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268 relations: Aśvaka, Abdul Hai Habibi, Acanthus (ornament), Achaemenid Empire, Afghanistan, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Ahura Mazda, Aitareya Brahmana, Akshobhya, Al-Biruni, Alexander Cunningham, Alexander the Great, Allahabad, Amitābha, Anandapala, Ancient Greek, Anga, Arabian Sea, Arjuna, Arrian, Ashoka, Ashvamedha, Asii, Aspavarma, Atharvaveda, Atlas (mythology), Attock, Avalokiteśvara, Avesta, Avestan, Āgama (Buddhism), Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra, Bactria, Bagram, Bahlikas, Balkh, Balochistan, Bamyan, Barikot, Battle of Peshawar (1001), Battle of the Hydaspes, Behistun Inscription, Bhaisajyaguru, Bharata (Ramayana), Bhikkhu, Birch bark, Bodhisattva, Buddhas of Bamiyan, Buddhism, Buddhist art, ..., Buddhist texts, Buner District, Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya, Charles Masson, Charsadda, Chenab River, Chinese language, Cognatic kinship, Confluence, Cyrus the Great, Darius I, Demetrius I of Bactria, Dharmarakṣa, Dhritarashtra, Dhyāna in Buddhism, Diamond Sutra, Duryodhana, Early Buddhist schools, Edicts of Ashoka, Edward Conze, Faxian, Gandhara grave culture, Gandhara Kingdom, Gandharan Buddhism, Gandhari (character), Gandhari people, Gandhāran Buddhist texts, Ganges, Gāndhārī language, Ghaznavids, Ghazni Province, Gilgit, Gondophares, Google Books, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, Greco-Buddhism, Greco-Buddhist art, Gupta script, Hadda, Afghanistan, Han dynasty, Hecataeus of Miletus, Hellenistic period, Hephaestion, Hephthalite Empire, Heracles, Herodotus, Hindko, Hindu Kush, Hindu Shahi, Hinduism, Hindush, Histories (Herodotus), History of India, History of Pakistan, Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Indian epic poetry, Indian subcontinent, Indica (Arrian), Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Greek Kingdom, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indus Kohistani, Indus River, Indus Valley Civilisation, Internet Archive, Iranian peoples, Islam, Jalalabad, James Prinsep, Janaka, Jataka tales, Jayapala, Jnanagupta, John Marshall (archaeologist), Kabul, Kabul River, Kabul Shahi, Kalat, Pakistan, Kalhana, Kambojas, Kandahar, Kanishka, Kashmir, Kashmir Smast, Kūkai, Kharan Desert, Kharosthi, Khuzdar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Khyber Pass, Kingdom of the Videhas, Kohistan District, Pakistan, Kshatriya, Kunar Valley, Kuru Kingdom, Kurukshetra War, Kushan Empire, Kushanshah, Lahore, List of Rigvedic tribes, Lokaksema (Buddhist monk), Lokottaravāda, Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, Luoyang, Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Magadha, Mahabharata, Mahajanapada, Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Mahasthamaprapta, Mahayana, Mahayana sutras, Mahāsāṃghika, Mahāvastu, Mahīśāsaka, Mahmud of Ghazni, Maitreya, Mandala 1, Mankiala, Mardan, Maues, Maurya Empire, Megasthenes, Menander I, Mihirakula, Milinda Panha, Mortimer Wheeler, Muchukunda, Mughal Empire, Nagasena, Nandana, Nanjing, Naqsh-e Rustam, Nezak Huns, Oddiyana, Olaf Caroe, Old Persian, Oxyartes, Pakistan, Palm-leaf manuscript, Pandava, Panjgur, Parinirvana, Parthia, Partition of Triparadisus, Pataliputra, Patanjali, Pāṇini, Perdiccas, Perseus Project, Persian language, Peshawar, Philip (son of Machatas), Porus, Pothohar Plateau, Prajñā (Buddhist monk), Prajnaparamita, Prakrit, Prātimokṣa, Punjab, Punjab, Pakistan, Punjabi language, Pushkalavati, Pushkar, Pyre, Rama, Ramayana, Ravi River, Rigveda, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Sabuktigin, Sagala, Saka, Salt Range, Samadhi, Sanskrit, Sarasvati River, Sarnath, Sattagydia, Schøyen Collection, Scylax of Caryanda, Seleucus I Nicator, Shakuni, Shangla District, Silk Road, Sindh, Sirkap, Sogdia, Song Yun, Stucco, Sutlej, Swat District, Swat River, Taliban, Taranatha, Taxila, Taxiles, The Anabasis of Alexander, Thomas the Apostle, Trilochanapala, University of Peshawar, Uttarapatha, Vajrapani, Valley of Peshawar, Varanasi, Vedas, Vedic period, Vibhishana, Xuanzang, Yamuna, Yona, Yudhishthira, Yuezhi, Zhi Qian, Zhi Yao (monk), Zoroastrianism. Expand index (218 more) »
Aśvaka
The Aśvakas (Sanskrit: अश्वक), also known as the Ashvakas, Aśvakayanas or Asvayanas and sometimes Latinised as Assacenii/Assacani, were a people who lived in what is now north-eastern Afghanistan and the Peshawar Valley.
