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224 relations: Abdomen, Abomasum, Acid, Adenocarcinoma, Adventitia, American English, Amphibian, Anastomosis, Anemia, Angle of His, Aortic arch, Arthropod, Atrium (heart), Azygos vein, Baleen whale, Barium sulfate, Barrett's esophagus, Bat, Batoidea, Biopsy, Bird anatomy, Birth defect, Bisphosphonate, Blood product, Blood vessel, Bolus (digestion), British English, Bronchial artery, Bronchus, Brown long-eared bat, Candida albicans, Canidae, Carcinoma, Carina of trachea, Celiac artery, Celiac lymph nodes, Cephalopod, Cervical vertebrae, Chest pain, Chimaera, China, Choke (horse), Cilium, Cirrhosis, Connective tissue, Corrosive substance, CREST syndrome, Cricoid cartilage, Crop (anatomy), Crus of diaphragm, ..., CT scan, Czerny, Deep cervical lymph nodes, Descending thoracic aorta, Developed country, Diffuse esophageal spasm, Digestion, Digestive system of gastropods, Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve, Dysphagia, Endoderm, Endoscopy, Enteric nervous system, Eosinophilic esophagitis, Epiglottis, Epithelium, Erector spinae muscles, Esophageal achalasia, Esophageal arteries, Esophageal atresia, Esophageal cancer, Esophageal candidiasis, Esophageal disease, Esophageal gland, Esophageal hiatus, Esophageal stent, Esophageal stricture, Esophageal varices, Esophageal veins, Esophageal web, Esophagectomy, Esophagitis, Esophagus, Food, Food allergy, Foregut, Galen, Gastric acid, Gastric glands, Gastric lymph nodes, Gastroesophageal reflux disease, Gastrointestinal tract, Gill, H&E stain, Heart, Heartburn, Hematemesis, Hemiazygos vein, Hindgut, Hippocrates, Histology, Horse, Human body, Human digestive system, Human embryogenesis, Hydrochloric acid, Hypovolemia, Immunodeficiency, Inferior mesenteric artery, Inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle, Inferior phrenic arteries, Inferior thyroid artery, Ingestion, Intercostal veins, Intravenous therapy, Iran, Keratin, Keratin 13, Keratin 4, Keratin 6C, Lamina propria, Lamprey, Larynx, Left gastric artery, Left gastric vein, Limb (anatomy), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Liver disease, Lower motor neuron, Lumen (anatomy), Lungfish, Lymph, Lymph node, Mallory–Weiss syndrome, Mediastinum, Medical imaging, Medication, Megaesophagus, Metaplasia, Metastasis, Midgut, Mollusca, Mouth, Mucin, Mucin 21, cell surface associated, Mucous membrane, Mucus, Muscle contraction, Muscular layer, Muscularis mucosae, Myenteric plexus, Nasogastric intubation, Natural history, Neuron, Nissen fundoplication, Nucleus ambiguus, Nutcracker esophagus, Odynophagia, Organ (anatomy), Palliative care, Parasympathetic nervous system, Pepsin, Peristalsis, Pharyngeal arch, Pharynx, Plexus, Pliny the Elder, Plummer–Vinson syndrome, Portal hypertension, Portal vein, Potassium chloride, Pulmonary artery, Referred pain, Reflex, Roman Empire, Rostrum (anatomy), Rudolph Nissen, Ruminant, Schatzki ring, Serous membrane, Shark, Shock (circulatory), Simple columnar epithelium, Skeletal muscle, Smooth muscle tissue, Snake, Sodium chloride, Sphincter, Squamous cell carcinoma, Stomach, Stratified squamous epithelium, Striated muscle tissue, Submucosa, Submucous plexus, Superior mesenteric artery, Superior vena cava, Swallowing, Sympathetic nervous system, Sympathetic trunk, Syndrome, Systemic scleroderma, Tarebia granifera, Taste bud, Tetrapod, The New England Journal of Medicine, Theodor Billroth, Thomas Voeckler, Thoracic diaphragm, Thoracic duct, Thoracic vertebrae, TNM staging system, Torsion (gastropod), Trachea, Tracheoesophageal fistula, Tracheoesophageal stripe, Upper gastrointestinal series, Vagus nerve, Vertebral column, Vertebrate, Vitelline arteries, Vomiting, Whale, X-ray, Yolk sac. Expand index (174 more) »
Abdomen
The abdomen (less formally called the belly, stomach, tummy or midriff) constitutes the part of the body between the thorax (chest) and pelvis, in humans and in other vertebrates.
