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180 relations: Aeneas Coffey, Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, Air sensitivity, Air separation, Al-Kindi, Alchemy, Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam, Alembic, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Alexandria, Ammonia, Applejack (drink), Archetype, Argon, Aromatherapy, Aromaticity, Aspirator (pump), Atmospheric distillation of crude oil, Atmospheric pressure, Azeotrope, Batch distillation, Benzene, Boiling, Boiling point, Carbohydrate, Catalytic distillation, Charsadda, Chemical engineer, Chemical engineering, Chemical industry, Chemical plant, Chemical reaction, Chemical synthesis, Chemistry, Chlorosilane, Cognac, Column still, Common Era, Computational chemistry, Computer simulation, Condensation, Condenser (heat transfer), Condenser (laboratory), Continuous distillation, Cryogenics, Dalton's law, Dean–Stark apparatus, Desalination, Desiccant, Destructive distillation, ..., Diaphragm pump, Distillation Design, Distilled water, Dry distillation, Egypt (Roman province), Ernest Solvay, Ernest Thiele, Essential oil, Ethanol, Ethyl acetate, Evaporation, Extractive distillation, Fenske equation, Fermentation in food processing, Flash evaporation, Food processing, Fossil fuel, Fractional distillation, Fractional freezing, Fractionating column, Fragrance extraction, Free molecular flow, Freezing, Fuel, Gandhara, Gas, Han dynasty, Hebei, Herbal distillate, Hieronymus Brunschwig, Ice wine, Ideal solution, Indian subcontinent, Industrial gas, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Iraq, Irfan Habib, Jin dynasty (1115–1234), John French (physician), Kugelrohr, Laboratory, Laboratory glassware, Lime (material), Liquid nitrogen, Liquid oxygen, Liquor, Mass transfer, McCabe–Thiele method, Mean free path, Methanol, Microdistillery, Mixture, Mole fraction, Molecular distillation, Molecular sieve, Mother liquor, Multi-stage flash distillation, Natural-gas processing, Nitrogen, Oil refinery, Oxygen, Packed bed, Pakistan, Partial pressure, Pearson Education, Perkin triangle, Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Pervaporation, Petrochemical, Petroleum, Phase (matter), Plate column, Polytetrafluoroethylene, Pot still, Potassium carbonate, Properties of water, Pyrolysis, Raoult's law, Raschig ring, Raw material, Reactive distillation, Recrystallization (chemistry), Redox, Reflux, Retort, Rotary evaporator, Round-bottom flask, Rum, Rum-running, Schola Medica Salernitana, Scotch whisky, Semiconductor, Separation process, Short-path distillation, Silicon, Simulation, Skin care, Solvent, Song dynasty, Spinning band distillation, Steady state, Still, Structured packing, Sublimation (phase transition), Sugar, Sulfuric acid, Synthetic membrane, Taddeo Alderotti, Taxila, Tequila, Theoretical plate, Thermal decomposition, Toluene, Torr, UNESCO, Unit operation, Vacuum, Vacuum distillation, Valve, Vapor pressure, Vapor-compression evaporation, Vapor–liquid equilibrium, Vaporization, Vodka, Volatility (chemistry), Water of crystallization, Whisky, Wood, Yuan dynasty, Zosimos of Panopolis. Expand index (130 more) »
Aeneas Coffey
Aeneas Coffey (1780–1839) was an Irish inventor and distiller.
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Ahmad Y. al-Hassan
Ahmad Yousef Al-Hassan (أحمد يوسف الحسن) (June 25, 1925 – April 28, 2012) was a Palestinian/Syrian/Canadian historian of Arabic and Islamic science and technology, educated in Jerusalem, Cairo, and London with a PhD in Mechanical engineering from University College London.
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Air sensitivity
Air sensitivity is a term used, particularly in chemistry, to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air.
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Air separation
An air separation plant separates atmospheric air into its primary components, typically nitrogen and oxygen, and sometimes also argon and other rare inert gases.
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Al-Kindi
Abu Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician and musician.
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Alchemy
Alchemy is a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practiced throughout Europe, Africa, Brazil and Asia.
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Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
Alchemy and chemistry in Islam refers to the study of both traditional alchemy and early practical chemistry (the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by scholars in the medieval Islamic world.
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Alembic
An alembic is an alchemical still consisting of two vessels connected by a tube, used for distilling chemicals.