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Abdul Hai Habibi
Abdul Hai Habibi (عبدالحى حبيبي, عبدالحی حبیبی) – ʿAbd' ul-Ḥay Ḥabībi) (1910 – 9 May 1984) was a prominent Afghan historian for much of his lifetime as well as a member of the National Assembly of Afghanistan (Afghan Parliament) during the reign of King Zahir Shah. A Pashtun nationalist from Kakar tribe of Kandahar, Afghanistan, he began as a young teacher who made his way up to become a writer, scholar, politician and Dean of Faculty of Literature at Kabul University. He is the author of over 100 books but is best known for editing Pata Khazana, an "old" Pashto language manuscript that he claimed to have "discovered" in 1944; the academic community, however, does not acknowledge the manuscript as genuine.
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Acanthus (ornament)
The acanthus (ἄκανθος) is one of the most common plant forms to make foliage ornament and decoration.
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Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire, also called the First Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great.
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Afghanistan
Afghanistan (Pashto/Dari:, Pashto: Afġānistān, Dari: Afġānestān), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia.
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Ahmad Hasan Dani
Ahmad Hasan Dani (Urdu: احمد حسن دانی) FRAS, SI, HI (20 June 1920 – 26 January 2009), was a Pakistani intellectual, archaeologist, historian, and linguist.
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Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazda (also known as Ohrmazd, Ahuramazda, Hourmazd, Hormazd, Harzoo and Hurmuz) is the Avestan name for the creator and sole God of Zoroastrianism, the old Iranian religion that spread across the Middle East, before ultimately being relegated to small minorities after the Muslim conquest of Iran.
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Aitareya Brahmana
The Aitareya Brahmana (ऐतरेय ब्राह्मण) is the Brahmana of the Shakala shakha of the Rigveda, an ancient Indian collection of sacred hymns.
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Akshobhya
In Vajrayana Buddhism, Akshobhya (अक्षोभ्य, Akṣobhya, "Immovable One") is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality.
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Al-Biruni
Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Bīrūnī (Chorasmian/ابوریحان بیرونی Abū Rayḥān Bērōnī; New Persian: Abū Rayḥān Bīrūnī) (973–1050), known as Al-Biruni (البيروني) in English, was an IranianD.J. Boilot, "Al-Biruni (Beruni), Abu'l Rayhan Muhammad b. Ahmad", in Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden), New Ed., vol.1:1236–1238.
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Alexander Cunningham
Sir Alexander Cunningham (23 January 1814 – 28 November 1893) was a British army engineer with the Bengal Engineer Group who later took an interest in the history and archaeology of India.
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Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (Aléxandros ho Mégas), was a king (basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty.
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Allahabad
Prayag, or Allahabad is a large metropolitan city in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of Allahabad District, the most populous district in the state and 13th most populous district in India, and the Allahabad Division.
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Amitābha
Amitābha, also known as Amida or Amitāyus, is a celestial buddha according to the scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism.
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Anandapala
Anandapala or Anantpala was a ruler of the Hindu Shahi dynasty in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
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Ancient Greek
The Ancient Greek language includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD.
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Anga
Anga was an ancient Indian kingdom that flourished on the eastern Indian subcontinent and one of the sixteen mahajanapadas ("large state").
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Arabian Sea
The Arabian Sea, also known as Sea of Oman, is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel and the Arabian Peninsula, and on the east by India.
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Arjuna
Arjuna (in Devanagari: अर्जुन) is the main central character of the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata and plays a key role in the Bhagavad Gita alongside Krishna.
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Arrian
Arrian of Nicomedia (Greek: Ἀρριανός Arrianos; Lucius Flavius Arrianus) was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.