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Abomasum
The abomasum, also known as the maw, rennet-bag, or reed tripe, is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants.
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Acid
An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid).
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Adenocarcinoma
Adenocarcinoma (plural adenocarcinomas or adenocarcinomata) is a type of cancerous tumor that can occur in several parts of the body.
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Adventitia
Adventitia is the outermost connective tissue covering of an organ, vessel, or other structure.
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American English
American English (AmE, AE, AmEng, USEng, en-US), sometimes called United States English or U.S. English, is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States.
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Amphibian
Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia.
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Anastomosis
An anastomosis (plural anastomoses) is a connection or opening between two things (especially cavities or passages) that are normally diverging or branching, such as between blood vessels, leaf veins, or streams.
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Anemia
Anemia is a decrease in the total amount of red blood cells (RBCs) or hemoglobin in the blood, or a lowered ability of the blood to carry oxygen.
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Angle of His
The angle of His is the acute angle created between the cardia at the entrance to the stomach, and the esophagus.
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Aortic arch
The aortic arch, arch of the aorta, or transverse aortic arch is the part of the aorta between the ascending and descending aorta.
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Arthropod
An arthropod (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, "joint" and πούς pous, "foot") is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton (external skeleton), a segmented body, and paired jointed appendages.
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Atrium (heart)
The atrium is the upper chamber in which blood enters the heart.
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Azygos vein
The azygos vein is a vein running up the side of the thoracic vertebral column draining itself towards the superior vena cava.
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Baleen whale
Baleen whales (systematic name Mysticeti), known earlier as whalebone whales, form a parvorder of the infraorder Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises).
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Barium sulfate
Barium sulfate (or sulphate) is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula BaSO4.
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Barrett's esophagus
Barrett's esophagus refers to an (abnormal) change in the cells of the lower portion of the esophagus. It is characterized by the replacement of the normal stratified squamous epithelium lining of the esophagus by simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells (which are usually found lower in the gastrointestinal tract). The medical significance of Barrett's esophagus is its strong association (0.1 per 1 cm Prague C>M> total segment length per patient-year) with esophageal adenocarcinoma, a very often deadly cancer, because of which it is considered to be a premalignant condition. The main cause of Barrett's esophagus is thought to be an adaptation to chronic acid exposure from reflux esophagitis The incidence of esophageal adenocarcinoma has increased substantially in the Western world in recent years. The condition is found in 5–15% of patients who seek medical care for heartburn (gastroesophageal reflux disease), although a large subgroup of patients with Barrett's esophagus do not have symptoms. Diagnosis requires endoscopy (more specifically, esophagogastroduodenoscopy, a procedure in which a fibreoptic cable is inserted through the mouth to examine the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum) and biopsy. The cells of Barrett's esophagus, after biopsy, are classified into four general categories: nondysplastic, low-grade dysplasia, high-grade dysplasia, and frank carcinoma. High-grade dysplasia and early stages of adenocarcinoma can be treated by endoscopic resection and new endoscopic therapies such as radiofrequency ablation, whereas advanced stages (submucosal) are generally advised to undergo surgical treatment. Nondysplastic and low-grade patients are generally advised to undergo annual observation with endoscopy, with radiofrequency ablation as a therapeutic option. In high-grade dysplasia, the risk of developing cancer might be at 10% per patient-year or greater. The condition is named after the Australian-born British thoracic surgeon Norman Barrett (1903–1979), who described it in 1950. Those with the eating disorder bulimia are more likely to develop Barrett’s esophagus because bulimia can cause severe acid reflux, and because purging also floods the esophagus with acid.
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Bat
Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera; with their forelimbs adapted as wings, they are the only mammals naturally capable of true and sustained flight.
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Batoidea
Batoidea is a superorder of cartilaginous fish commonly known as rays.
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Biopsy
A biopsy is a medical test commonly performed by a surgeon, interventional radiologist, or an interventional cardiologist involving extraction of sample cells or tissues for examination to determine the presence or extent of a disease.
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Bird anatomy
Bird anatomy, or the physiological structure of birds' bodies, shows many unique adaptations, mostly aiding flight.
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Birth defect
A birth defect, also known as a congenital disorder, is a condition present at birth regardless of its cause.
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Bisphosphonate
Bisphosphonates are a class of drugs that prevent the loss of bone density, used to treat osteoporosis and similar diseases.
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Blood product
A blood product is any therapeutic substance prepared from human blood.
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Blood vessel
The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system, and microcirculation, that transports blood throughout the human body.