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Alexander of Aphrodisias
Alexander of Aphrodisias (Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Ἀφροδισιεύς; fl. 200 AD) was a Peripatetic philosopher and the most celebrated of the Ancient Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle.
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Alexandria
Alexandria (or; Arabic: الإسكندرية; Egyptian Arabic: إسكندرية; Ⲁⲗⲉⲝⲁⲛⲇⲣⲓⲁ; Ⲣⲁⲕⲟⲧⲉ) is the second-largest city in Egypt and a major economic centre, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country.
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Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3.
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Applejack (drink)
Applejack is a strong apple-flavored alcoholic drink produced from apples, popular in the American colonial period.
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Archetype
The concept of an archetype appears in areas relating to behavior, modern psychological theory, and literary analysis.
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Argon
Argon is a chemical element with symbol Ar and atomic number 18.
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Aromatherapy
Aromatherapy uses plant materials and aromatic plant oils, including essential oils, and other aroma compounds for improving psychological or physical well-being.
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Aromaticity
In organic chemistry, the term aromaticity is used to describe a cyclic (ring-shaped), planar (flat) molecule with a ring of resonance bonds that exhibits more stability than other geometric or connective arrangements with the same set of atoms.
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Aspirator (pump)
An aspirator is a type of ejector-jet pump, which produces vacuum by means of the Venturi effect.
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Atmospheric distillation of crude oil
Distillation of crude oil is typically performed either under atmospheric pressure and under a vacuum.
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Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet).
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Azeotrope
An azeotrope (gK, US) or a constant boiling point mixture is a mixture of two or more liquids whose proportions cannot be altered or changed by simple distillation.
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Batch distillation
Batch distillation refers to the use of distillation in batches, meaning that a mixture is distilled to separate it into its component fractions before the distillation still is again charged with more mixture and the process is repeated.
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Benzene
Benzene is an important organic chemical compound with the chemical formula C6H6.
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Boiling
Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere.
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Boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
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Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (where m may be different from n).
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Catalytic distillation
Catalytic distillation is a branch of reactive distillation which combines the processes of distillation and catalysis to selectively separate mixtures within solutions.
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Charsadda
Charsadda (چارسده, چارسده) is a town and headquarters of Charsadda District, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
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Chemical engineer
In the field of engineering, a chemical engineer is a professional, who is equipped with the knowledge of chemical engineering, works principally in the chemical industry to convert basic raw materials into a variety of products, and deals with the design and operation of plants and equipment.
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Chemical engineering
Chemical engineering is a branch of engineering that uses principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics and economics to efficiently use, produce, transform, and transport chemicals, materials and energy.
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Chemical industry
The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals.
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Chemical plant
A chemical plant is an industrial process plant that manufactures (or otherwise processes) chemicals, usually on a large scale.
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Chemical reaction
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.
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Chemical synthesis
Chemical synthesis is a purposeful execution of chemical reactions to obtain a product, or several products.
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Chemistry
Chemistry is the scientific discipline involved with compounds composed of atoms, i.e. elements, and molecules, i.e. combinations of atoms: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other compounds.
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Chlorosilane
Chlorosilanes are a group of reactive, chlorine-containing chemical compounds, related to silane and used in many chemical processes.
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Cognac
Cognac is a variety of brandy named after the town of Cognac, France.
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Column still
A column still, also called a continuous still, patent still or Coffey still, is a variety of still consisting of two columns.
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Common Era
Common Era or Current Era (CE) is one of the notation systems for the world's most widely used calendar era – an alternative to the Dionysian AD and BC system.
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Computational chemistry
Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulation to assist in solving chemical problems.
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Computer simulation
Computer simulation is the reproduction of the behavior of a system using a computer to simulate the outcomes of a mathematical model associated with said system.
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Condensation
Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gas phase into liquid phase, and is the reverse of vapourisation.
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Condenser (heat transfer)
In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, by cooling it.
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Condenser (laboratory)
A condenser is an apparatus or item of equipment used to condense (change the physical state of a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state).
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Continuous distillation
Continuous distillation, a form of distillation, is an ongoing separation in which a mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams.
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Cryogenics
In physics, cryogenics is the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures.
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Dalton's law
In chemistry and physics, Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.
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Dean–Stark apparatus
Collection vessel The Dean–Stark apparatus, Dean–Stark receiver, distilling trap, or Dean–Stark Head is a piece of laboratory glassware used in synthetic chemistry to collect water (or occasionally other liquid) from a reactor.
