisphere.
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Sedentism
In cultural anthropology, sedentism (sometimes called sedentariness; compare sedentarism) is the practice of living in one place for a long time.
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Seleucid Empire
The Seleucid Empire (Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν, Basileía tōn Seleukidōn) was a Hellenistic state ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, which existed from 312 BC to 63 BC; Seleucus I Nicator founded it following the division of the Macedonian empire vastly expanded by Alexander the Great.
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Semitic languages
The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family originating in the Middle East.
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Sesame
Sesame (Sesamum indicum) is a flowering plant in the genus Sesamum, also called benne.
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Shang dynasty
The Shang dynasty or Yin dynasty, according to traditional historiography, ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Zhou dynasty.
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Shuruppak
Shuruppak (𒋢𒆳𒊒𒆠, "the healing place"), modern Tell Fara, was an ancient Sumerian city situated about 55 kilometres (35 mi) south of Nippur on the banks of the Euphrates in Iraq's Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate.
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Sierra de los Tuxtlas
The Sierra de Los Tuxtlas (Tuxtlas Mountains) are a volcanic belt and mountain range along the southeastern Veracruz Gulf coast in Eastern Mexico.
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Siltation
Siltation or siltification is the pollution of water by particulate terrestrial clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay.
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Sindh
Sindh (سنڌ; سِندھ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, in the southeast of the country.
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Sipacate
Sipacate is a resort town on the Pacific coast of Guatemala, in Escuintla Department about 22 miles (36 km) west of Puerto San José.
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Snuff (tobacco)
Snuff is a smokeless tobacco made from ground or pulverised tobacco leaves.
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Social class
A social class is a set of subjectively defined concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes.
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Social structure
In the social sciences, social structure is the patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of the individuals.
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South America
South America is a continent in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere.
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Spondylus
Spondylus is a genus of bivalve molluscs, the only genus in the family Spondylidae.
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Spring and Autumn period
The Spring and Autumn period was a period in Chinese history from approximately 771 to 476 BC (or according to some authorities until 403 BC) which corresponds roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou Period.
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Springer Science+Business Media
Springer Science+Business Media or Springer, part of Springer Nature since 2015, is a global publishing company that publishes books, e-books and peer-reviewed journals in science, humanities, technical and medical (STM) publishing.
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Staff God
The Staff God is a major deity in Andean cultures.
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Stratum
In geology and related fields, a stratum (plural: strata) is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil, or igneous rock that were formed at the Earth's surface, with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers.
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Sumer
SumerThe name is from Akkadian Šumeru; Sumerian en-ĝir15, approximately "land of the civilized kings" or "native land".
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Sumerian King List
The Sumerian King List is an ancient stone tablet originally recorded in the Sumerian language, listing kings of Sumer (ancient southern Iraq) from Sumerian and neighboring dynasties, their supposed reign lengths, and the locations of the kingship.
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Supernatural
The supernatural (Medieval Latin: supernātūrālis: supra "above" + naturalis "natural", first used: 1520–1530 AD) is that which exists (or is claimed to exist), yet cannot be explained by laws of nature.
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Tabasco
Tabasco, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tabasco (Estado Libre y Soberano de Tabasco), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.
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Tectonics
Tectonics is the process that controls the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time.
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Tehuacán
Tehuacán is the second largest city in the Mexican state of Puebla, nestled in the Southeast Valley of Tehuacán, bordering the states of Oaxaca and Veracruz.
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The Urantia Book
The Urantia Book (sometimes called The Urantia Papers or The Fifth Epochal Revelation) is a spiritual, philosophical, and scientific book that originated in Chicago some time between 1924 and 1955.
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Theocracy
Theocracy is a form of government in which a deity is the source from which all authority derives.
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Theory
A theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking, or the results of such thinking.
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Third Dynasty of Ur
The terms "Third Dynasty of Ur" and "Neo-Sumerian Empire" refer to both a 22nd to 21st century BC (middle chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur and a short-lived territorial-political state which some historians consider to have been a nascent empire.
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Tin
Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (from stannum) and atomic number 50.
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Tres Zapotes
Tres Zapotes is a Mesoamerican archaeological site located in the south-central Gulf Lowlands of Mexico in the Papaloapan River plain.
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Ubaid period
The Ubaid period (c. 6500 to 3800 BC) is a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia.
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University of Chicago Press
The University of Chicago Press is the largest and one of the oldest university presses in the United States.
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Ur
Ur (Sumerian: Urim; Sumerian Cuneiform: KI or URIM5KI; Akkadian: Uru; أور; אור) was an important Sumerian city-state in ancient Mesopotamia, located at the site of modern Tell el-Muqayyar (تل المقير) in south Iraq's Dhi Qar Governorate.