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Bolus (digestion)
In digestion, a bolus (from Latin bolus, "ball") is a ball-like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the mouth during the process of chewing (which is largely an adaptation for plant-eating mammals).
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British English
British English is the standard dialect of English language as spoken and written in the United Kingdom.
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Bronchial artery
In human anatomy, the bronchial arteries supply the lungs with nutrition and oxygenated blood.
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Bronchus
A bronchus, is a passage of airway in the respiratory system that conducts air into the lungs.
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Brown long-eared bat
The brown long-eared bat or common long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus) is a small Eurasian bat.
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Candida albicans
Candida albicans is an opportunistic pathogenic yeast that is a common member of the human gut flora.
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Canidae
The biological family Canidae (from Latin, canis, “dog”) is a lineage of carnivorans that includes domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals, dingoes, and many other extant and extinct dog-like mammals.
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Carcinoma
Carcinoma is a type of cancer that develops from epithelial cells.
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Carina of trachea
In anatomy, the carina is a ridge of cartilage in the trachea that occurs between the division of the two main bronchi.
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Celiac artery
The celiac (or coeliac) artery, also known as the celiac trunk, or truncus coeliacus, is the first major branch of the abdominal aorta.
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Celiac lymph nodes
The celiac lymph nodes are associated with the branches of the celiac artery.
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Cephalopod
A cephalopod is any member of the molluscan class Cephalopoda (Greek plural κεφαλόποδα, kephalópoda; "head-feet") such as a squid, octopus or nautilus.
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Cervical vertebrae
In vertebrates, cervical vertebrae (singular: vertebra) are the vertebrae of the neck, immediately below the skull.
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Chest pain
Chest pain is pain in any region of the chest.
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Chimaera
Chimaeras the order Chimaeriformes, known informally as ghost sharks, rat fish (not to be confused with the rattails), spookfish (not to be confused with the true spookfish of the family Opisthoproctidae), or rabbit fish (not to be confused with the family Siganidae).
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China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a unitary one-party sovereign state in East Asia and the world's most populous country, with a population of around /1e9 round 3 billion.
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Choke (horse)
Choke is a condition in horses in which the esophagus is blocked, usually by food material.
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Cilium
A cilium (the plural is cilia) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells.
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Cirrhosis
Cirrhosis is a condition in which the liver does not function properly due to long-term damage.
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Connective tissue
Connective tissue (CT) is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
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Corrosive substance
A corrosive substance is one that will destroy and damage other substances with which it comes into contact.
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CREST syndrome
CREST syndrome, also known as the limited cutaneous form of systemic sclerosis (lcSSc) is a multisystem connective tissue disorder.
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Cricoid cartilage
The cricoid cartilage, or simply cricoid (from the Greek krikoeides meaning "ring-shaped") or cricoid ring, is the only complete ring of cartilage around the trachea.
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Crop (anatomy)
A crop (sometimes also called a croup or a craw, or ingluvies) is a thin-walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion.
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Crus of diaphragm
The crus of diaphragm (pl. crura), refers to one of two tendinous structures that extends below the diaphragm to the vertebral column.
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CT scan
A CT scan, also known as computed tomography scan, makes use of computer-processed combinations of many X-ray measurements taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of specific areas of a scanned object, allowing the user to see inside the object without cutting.
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Czerny
Czerny is a surname meaning "black" in several Slavic languages.
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Deep cervical lymph nodes
The deep cervical lymph nodes are a group of cervical lymph nodes found near the internal jugular vein.
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Descending thoracic aorta
The descending thoracic aorta is a part of the aorta located in the thorax.
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Developed country
A developed country, industrialized country, more developed country, or "more economically developed country" (MEDC), is a sovereign state that has a highly developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations.
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Diffuse esophageal spasm
Diffuse esophageal spasm (DES) is a condition characterized by uncoordinated contractions of the esophagus, which may cause difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) or regurgitation.
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Digestion
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma.
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Digestive system of gastropods
The digestive system of gastropods (slugs and snails of every kind) has evolved to suit almost every kind of diet and feeding behavior.
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Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve
The dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve (or posterior motor nucleus of vagus) is a cranial nerve nucleus for the vagus nerve in the medulla that lies ventral to the floor of the fourth ventricle.
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Dysphagia
Dysphagia is the medical term for the symptom of difficulty in swallowing.
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Endoderm
Endoderm is one of the three primary germ layers in the very early embryo.
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Endoscopy
An endoscopy (looking inside) is used in medicine to look inside the body.
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Enteric nervous system
The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of the main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal tract.