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Desalination
Desalination is a process that extracts mineral components from saline water.
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Desiccant
A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains a state of dryness (desiccation) in its vicinity; it is the opposite of a humectant.
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Destructive distillation
Destructive distillation is the chemical process of the decomposition of unprocessed material by heating it to a high temperature; the term generally applies to processing of organic material in the absence of air or in the presence of limited amounts of oxygen or other reagents, catalysts, or solvents, such as steam or phenols.
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Diaphragm pump
A diaphragm pump (also known as a Membrane pump) is a positive displacement pump that uses a combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic or teflon diaphragm and suitable valves on either side of the diaphragm (check valve, butterfly valves, flap valves, or any other form of shut-off valves) to pump a fluid.
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Distillation Design
Distillation Design is a book which provides complete coverage of the design of industrial distillation columns for the petroleum refining, chemical and petrochemical plants, natural gas processing, pharmaceutical, food and alcohol distilling industries.
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Distilled water
Distilled water is water that has been boiled into steam and condensed back into liquid in a separate container.
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Dry distillation
Dry distillation is the heating of solid materials to produce gaseous products (which may condense into liquids or solids).
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Egypt (Roman province)
The Roman province of Egypt (Aigyptos) was established in 30 BC after Octavian (the future emperor Augustus) defeated his rival Mark Antony, deposed Queen Cleopatra VII, and annexed the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Roman Empire.
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Ernest Solvay
Ernest Gaston Joseph Solvay (16 April 1838 – 26 May 1922) was a Belgian chemist, industrialist and philanthropist.
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Ernest Thiele
Ernest W. Thiele (born Dec. 8, 1895) was an influential chemical engineering researcher at Standard Oil (then Amoco, now BP) and Professor of Chemical Engineering at the University of Notre Dame.
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Essential oil
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (defined as "the tendency of a substance to vaporize") aroma compounds from plants.
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Ethanol
Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is a chemical compound, a simple alcohol with the chemical formula.
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Ethyl acetate
Ethyl acetate (systematically ethyl ethanoate, commonly abbreviated EtOAc or EA) is the organic compound with the formula, simplified to.
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Evaporation
Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gaseous phase before reaching its boiling point.
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Extractive distillation
Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high-boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.
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Fenske equation
The Fenske equation in continuous fractional distillation is an equation used for calculating the minimum number of theoretical plates required for the separation of a binary feed stream by a fractionation column that is being operated at total reflux (i.e., which means that no overhead product distillate is being withdrawn from the column).
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Fermentation in food processing
Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms—yeasts or bacteria—under anaerobic conditions.
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Flash evaporation
Flash (or partial) evaporation is the partial vapor that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device.
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Food processing
Food processing is the transformation of cooked ingredients, by physical or chemical means into food, or of food into other forms.
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Fossil fuel
A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis.
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Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or fractions.
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Fractional freezing
Fractional freezing is a process used in process engineering and chemistry to separate substances with different melting points.
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Fractionating column
A fractionating column is an essential item used in distillation of liquid mixtures so as to separate the mixture into its component parts, or fractions, based on the differences in volatilities.
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Fragrance extraction
Fragrance extraction refers to the separation process of aromatic compounds from raw materials, using methods such as distillation, solvent extraction, expression, sieving, or enfleurage.
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Free molecular flow
Free molecular flow describes the fluid dynamics of gas where the mean free path of the molecules is larger than the size of the chamber or of the object under test.
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Freezing
Freezing, or solidification, is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point.
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Fuel
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as heat energy or to be used for work.
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Gandhara
Gandhāra was an ancient kingdom situated along the Kabul and Swat rivers of Afghanistan and Pakistan.
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Gas
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma).
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Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China (206 BC–220 AD), preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the "Han Chinese" and the Chinese script is referred to as "Han characters". It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BC–9 AD) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD). The emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States. From the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD. The Han dynasty saw an age of economic prosperity and witnessed a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalized the private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, but these government monopolies were repealed during the Eastern Han dynasty. Science and technology during the Han period saw significant advances, including the process of papermaking, the nautical steering ship rudder, the use of negative numbers in mathematics, the raised-relief map, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy, and a seismometer for measuring earthquakes employing an inverted pendulum. The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BC. After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empresses dowager, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty would eventually collapse and ceased to exist.