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Ashoka
Ashoka (died 232 BCE), or Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from to 232 BCE.
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Ashvamedha
The Ashvamedha (Sanskrit: अश्वमेध aśvamedhá) is a horse sacrifice ritual followed by the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion.
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Asii
The Asii, Osii, Ossii, Asoi, Asioi, Asini or Aseni were an ancient Indo-European people of Central Asia, during the 2nd and 1st Centuries BCE.
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Aspavarma
Aspavarma (or Aspa) was an Indo-Scythian ruler of the clan of the Apraca, who ruled from around 15 to 45 CE.
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Atharvaveda
The Atharva Veda (Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद, from and veda, meaning "knowledge") is the "knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the procedures for everyday life".
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Atlas (mythology)
In Greek mythology, Atlas (Ἄτλας, Átlas) was a Titan condemned to hold up the sky for eternity after the Titanomachy.
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Attock
Attock City (Punjabi, Urdu), formerly Campbellpore or Campbellpur until 1978, is a city located in northern part of Punjab province of Pakistan near the capital of Islamabad in the Panjistan region, and is the headquarters of Attock District.
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Avalokiteśvara
Avalokiteśvara (अवलोकितेश्वर) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas.
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Avesta
The Avesta is the primary collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the otherwise unrecorded Avestan language.
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Avestan
Avestan, also known historically as Zend, is a language known only from its use as the language of Zoroastrian scripture (the Avesta), from which it derives its name.
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Āgama (Buddhism)
In Buddhism, an āgama (आगम Prakrit/Sanskrit) is used as "sacred scriptures".
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Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra
The Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra (Lion’s Roar of Queen Śrīmālā) is one of the main early Mahāyāna Buddhist texts belonging to the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras that teaches the doctrines of Buddha-nature and "One Vehicle" through the words of the Indian queen Śrīmālā.
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Bactria
Bactria or Bactriana was the name of a historical region in Central Asia.
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Bagram
Bagram (بگرام) is a town and seat in Bagram District in Parwan Province of Afghanistan, about 60 kilometers north of the capital Kabul.
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Bahlikas
The Bahlikas (बाह्लिक; Bāhlika) were the inhabitants of Balikha, mentioned in Atharvaveda, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas, Vartikka of Katyayana, Brhatsamhita, Amarkosha etc.
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Balkh
Balkh (Pashto and بلخ; Ancient Greek and Βάχλο Bakhlo) is a town in the Balkh Province of Afghanistan, about northwest of the provincial capital, Mazar-e Sharif, and some south of the Amu Darya river and the Uzbekistan border.
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Balochistan
Balōchistān (بلوچستان; also Balūchistān or Balūchestān, often interpreted as the Land of the Baloch) is an arid desert and mountainous region in south-western Asia.
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Bamyan
No description.
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Barikot
Barikot (بریکوٹ.) is a city located in the south end of the Swat valley in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan.
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Battle of Peshawar (1001)
Battle of Peshawar, was fought on 27 November 1001 between the Ghaznavid army of Sultan Mahmud bin Sebuktigin (Mahmud of Ghazni) and the Hindu Shahi army of Jayapala, near Peshawar.
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Battle of the Hydaspes
The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought in 326 BC between Alexander the Great and King Porus of the Paurava kingdom on the banks of the river Jhelum (known to the Greeks as Hydaspes) in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Punjab, Pakistan).
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Behistun Inscription
The Behistun Inscription (also Bisotun, Bistun or Bisutun; بیستون, Old Persian: Bagastana, meaning "the place of god") is a multilingual inscription and large rock relief on a cliff at Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran, near the city of Kermanshah in western Iran.
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Bhaisajyaguru
Bhaiṣajyaguru, formally Bhaiṣajya-guru-vaiḍūrya-prabhā-rāja ("King of Medicine Master and Lapis Lazuli Light"), is the Buddha of healing and medicine in Mahāyāna Buddhism.
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Bharata (Ramayana)
Bharata (Sanskrit: भरत, IAST: Bharata) is a Hindu deity depicted in the epic poem, Ramayana.
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Bhikkhu
A bhikkhu (from Pali, Sanskrit: bhikṣu) is an ordained male monastic ("monk") in Buddhism.
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Birch bark
Birch bark or birchbark is the bark of several Eurasian and North American birch trees of the genus Betula.
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Bodhisattva
In Buddhism, Bodhisattva is the Sanskrit term for anyone who has generated Bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. Bodhisattvas are a popular subject in Buddhist art.