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Eosinophilic esophagitis
Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE, also spelled eosinophilic oesophagitis), also known as allergic oesophagitis, is an allergic inflammatory condition of the esophagus that involves eosinophils, a type of white blood cell.
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Epiglottis
The epiglottis is a flap in the throat that keeps food from entering the windpipe and the lungs.
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Epithelium
Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue.
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Erector spinae muscles
The erector spinae or spinal erectors is a set of muscles that straighten and rotate the back.
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Esophageal achalasia
Esophageal achalasia, often called simple achalasia, is a failure of smooth muscle fibers to relax, which can cause the lower esophageal sphincter to remain closed.
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Esophageal arteries
Esophageal (Oesophageal in British English) arteries are a group of arteries from disparate sources supplying the esophagus.
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Esophageal atresia
Esophageal atresia is a congenital medical condition (birth defect) that affects the alimentary tract. It causes the esophagus to end in a blind-ended pouch rather than connecting normally to the stomach. It comprises a variety of congenital anatomic defects that are caused by an abnormal embryological development of the esophagus. It is characterized anatomically by a congenital obstruction of the esophagus with interruption of the continuity of the esophageal wall.
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Esophageal cancer
Esophageal cancer is cancer arising from the esophagus—the food pipe that runs between the throat and the stomach.
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Esophageal candidiasis
Esophageal candidiasis is an opportunistic infection of the esophagus by Candida albicans.
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Esophageal disease
Esophageal diseases can derive from congenital conditions, or they can be acquired later in life.
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Esophageal gland
The esophageal glands are glands that are part of the digestive system of various animals, including humans.
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Esophageal hiatus
In human anatomy, the esophageal hiatus is an opening in the diaphragm through which the esophagus and the vagus nerve pass.
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Esophageal stent
An esophageal stent is a stent (tube) placed in the esophagus to keep a blocked area open so the patient can swallow soft food and liquids.
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Esophageal stricture
A benign esophageal stricture, or peptic stricture, is a narrowing or tightening of the esophagus that causes swallowing difficulties.
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Esophageal varices
Esophageal varices (sometimes spelled oesophageal varices) are extremely dilated sub-mucosal veins in the lower third of the esophagus.
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Esophageal veins
The esophageal veins drain blood from the esophagus to the azygos vein, in the thorax, and to the inferior thyroid vein in the neck.
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Esophageal web
Esophageal webs are thin membranes occurring anywhere along the esophagus.
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Esophagectomy
Esophagectomy (US English) or oesophagectomy (British English) is the surgical removal of all or part of the esophagus.
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Esophagitis
Esophagitis (or oesophagitis) is an inflammation of the esophagus.
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Esophagus
The esophagus (American English) or oesophagus (British English), commonly known as the food pipe or gullet (gut), is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to the stomach.
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Food
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism.
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Food allergy
A food allergy is an abnormal immune response to food.
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Foregut
The foregut is the anterior part of the alimentary canal, from the mouth to the duodenum at the entrance of the bile duct, and is attached to the abdominal walls by mesentery.
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Galen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 AD – /), often Anglicized as Galen and better known as Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire.
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Gastric acid
Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed in the stomach and is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl).
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Gastric glands
The gastric glands are located in different regions of the stomach.
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Gastric lymph nodes
The gastric lymph nodes consist of two sets, superior and inferior.
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Gastroesophageal reflux disease
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), also known as acid reflux, is a long-term condition where stomach contents come back up into the esophagus resulting in either symptoms or complications.
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Gastrointestinal tract
The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as feces.
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Gill
A gill is a respiratory organ found in many aquatic organisms that extracts dissolved oxygen from water and excretes carbon dioxide.
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H&E stain
Hematoxylin and eosin stain or haematoxylin and eosin stain (H&E stain or HE stain) is one of the principal stains in histology.
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Heart
The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system.
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Heartburn
Heartburn, also known as acid indigestion, is a burning sensation in the central chest or upper central abdomen.
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Hematemesis
Hematemesis or haematemesis is the vomiting of blood.
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Hemiazygos vein
The hemiazygos vein (vena azygos minor inferior) is a vein running superiorly in the lower thoracic region, just to the left side of the vertebral column.
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Hindgut
The hindgut (or epigaster) is the posterior (caudal) part of the alimentary canal.
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Hippocrates
Hippocrates of Kos (Hippokrátēs ho Kṓos), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the Age of Pericles (Classical Greece), and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine.
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Histology
Histology, also microanatomy, is the study of the anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals using microscopy.
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Horse
The horse (Equus ferus caballus) is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''.
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Human body
The human body is the entire structure of a human being.
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Human digestive system
The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder).