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Hebei
Hebei (postal: Hopeh) is a province of China in the North China region.
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Herbal distillate
Herbal distillates, also known as floral waters, hydrosols, hydrolates, herbal waters, and essential waters, are aqueous products of hydrodistillation.
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Hieronymus Brunschwig
Hieronymus Brunschwig or Hieronymus Brunschwygk (c. 1450c. 1512) was a German surgeon ("wund artzot"), alchemist and botanist.
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Ice wine
Ice wine (or icewine; Eiswein) is a type of dessert wine produced from grapes that have been frozen while still on the vine.
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Ideal solution
In chemistry, an ideal solution or ideal mixture is a solution with thermodynamic properties analogous to those of a mixture of ideal gases.
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Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a southern region and peninsula of Asia, mostly situated on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas.
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Industrial gas
Industrial gases are gaseous materials that are manufactured for use in Industry.
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International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations that represents chemists in individual countries.
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Iraq
Iraq (or; العراق; عێراق), officially known as the Republic of Iraq (جُمُهورية العِراق; کۆماری عێراق), is a country in Western Asia, bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest and Syria to the west.
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Irfan Habib
Irfan Habib (born 1931) is an Indian historian of ancient and medieval India, following the approach of Marxist historiography.
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Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
The Jin dynasty, officially known as the Great Jin, lasted from 1115 to 1234 as one of the last dynasties in Chinese history to predate the Mongol invasion of China.
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John French (physician)
John French (1616–1657) was an English physician known for his contributions to chemistry (in particular, distillation) as well as for his English translations of Latin and German works.
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Kugelrohr
A Kugelrohr (German for "ball tube") is a short-path vacuum distillation apparatus typically used to distill relatively small amounts of compounds with high boiling points (usually greater than 300 °C) under greatly reduced pressure.
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Laboratory
A laboratory (informally, lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed.
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Laboratory glassware
Laboratory glassware refers to a variety of equipment in scientific work traditionally made of glass.
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Lime (material)
Lime is a calcium-containing inorganic mineral in which oxides, and hydroxides predominate.
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Liquid nitrogen
Liquid nitrogen is nitrogen in a liquid state at an extremely low temperature.
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Liquid oxygen
Liquid oxygen—abbreviated LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace, submarine and gas industries—is one of the physical forms of elemental oxygen.
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Liquor
Liquor (also hard liquor, hard alcohol, or spirits) is an alcoholic drink produced by distillation of grains, fruit, or vegetables that have already gone through alcoholic fermentation.
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Mass transfer
Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location, usually meaning stream, phase, fraction or component, to another.
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McCabe–Thiele method
The McCabe–Thiele method is considered to be the simplest and perhaps most instructive method for the analysis of binary distillation.
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Mean free path
In physics, the mean free path is the average distance traveled by a moving particle (such as an atom, a molecule, a photon) between successive impacts (collisions), which modify its direction or energy or other particle properties.
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Methanol
Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol among others, is a chemical with the formula CH3OH (a methyl group linked to a hydroxyl group, often abbreviated MeOH).
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Microdistillery
A microdistillery is a small, often boutique-style distillery established to produce beverage grade spirit alcohol in relatively small quantities, usually done in single batches (as opposed to larger distillers' continuous distilling process).
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Mixture
In chemistry, a mixture is a material made up of two or more different substances which are mixed.
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Mole fraction
In chemistry, the mole fraction or molar fraction (xi) is defined as the amount of a constituent (expressed in moles), ni, divided by the total amount of all constituents in a mixture (also expressed in moles), ntot: The sum of all the mole fractions is equal to 1: The same concept expressed with a denominator of 100 is the mole percent or molar percentage or molar proportion (mol%).
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Molecular distillation
Molecular distillation is a type of short-path vacuum distillation, characterized by an extremely low vacuum pressure, 0.01 torr or below.
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Molecular sieve
A molecular sieve is a material with pores (very small holes) of uniform size.
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Mother liquor
A mother liquor is the part of a solution that is left over after crystallization.
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Multi-stage flash distillation
Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF) is a water desalination process that distills sea water by flashing a portion of the water into steam in multiple stages of what are essentially countercurrent heat exchangers.
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Natural-gas processing
Natural-gas processing is a complex industrial process designed to clean raw natural gas by separating impurities and various non-methane hydrocarbons and fluids to produce what is known as pipeline quality dry natural gas.