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Buddhas of Bamiyan
The Buddhas of Bamiyan (Persian:بت های باميان. – bott-hâye Bāmiyān) were 4th- and 5th-century monumental statues of Gautam Buddha carved into the side of a cliff in the Bamyan valley in the Hazarajat region of central Afghanistan, northwest of Kabul at an elevation of.
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Buddhism
Buddhism is the world's fourth-largest religion with over 520 million followers, or over 7% of the global population, known as Buddhists.
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Buddhist art
Buddhist art is the artistic practices that are influenced by Buddhism.
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Buddhist texts
Buddhist texts were initially passed on orally by monks, but were later written down and composed as manuscripts in various Indo-Aryan languages which were then translated into other local languages as Buddhism spread.
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Buner District
Buner District (د بونیر ولسوالی) is a district of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
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Chanakya
Chanakya (IAST:,; fl. c. 4th century BCE) was an Indian teacher, philosopher, economist, jurist and royal advisor.
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Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya (reign: 321–297 BCE) was the founder of the Maurya Empire in ancient India.
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Charles Masson
Charles Masson (1800–1853) was the pseudonym of James Lewis, a British East India Company soldier and explorer.
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Charsadda
Charsadda (چارسده, چارسده) is a town and headquarters of Charsadda District, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
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Chenab River
The Chenab River (चेनाब; ਚਨਾਬ,; چناب) is a major river that flows in India and Pakistan, and is one of the 5 major rivers of the Punjab region.
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Chinese language
Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.
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Cognatic kinship
Cognatic kinship is a mode of descent calculated from an ancestor or ancestress counted through any combination of male and female links, or a system of bilateral kinship where relations are traced through both a father and mother.
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Confluence
In geography, a confluence (also: conflux) occurs where two or more flowing bodies of water join together to form a single channel.
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Cyrus the Great
Cyrus II of Persia (𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 Kūruš; New Persian: کوروش Kuruš;; c. 600 – 530 BC), commonly known as Cyrus the Great  and also called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian Empire.
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Darius I
Darius I (Old Persian: Dārayava(h)uš, New Persian: rtl Dāryuš;; c. 550–486 BCE) was the fourth king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.
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Demetrius I of Bactria
Demetrius I (Greek: Δημήτριος Α΄) was a Greek king (reigned c. 200–180 BC) of Gandhara.
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Dharmarakṣa
() was an early translator of Mahayana sutras into Chinese, several of which had profound effects on East Asian Buddhism.
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Dhritarashtra
In the Mahabharata, Dhritarashtra (धृतराष्ट्र, dhṛtarāṣṭra; lit. "He who supports/bears the nation") is the King of Hastinapur.
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Dhyāna in Buddhism
In Buddhism, Dhyāna (Sanskrit) or Jhāna (Pali) is a series of cultivated states of mind, which lead to a "state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkhii-sati-piirisuddhl)." It is commonly translated as meditation, and is also used in Hinduism and Jainism.
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Diamond Sutra
The Diamond Sūtra (Sanskrit:Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) is a Mahāyāna (Buddhist) sūtra from the Prajñāpāramitā sutras or 'Perfection of Wisdom' genre.
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Duryodhana
Duryodhana (literally means Dur.
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Early Buddhist schools
The early Buddhist schools are those schools into which the Buddhist monastic saṅgha initially split, due originally to differences in vinaya and later also due to doctrinal differences and geographical separation of groups of monks.
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Edicts of Ashoka
The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka as well as boulders and cave walls made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire during his reign from 269 BCE to 232 BCE.
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Edward Conze
Eberhart (Edward) Julius Dietrich Conze (1904 – September 24, 1979) was an Anglo-German scholar probably best known for his pioneering translations of Buddhist texts.
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Faxian
Faxian (337 – c. 422) was a Chinese Buddhist monk who travelled by foot from China to India, visiting many sacred Buddhist sites in what are now Xinjiang, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka between 399-412 to acquire Buddhist texts.
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Gandhara grave culture
The Gandhara grave culture, also called Swat culture, emerged c. 1600 BC, and flourished c. 1500 BC to 500 BC in Gandhara, which lies in modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan.
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Gandhara Kingdom
Gandhāra (गन्धार) was a kingdom mentioned in the Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana.
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Gandharan Buddhism
Gandhāran Buddhism refers to the Buddhist culture of ancient Gandhāra which was a major center of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent from the 3rd century BCE to approximately 1200 CE.