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Human embryogenesis
Human embryogenesis is the process of cell division and cellular differentiation of the embryo that occurs during the early stages of development.
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Hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid is a colorless inorganic chemical system with the formula.
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Hypovolemia
Hypovolemia is a state of decreased blood volume; more specifically, decrease in volume of blood plasma.
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Immunodeficiency
Immunodeficiency (or immune deficiency) is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious disease and cancer is compromised or entirely absent.
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Inferior mesenteric artery
In human anatomy, the inferior mesenteric artery, often abbreviated as IMA, is the third main branch of the abdominal aorta and arises at the level of L3, supplying the large intestine from the left colic (or splenic) flexure to the upper part of the rectum, which includes the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and part of the rectum.
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Inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle
The Inferior pharyngeal constrictor, the thickest of the three constrictors, arises from the sides of the cricoid and thyroid cartilage.
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Inferior phrenic arteries
The inferior phrenic arteries are two small vessels, which supply the diaphragm but present much variety in their origin.
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Inferior thyroid artery
The inferior thyroid artery is an artery in the neck.
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Ingestion
Ingestion is the consumption of a substance by an organism.
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Intercostal veins
The intercostal veins are a group of veins which drain the area between the ribs ("costae"), called the intercostal space.
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Intravenous therapy
Intravenous therapy (IV) is a therapy that delivers liquid substances directly into a vein (intra- + ven- + -ous).
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Iran
Iran (ایران), also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ایران), is a sovereign state in Western Asia. With over 81 million inhabitants, Iran is the world's 18th-most-populous country. Comprising a land area of, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East and the 17th-largest in the world. Iran is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. The country's central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, give it geostrategic importance. Tehran is the country's capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BCE. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BCE, reaching its greatest territorial size in the sixth century BCE, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley, becoming one of the largest empires in history. The Iranian realm fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion culminated in the establishment of the Parthian Empire, which was succeeded in the third century CE by the Sasanian Empire, a leading world power for the next four centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century CE, displacing the indigenous faiths of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism with Islam. Iran made major contributions to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential figures in art and science. After two centuries, a period of various native Muslim dynasties began, which were later conquered by the Turks and the Mongols. The rise of the Safavids in the 15th century led to the reestablishment of a unified Iranian state and national identity, with the country's conversion to Shia Islam marking a turning point in Iranian and Muslim history. Under Nader Shah, Iran was one of the most powerful states in the 18th century, though by the 19th century, a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to significant territorial losses. Popular unrest led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the country's first legislature. A 1953 coup instigated by the United Kingdom and the United States resulted in greater autocracy and growing anti-Western resentment. Subsequent unrest against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution and the establishment of an Islamic republic, a political system that includes elements of a parliamentary democracy vetted and supervised by a theocracy governed by an autocratic "Supreme Leader". During the 1980s, the country was engaged in a war with Iraq, which lasted for almost nine years and resulted in a high number of casualties and economic losses for both sides. According to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic, and has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader. Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate, and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world. Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, an agreement reached between Iran and the P5+1, was created on 14 July 2015, aimed to loosen the nuclear sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium. Iran is a founding member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC, and OPEC. It is a major regional and middle power, and its large reserves of fossil fuels – which include the world's largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves – exert considerable influence in international energy security and the world economy. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and eleventh-largest in the world. Iran is a multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, the largest being Persians (61%), Azeris (16%), Kurds (10%), and Lurs (6%).
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Keratin
Keratin is one of a family of fibrous structural proteins.
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Keratin 13
Keratin 13 (or cytokeratin 13) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the KRT13 gene.
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Keratin 4
Keratin, type I cytoskeletal 4 also known as cytokeratin-4 (CK-4) or keratin-4 (K4) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the KRT4 gene.
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Keratin 6C
Keratin 6C (protein name K6C; gene name KRT6C), is a type II cytokeratin, one of a number of isoforms of keratin 6 encoded by separate genes located within the type II keratin gene cluster on human chromosome 12q.
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Lamina propria
The lamina propria is a thin layer of connective tissue that forms part of the moist linings known as mucous membranes or mucosa, which line various tubes in the body, such as the respiratory tract, the gastrointestinal tract, and the urogenital tract.
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Lamprey
Lampreys (sometimes also called, inaccurately, lamprey eels) are an ancient lineage of jawless fish of the order Petromyzontiformes, placed in the superclass Cyclostomata.
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Larynx
The larynx, commonly called the voice box, is an organ in the top of the neck of tetrapods involved in breathing, producing sound, and protecting the trachea against food aspiration.