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Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7.
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Oil refinery
Oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is transformed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas, jet fuel and fuel oils.
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Oxygen
Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8.
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Packed bed
In chemical processing, a packed bed is a hollow tube, pipe, or other vessel that is filled with a packing material.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (پاکِستان), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (اِسلامی جمہوریہ پاکِستان), is a country in South Asia.
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Partial pressure
In a mixture of gases, each gas has a partial pressure which is the hypothetical pressure of that gas if it alone occupied the entire volume of the original mixture at the same temperature.
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Pearson Education
Pearson Education (see also Pearson PLC) is a British-owned education publishing and assessment service to schools and corporations, as well as directly to students.
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Perkin triangle
A Perkin triangle is a specialized apparatus for the distillation of air-sensitive materials.
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Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook
Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (also known as Perry's Handbook, Perry's, or The Chemical Engineer's Bible) was first published in 1934 and the most current eighth edition was published in October 2007.
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Pervaporation
Pervaporation (or pervaporative separation) is a processing method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous or porous membrane.
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Petrochemical
Petrochemicals (also known as petroleum distillates) are chemical products derived from petroleum.
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Petroleum
Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earth's surface.
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Phase (matter)
In the physical sciences, a phase is a region of space (a thermodynamic system), throughout which all physical properties of a material are essentially uniform.
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Plate column
A plate column (or tray column) is a chemical equipment used to carry out unit operations where it is necessary to transfer mass between a liquid phase and a gas phase.
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Polytetrafluoroethylene
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications.
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Pot still
A pot still is a type of distillation apparatus or still used to distill alcoholic spirits such as whisky or cognac.
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Potassium carbonate
Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is a white salt, which is soluble in water (insoluble in ethanol) and forms a strongly alkaline solution.
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Properties of water
Water is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, which is nearly colorless apart from an inherent hint of blue. It is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal solvent" and the "solvent of life". It is the most abundant substance on Earth and the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas on Earth's surface. It is also the third most abundant molecule in the universe. Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and are strongly polar. This polarity allows it to separate ions in salts and strongly bond to other polar substances such as alcohols and acids, thus dissolving them. Its hydrogen bonding causes its many unique properties, such as having a solid form less dense than its liquid form, a relatively high boiling point of 100 °C for its molar mass, and a high heat capacity. Water is amphoteric, meaning that it is both an acid and a base—it produces + and - ions by self-ionization.
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Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere.
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Raoult's law
Raoult's law (law) is a law of thermodynamics established by French chemist François-Marie Raoult in 1887.
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Raschig ring
Raschig rings are pieces of tube, approximately equal in length and diameter, used in large numbers as a packed bed within columns for distillations and other chemical engineering processes.
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Raw material
A raw material, also known as a feedstock or most correctly unprocessed material, is a basic material that is used to produce goods, finished products, energy, or intermediate materials which are feedstock for future finished products.
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Reactive distillation
Reactive distillation is a process where the chemical reactor is also the still.
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Recrystallization (chemistry)
In chemistry, recrystallization is a technique used to purify chemicals.
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Redox
Redox (short for reduction–oxidation reaction) (pronunciation: or) is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed.
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Reflux
Reflux is a technique involving the condensation of vapors and the return of this condensate to the system from which it originated.
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Retort
In a chemistry laboratory, a retort is a glassware device used for distillation or dry distillation of substances.
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Rotary evaporator
A rotary evaporator (or rotavap/rotovap) is a device used in chemical laboratories for the efficient and gentle removal of solvents from samples by evaporation.
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Round-bottom flask
Round-bottom flasks (also called round-bottomed flasks, Flasks, round bottom, or R B Flasks) are types of flasks having spherical bottoms used as laboratory glassware, mostly for chemical or biochemical work.
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Rum
Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses or honeys, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation.
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Rum-running
Rum-running, or bootlegging, is the illegal business of transporting (smuggling) alcoholic beverages where such transportation is forbidden by law.
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Schola Medica Salernitana
The Schola Medica Salernitana (Scuola Medica Salernitana) was a late Medieval medical school, the first and most important of its kind.
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Scotch whisky
Scotch whisky (often simply called Scotch) is malt whisky or grain whisky made in Scotland.
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Semiconductor
A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor – such as copper, gold etc.
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Separation process
A separation process is a method that converts a mixture or solution of chemical substances into two or more distinct product mixtures.