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Gandhari (character)
Gandhari is a prominent character in the Hindu epic the Mahabharata.
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Gandhari people
The Gandharis (गंधारी), are a tribe attested from the Rigveda (RV 1.120.1, 1.126.7) and later texts.
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Gandhāran Buddhist texts
The Gandhāran Buddhist texts are the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered, dating from about the 1st century CE.
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Ganges
The Ganges, also known as Ganga, is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through the nations of India and Bangladesh.
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Gāndhārī language
Gāndhārī is a modern name (first used by scholar Harold Walter Bailey in 1946) for the Prakrit language of Kharoṣṭhi texts dating to between the third century BCE and fourth century CE found in the northwestern region of Gandhāra, but it was also heavily used in Central Asia and even appears in inscriptions in Luoyang and Anyang.
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Ghaznavids
The Ghaznavid dynasty (غزنویان ġaznaviyān) was a Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin, at their greatest extent ruling large parts of Iran, Afghanistan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest Indian subcontinent from 977 to 1186.
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Ghazni Province
Ghazni (غزنی; غزني) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, located in the southeastern part of the country.
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Gilgit
Gilgit (Shina:, Urdu), known locally as Gileet, is the capital city of the Gilgit-Baltistan region, an administrative territory of Pakistan.
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Gondophares
Gondophares I was the founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom in western Pakistan.
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Google Books
Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search and Google Print and by its codename Project Ocean) is a service from Google Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical character recognition (OCR), and stored in its digital database.
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Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was – along with the Indo-Greek Kingdom – the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world, covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 to 125 BC.
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Greco-Buddhism
Greco-Buddhism, or Graeco-Buddhism, is the cultural syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, which developed between the 4th century BC and the 5th century AD in Bactria and the Indian subcontinent, corresponding to the territories of modern-day Afghanistan, Tajikistan, India, and Pakistan.
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Greco-Buddhist art
Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century AD.
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Gupta script
The Gupta script (sometimes referred to as Gupta Brahmi Script or Late Brahmi Script)Sharma, Ram.
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Hadda, Afghanistan
Haḍḍa (هډه) is a Greco-Buddhist archeological site located in the ancient region of Gandhara, ten kilometers south of the city of Jalalabad, in the Nangarhar Province of eastern Afghanistan.
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Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China (206 BC–220 AD), preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the "Han Chinese" and the Chinese script is referred to as "Han characters". It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BC–9 AD) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD). The emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States. From the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD. The Han dynasty saw an age of economic prosperity and witnessed a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalized the private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, but these government monopolies were repealed during the Eastern Han dynasty. Science and technology during the Han period saw significant advances, including the process of papermaking, the nautical steering ship rudder, the use of negative numbers in mathematics, the raised-relief map, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy, and a seismometer for measuring earthquakes employing an inverted pendulum. The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BC. After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empresses dowager, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty would eventually collapse and ceased to exist.
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Hecataeus of Miletus
Hecataeus of Miletus (Ἑκαταῖος ὁ Μιλήσιος;Named after the Greek goddess Hecate--> c. 550 BC – c. 476 BC), son of Hegesander, was an early Greek historian and geographer.
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Hellenistic period
The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the subsequent conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year.
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Hephaestion
Hephaestion (Ἡφαιστίων Hephaistíon; c. 356 BC – 324 BC), son of Amyntor, was an ancient Macedonian nobleman and a general in the army of Alexander the Great.
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Hephthalite Empire
The Hephthalites (or Ephthalites) were a people of Central Asia who were militarily important circa 450–560.
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Heracles
Heracles (Ἡρακλῆς, Hēraklês, Glory/Pride of Hēra, "Hera"), born Alcaeus (Ἀλκαῖος, Alkaios) or Alcides (Ἀλκείδης, Alkeidēs), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of AmphitryonBy his adoptive descent through Amphitryon, Heracles receives the epithet Alcides, as "of the line of Alcaeus", father of Amphitryon.
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Herodotus
Herodotus (Ἡρόδοτος, Hêródotos) was a Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey) and lived in the fifth century BC (484– 425 BC), a contemporary of Thucydides, Socrates, and Euripides.
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Hindko
Hindko (ہندکو ALA-LC) is a cover term for a diverse group of Lahnda (Western Punjabi) dialects spoken by people of various ethnic backgrounds in several discontinuous areas in northwestern Pakistan, primarily in the provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab.