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Left gastric artery
In human anatomy, the left gastric artery arises from the celiac artery and runs along the superior portion of the lesser curvature of the stomach.
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Left gastric vein
The left gastric vein (or coronary vein) carries blood low in oxygen, tributaries derived from both surfaces of the stomach; it runs from right to left along the lesser curvature of the stomach, between the two layers of the lesser omentum, to the esophageal opening of the stomach, where it receives some esophageal veins.
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Limb (anatomy)
A limb (from the Old English lim), or extremity, is a jointed, or prehensile (as octopus arms or new world monkey tails), appendage of the human or other animal body.
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Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (LWW) is an imprint of the publishing conglomerate Wolters Kluwer.
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Liver disease
Liver disease (also called hepatic disease) is a type of damage to or disease of the liver.
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Lower motor neuron
Lower motor neurons (LMNs) are motor neurons located in either the anterior grey column, anterior nerve roots (spinal lower motor neurons) or the cranial nerve nuclei of the brainstem and cranial nerves with motor function (cranial nerve lower motor neurons).
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Lumen (anatomy)
In biology, a lumen (plural lumina) is the inside space of a tubular structure, such as an artery or intestine.
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Lungfish
Lungfish are freshwater rhipidistian fish belonging to the subclass Dipnoi.
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Lymph
Lymph is the fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system.
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Lymph node
A lymph node or lymph gland is an ovoid or kidney-shaped organ of the lymphatic system, and of the adaptive immune system, that is widely present throughout the body.
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Mallory–Weiss syndrome
Mallory–Weiss syndrome or gastro-esophageal laceration syndrome refers to bleeding from a laceration in the mucosa at the junction of the stomach and esophagus.
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Mediastinum
The mediastinum (from Medieval Latin mediastinus, "midway") is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity surrounded by loose connective tissue, as an undelineated region that contains a group of structures within the thorax.
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Medical imaging
Medical imaging is the technique and process of creating visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of some organs or tissues (physiology).
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Medication
A medication (also referred to as medicine, pharmaceutical drug, or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease.
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Megaesophagus
Megaesophagus, also known as esophageal dilatation, is a disorder of the esophagus in humans and other mammals, whereby the esophagus becomes abnormally enlarged.
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Metaplasia
Metaplasia ("change in form") is the reversible transformation of one differentiated cell type to another differentiated cell type.
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Metastasis
Metastasis is a pathogenic agent's spread from an initial or primary site to a different or secondary site within the host's body; it is typically spoken of as such spread by a cancerous tumor.
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Midgut
The midgut is the portion of the embryo from which most of the intestines develop.
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Mollusca
Mollusca is a large phylum of invertebrate animals whose members are known as molluscs or mollusksThe formerly dominant spelling mollusk is still used in the U.S. — see the reasons given in Gary Rosenberg's.
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Mouth
In animal anatomy, the mouth, also known as the oral cavity, buccal cavity, or in Latin cavum oris, is the opening through which many animals take in food and issue vocal sounds.
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Mucin
Mucins are a family of high molecular weight, heavily glycosylated proteins (glycoconjugates) produced by epithelial tissues in most animals.
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Mucin 21, cell surface associated
Mucin 21, cell surface associated is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MUC21 gene.
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Mucous membrane
A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs.
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Mucus
Mucus is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes.
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Muscle contraction
Muscle contraction is the activation of tension-generating sites within muscle fibers.
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Muscular layer
The muscular layer (muscular coat, muscular fibers, muscularis propria, muscularis externa) is a region of muscle in many organs in the vertebrate body, adjacent to the submucosa.
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Muscularis mucosae
The lamina muscularis mucosae (or muscularis mucosae) is a thin layer (lamina) of muscle of the gastrointestinal tract, located outside the lamina propria and separating it from the submucosa.
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Myenteric plexus
The myenteric plexus (or Auerbach's plexus) provides motor innervation to both layers of the muscular layer of the gut, having both parasympathetic and sympathetic input (although present ganglionar cell bodies belong to parasympathetic innervation, fibers from sympathetic innervation also reach the plexus), whereas the submucous plexus has only parasympathetic fibers and provides secretomotor innervation to the mucosa nearest the lumen of the gut.
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Nasogastric intubation
Nasogastric intubation is a medical process involving the insertion of a plastic tube (nasogastric tube or NG tube) through the nose, past the throat, and down into the stomach.
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Natural history
Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment; leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study.
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Neuron
A neuron, also known as a neurone (British spelling) and nerve cell, is an electrically excitable cell that receives, processes, and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.