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Short-path distillation
Short-path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.
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Silicon
Silicon is a chemical element with symbol Si and atomic number 14.
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Simulation
Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system.
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Skin care
Skin care is the range of practices that support skin integrity, enhance its appearance and relieve skin conditions.
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Solvent
A solvent (from the Latin solvō, "loosen, untie, solve") is a substance that dissolves a solute (a chemically distinct liquid, solid or gas), resulting in a solution.
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Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (960–1279) was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279.
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Spinning band distillation
Spinning band distillation is a technique used to separate liquid mixtures which are similar in boiling points.
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Steady state
In systems theory, a system or a process is in a steady state if the variables (called state variables) which define the behavior of the system or the process are unchanging in time.
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Still
A still is an apparatus used to distill liquid mixtures by heating to selectively boil and then cooling to condense the vapor.
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Structured packing
The term structured packing refers to a range of specially designed materials for use in absorption and distillation columns and chemical reactors.
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Sublimation (phase transition)
Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase, without passing through the intermediate liquid phase.
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Sugar
Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food.
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Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid (alternative spelling sulphuric acid) is a mineral acid with molecular formula H2SO4.
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Synthetic membrane
An artificial membrane, or synthetic membrane, is a synthetically created membrane which is usually intended for separation purposes in laboratory or in industry.
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Taddeo Alderotti
Taddeo Alderotti (Latin: Thaddaeus Alderottus, French: Thaddée de Florence), born in Florence between 1206 and 1215, died in 1295, was an Italian doctor and professor of medicine at the University of Bologna, who made important contributions to the renaissance of learned medicine in Europe during the High Middle Ages.
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Taxila
Taxila (from Pāli: Takkasilā, Sanskrit: तक्षशिला,, meaning "City of Cut Stone" or " Rock") is a town and an important archaeological site in the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab, Pakistan, situated about north-west of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, just off the famous Grand Trunk Road.
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Tequila
Tequila is a regional distilled beverage and type of alcoholic drink made from the blue agave plant, primarily in the area surrounding the city of Tequila, northwest of Guadalajara, and in the highlands (Los Altos) of the central western Mexican state of Jalisco.
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Theoretical plate
A theoretical plate in many separation processes is a hypothetical zone or stage in which two phases, such as the liquid and vapor phases of a substance, establish an equilibrium with each other.
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Thermal decomposition
Thermal decomposition, or thermolysis, is a chemical decomposition caused by heat.
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Toluene
Toluene, also known as toluol, is an aromatic hydrocarbon.
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Torr
The torr (symbol: Torr) is a unit of pressure based on an absolute scale, now defined as exactly of a standard atmosphere (101.325 kPa).
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UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO; Organisation des Nations unies pour l'éducation, la science et la culture) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) based in Paris.
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Unit operation
In chemical engineering and related fields, a unit operation is a basic step in a process.
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Vacuum
Vacuum is space devoid of matter.
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Vacuum distillation
Vacuum distillation is a method of distillation performed under reduced pressure.
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Valve
A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways.
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Vapor pressure
Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system.
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Vapor-compression evaporation
Vapor-compression evaporation is the evaporation method by which a blower, compressor or jet ejector is used to compress, and thus, increase the pressure of the vapor produced.
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Vapor–liquid equilibrium
In thermodynamics and chemical engineering, the vapor–liquid equilibrium (VLE) describes the distribution of a chemical species between the vapor phase and a liquid phase.
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Vaporization
Vaporization (or vapourisation) of an element or compound is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor.
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Vodka
Vodka (wódka, водка) is a distilled beverage composed primarily of water and ethanol, but sometimes with traces of impurities and flavorings.
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Volatility (chemistry)
In chemistry and physics, volatility is quantified by the tendency of a substance to vaporize.
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Water of crystallization
In chemistry, water of crystallization or water of hydration or crystallization water is water molecules that are present inside crystals.
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Whisky
Whisky or whiskey is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain mash.
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Wood
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants.
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Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan (Yehe Yuan Ulus), was the empire or ruling dynasty of China established by Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongolian Borjigin clan.
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Zosimos of Panopolis
Zosimos of Panopolis (Ζώσιμος ὁ Πανοπολίτης; also known by the Latin name Zosimus Alchemista, i.e. "Zosimus the Alchemist") was an Egyptian alchemist and Gnostic mystic who lived at the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 4th century AD.
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References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation