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Urban revolution
In anthropology and archaeology, the Urban Revolution is the process by which small, kin-based, nonliterate agricultural villages were transformed into large, socially complex, urban societies.
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Urbanization
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change.
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Uruk
Uruk (Cuneiform: URUUNUG; Sumerian: Unug; Akkadian: Uruk; وركاء,; Aramaic/Hebrew:; Orḥoē, Ὀρέχ Oreḥ, Ὠρύγεια Ōrugeia) was an ancient city of Sumer (and later of Babylonia), situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates river, on the dried-up, ancient channel of the Euphrates, some 30 km east of modern Samawah, Al-Muthannā, Iraq.
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Uruk period
The Uruk period (ca. 4000 to 3100 BC) existed from the protohistoric Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age period in the history of Mesopotamia, following the Ubaid period and succeeded by the Jemdet Nasr period.
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V. Gordon Childe
Vere Gordon Childe (14 April 1892 – 19 October 1957), better known as V. Gordon Childe, was an Australian archaeologist and philologist who specialized in the study of European prehistory.
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Vedic period
The Vedic period, or Vedic age, is the period in the history of the northwestern Indian subcontinent between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation in the central Gangetic Plain which began in BCE.
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Warehouse
A warehouse is a commercial building for storage of goods.
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Warring States period
The Warring States period was an era in ancient Chinese history of warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation, following the Spring and Autumn period and concluding with the Qin wars of conquest that saw the annexation of all other contender states, which ultimately led to the Qin state's victory in 221 BC as the first unified Chinese empire known as the Qin dynasty.
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Wars of the Diadochi
The Wars of the Diadochi (Πόλεμοι των Διαδόχων), or Wars of Alexander's Successors, were a series of conflicts fought between Alexander the Great's generals over the rule of his vast empire after his death.
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Wastewater
Wastewater (or waste water) is any water that has been affected by human use.
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Water buffalo
The water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) or domestic Asian water buffalo is a large bovid originating in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and China.
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Water well
A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers.
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Western Christianity
Western Christianity is the type of Christianity which developed in the areas of the former Western Roman Empire.
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Western culture
Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization, Occidental culture, the Western world, Western society, European civilization,is a term used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief systems, political systems and specific artifacts and technologies that have some origin or association with Europe.
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Western Zhou
The Western Zhou (西周; c. 1046 – 771 BC) was the first half of the Zhou dynasty of ancient China.
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Written Chinese
Written Chinese comprises Chinese characters (汉字/漢字; pinyin: Hànzì, literally "Han characters") used to represent the Chinese language.
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Xia dynasty
The Xia dynasty is the legendary, possibly apocryphal first dynasty in traditional Chinese history.
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Xinzheng
Xinzheng is a county-level city under the jurisdiction of Zhengzhou, Henan province in Central China.
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Yamuna
The Yamuna (Hindustani: /jəmʊnaː/), also known as the Jumna, (not to be mistaken with the Jamuna of Bangladesh) is the longest and the second largest tributary river of the Ganges (Ganga) in northern India.
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Yangshao culture
The Yangshao culture was a Neolithic culture that existed extensively along the Yellow River in China.
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Yanshi
Yanshi is a county-level city administered by the prefecture-level city of Luoyang in western Henan province in the China.
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Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He is the second longest river in Asia, after the Yangtze River, and the sixth longest river system in the world at the estimated length of.
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Zaña Valley
Zaña Valley is an archaeological area in northern Peru that contains the earliest known canals in South America.
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Zhob River
Zhob River (ژوب سيند) is located in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
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Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty or the Zhou Kingdom was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang dynasty and preceded the Qin dynasty.
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Ziggurat
A ziggurat (Akkadian: ziqqurat, D-stem of zaqāru "to build on a raised area") is a type of massive stone structure built in ancient Mesopotamia.
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1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus is a 2005 non-fiction book by American author and science writer Charles C. Mann about the pre-Columbian Americas.
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31st century BC
The 31st century BC was a century which lasted from the year 3100 BC to 3001 BC.
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4th millennium BC
The 4th millennium BC spanned the years 4000 through 3001 BC.
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Redirects here:
Beginning of civilizations, Cradle of Civilisation, Cradle of Civilisations, Cradle of Civilization, Cradle of Western civilisation, Cradle of Western civilization, Cradle of civilazation, Cradle of civilisation, Cradles of Civilisations, Cradles of civilisation, Cradles of civilization, Eurasian miracle, First Civilization, First civilization, First civilizations, Four Great Ancient Civilizations.
References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