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Nissen fundoplication
A Nissen fundoplication, or laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication when performed via laparoscopic surgery, is a surgical procedure to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and hiatal hernia.
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Nucleus ambiguus
The nucleus ambiguus (literally "ambiguous nucleus") is a group of large motor neurons, situated deep in the medullary reticular formation named by Jacob Clarke.
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Nutcracker esophagus
Nutcracker esophagus, or hypertensive peristalsis, is a disorder of the movement of the esophagus characterized by contractions in the smooth muscle of the esophagus in a normal sequence but at an excessive amplitude or duration.
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Odynophagia
Odynophagia (from - "pain" and "to eat") is pain when swallowing.
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Organ (anatomy)
Organs are collections of tissues with similar functions.
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Palliative care
Palliative care is a multidisciplinary approach to specialized medical and nursing care for people with life-limiting illnesses.
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Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (a division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)), the other being the sympathetic nervous system.
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Pepsin
Pepsin is an endopeptidase that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides (that is, a protease).
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Peristalsis
Peristalsis is a radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles that propagates in a wave down a tube, in an anterograde direction.
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Pharyngeal arch
The pharyngeal arches —also known as visceral arches—are structures seen in the embryonic development of vertebrates that are recognisable precursors for many structures.
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Pharynx
The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat that is behind the mouth and nasal cavity and above the esophagus and the larynx, or the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs.
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Plexus
A plexus (from the Latin for "braid") is a branching network of vessels or nerves.
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Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Elder (born Gaius Plinius Secundus, AD 23–79) was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, a naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and friend of emperor Vespasian.
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Plummer–Vinson syndrome
Plummer–Vinson syndrome (PVS), also called Paterson–Brown–Kelly syndrome or sideropenic dysphagia, is a rare disease characterized by difficulty in swallowing, iron-deficiency anemia, glossitis, cheilosis and esophageal webs.
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Portal hypertension
Portal hypertension is hypertension (high blood pressure) in the hepatic portal system – made up of the portal vein and its branches, that drain from most of the intestine to the liver.
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Portal vein
The portal vein or hepatic portal vein is a blood vessel that carries blood from the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen to the liver.
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Potassium chloride
Potassium chloride (KCl) is a metal halide salt composed of potassium and chlorine.
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Pulmonary artery
A pulmonary artery is an artery in the pulmonary circulation that carries deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs.
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Referred pain
Referred pain, also called reflective pain, is pain perceived at a location other than the site of the painful stimulus.
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Reflex
A reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus.
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Roman Empire
The Roman Empire (Imperium Rōmānum,; Koine and Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, tr.) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa and Asia.
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Rostrum (anatomy)
In anatomy, the term rostrum (from the Latin rostrum meaning beak) is used for a number of phylogenetically unrelated structures in different groups of animals.
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Rudolph Nissen
Rudolph Nissen (sometimes spelled Rudolf Nissen) (September 5, 1896 – January 22, 1981) was a surgeon who chaired surgery departments in Turkey, the United States and Switzerland.
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Ruminant
Ruminants are mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through microbial actions.
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Schatzki ring
A Schatzki ring or Schatzki–Gary ring is a narrowing of the lower esophagus that can cause difficulty swallowing (dysphagia).
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Serous membrane
In anatomy, serous membrane (or serosa) is a smooth tissue membrane consisting of two layers of mesothelium, which secrete serous fluid.
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Shark
Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head.
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Shock (circulatory)
Shock is the state of low blood perfusion to tissues resulting in cellular injury and inadequate tissue function.
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Simple columnar epithelium
A simple columnar epithelium is a columnar epithelium that is uni-layered.
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Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle is one of three major muscle types, the others being cardiac muscle and smooth muscle.
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Smooth muscle tissue
Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated muscle.
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Snake
Snakes are elongated, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes.
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Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride, also known as salt, is an ionic compound with the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions.
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Sphincter
A sphincter is a circular muscle that normally maintains constriction of a natural body passage or orifice and which relaxes as required by normal physiological functioning.
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Squamous cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinomas, also known as epidermoid carcinoma are a number of different types of cancer that result from squamous cells.
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Stomach
The stomach (from ancient Greek στόμαχος, stomachos, stoma means mouth) is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates.
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Stratified squamous epithelium
A stratified squamous epithelium consists of squamous (flattened) epithelial cells arranged in layers upon a basal membrane.
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Striated muscle tissue
Striated muscle tissue is a muscle tissue that features repeating functional units called sarcomeres, in contrast with smooth muscle tissue which does not.
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Submucosa
The submucosa (or tela submucosa) is a thin layer of tissue in various organs of the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts.
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Submucous plexus
The submucous plexus (Meissner's plexus, plexus of the submucosa, plexus submucosus) lies in the submucosa of the intestinal wall.
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Superior mesenteric artery
In human anatomy, the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) arises from the anterior surface of the abdominal aorta, just inferior to the origin of the celiac trunk, and supplies the intestine from the lower part of the duodenum through two-thirds of the transverse colon, as well as the pancreas.
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Superior vena cava
The superior vena cava (SVC) is the superior of the two venae cavae, the great venous trunks that return deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation to the right atrium of the heart.
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Swallowing
Swallowing, sometimes called deglutition in scientific contexts, is the process in the human or animal body that allows for a substance to pass from the mouth, to the pharynx, and into the esophagus, while shutting the epiglottis.
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Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system.
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Sympathetic trunk
The sympathetic trunks (sympathetic chain, gangliated cord) are a paired bundle of nerve fibers that run from the base of the skull to the coccyx.
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Syndrome
A syndrome is a set of medical signs and symptoms that are correlated with each other and, often, with a particular disease or disorder.
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Systemic scleroderma
Systemic scleroderma, also called diffuse scleroderma or systemic sclerosis, is an autoimmune disease of the connective tissue.
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Tarebia granifera
Tarebia granifera, common name (in the aquarium industry) the quilted melania, is a species of freshwater snail with an operculum, an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family Thiaridae.
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Taste bud
Taste buds contain the taste receptor cells, which are also known as gustatory cells.
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Tetrapod
The superclass Tetrapoda (from Greek: τετρα- "four" and πούς "foot") contains the four-limbed vertebrates known as tetrapods; it includes living and extinct amphibians, reptiles (including dinosaurs, and its subgroup birds) and mammals (including primates, and all hominid subgroups including humans), as well as earlier extinct groups.
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The New England Journal of Medicine
The New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) is a weekly medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society.
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Theodor Billroth
Christian Albert Theodor Billroth (26 April 18296 February 1894) was a Prussian-born Austrian surgeon and amateur musician.
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Thomas Voeckler
Thomas Voeckler (born 22 June 1979) is a French former road racing cyclist, who competed professionally between 2001 and 2017, for the team and its previous iterations.
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Thoracic diaphragm
For other uses, see Diaphragm (disambiguation). The thoracic diaphragm, or simply the diaphragm (partition), is a sheet of internal skeletal muscle in humans and other mammals that extends across the bottom of the thoracic cavity.
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Thoracic duct
In human anatomy, the thoracic duct is the larger of the two lymph ducts of the lymphatic system.
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Thoracic vertebrae
In vertebrates, thoracic vertebrae compose the middle segment of the vertebral column, between the cervical vertebrae and the lumbar vertebrae.
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TNM staging system
The TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours (TNM) is a notation system that describes the stage of a cancer which originates from a solid tumour with alphanumeric codes.
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Torsion (gastropod)
Torsion is a gastropod synapomorphy which occurs in all gastropods during larval development.
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Trachea
The trachea, colloquially called the windpipe, is a cartilaginous tube that connects the pharynx and larynx to the lungs, allowing the passage of air, and so is present in almost all air-breathing animals with lungs.
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Tracheoesophageal fistula
A tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF, or TOF; see spelling differences) is an abnormal connection (fistula) between the esophagus and the trachea.
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Tracheoesophageal stripe
The tracheoesophageal stripe is formed by the posterior wall of the trachea and the anterior wall of the esophagus.
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Upper gastrointestinal series
An upper gastrointestinal series, also called an upper gastrointestinal study or contrast radiography of the upper gastrointestinal tract, is a series of radiographs used to examine the gastrointestinal tract for abnormalities.
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Vagus nerve
The vagus nerve, historically cited as the pneumogastric nerve, is the tenth cranial nerve or CN X, and interfaces with parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract.
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Vertebral column
The vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton.
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Vertebrate
Vertebrates comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata (chordates with backbones).
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Vitelline arteries
The vitelline arteries are the arterial counterpart to the vitelline veins.
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Vomiting
Vomiting, also known as emesis, puking, barfing, throwing up, among other terms, is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose.
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Whale
Whales are a widely distributed and diverse group of fully aquatic placental marine mammals.
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X-ray
X-rays make up X-radiation, a form of electromagnetic radiation.
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Yolk sac
The yolk sac is a membranous sac attached to an embryo, formed by cells of the hypoblast adjacent to the embryonic disk.
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References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esophagus