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Hindu Kush
The Hindu Kush, also known in Ancient Greek as the Caucasus Indicus (Καύκασος Ινδικός) or Paropamisadae (Παροπαμισάδαι), in Pashto and Persian as, Hindu Kush is an mountain range that stretches near the Afghan-Pakistan border,, Quote: "The Hindu Kush mountains run along the Afghan border with the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan".
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Hindu Shahi
The Hindu Shahi held sway over the Kabul Valley and Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) from as far back as the fourth century CE.
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Hinduism
Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or a way of life, widely practised in the Indian subcontinent.
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Hindush
Hindush was the eastern most satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, covering the lower and central Indus basin (present day Sindh and the southern Punjab regions of Pakistan).
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Histories (Herodotus)
The Histories (Ἱστορίαι;; also known as The History) of Herodotus is considered the founding work of history in Western literature.
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History of India
The history of India includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the Indian subcontinent; the advancement of civilisation from the Indus Valley Civilisation to the eventual blending of the Indo-Aryan culture to form the Vedic Civilisation; the rise of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism;Sanderson, Alexis (2009), "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period." In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo, Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009.
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History of Pakistan
The history of Pakistan encompasses the history of the region constituting modern-day Pakistan.
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Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Hund is a small village in Swabi district, situated on the right bank of the Indus River about 15 km upstream of Attock Fort and at a distance of about 80 km to the east of Peshawar in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, of Pakistan.
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Indian epic poetry
Indian epic poetry is the epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent, traditionally called Kavya (or Kāvya; Sanskrit: काव्य, IAST: kāvyá) or Kappiyam (Tamil language: காப்பியம், kāppiyam).
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Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a southern region and peninsula of Asia, mostly situated on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas.
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Indica (Arrian)
Indica (Ἰνδική Indike) is the name of a short military history about interior Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent, written by Arrian in 2nd-century CE.
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Indo-Aryan peoples
Indo-Aryan peoples are a diverse Indo-European-speaking ethnolinguistic group of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages.
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Indo-Greek Kingdom
The Indo-Greek Kingdom or Graeco-Indian Kingdom was an Hellenistic kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwest regions of the Indian subcontinent (parts of modern Pakistan and northwestern India), during the last two centuries BC and was ruled by more than thirty kings, often conflicting with one another.
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Indo-Parthian Kingdom
The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty and other rulers who were a group of ancient kings from Central Asia that ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India, during or slightly before the 1st century AD.
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Indo-Scythians
Indo-Scythians is a term used to refer to Scythians (Sakas), who migrated into parts of central, northern and western South Asia (Sogdiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Sindh, Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra) from the middle of the 2nd century BC to the 4th century AD.
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Indus Kohistani
Indus Kohistani is a Dardic language spoken in part of the Indus valley in Kohistan District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan.
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Indus River
The Indus River (also called the Sindhū) is one of the longest rivers in Asia.
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Indus Valley Civilisation
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation (5500–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
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Internet Archive
The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge." It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, movies/videos, moving images, and nearly three million public-domain books.
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Iranian peoples
The Iranian peoples, or Iranic peoples, are a diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise the speakers of the Iranian languages.
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Islam
IslamThere are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is or, and whether the a is pronounced, or (when the stress is on the first syllable) (Merriam Webster).
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Jalalabad
Jalālābād, or Dzalalabad, formerly called Ādīnapūr as documented by the 7th-century Xuanzang, is a city in eastern Afghanistan.
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James Prinsep
James Prinsep (20 August 1799 – 22 April 1840) was an English scholar, orientalist and antiquary.
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Janaka
Janaka or Janak was a king of Videha.
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Jataka tales
The Jātaka tales are a voluminous body of literature native to India concerning the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form.
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Jayapala
Jayapala, was the ruler of the Hindu Shahi dynasty from 964 to 1001 CE.
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Jnanagupta
Jñānagupta (Sanskrit: ज्ञानगुप्त) was Buddhist monk from Gandhara in modern-day Pakistan who travelled to China and was recognised by Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty.
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John Marshall (archaeologist)
Sir John Hubert Marshall, CIE, FBA (19 March 1876, Chester, England – 17 August 1958, Guildford, England) was the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928.
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Kabul
Kabul (کابل) is the capital of Afghanistan and its largest city, located in the eastern section of the country.
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Kabul River
The Kabul River (کابل سیند, دریای کابل), the classical Cophes, is a long river that emerges in the Sanglakh Range of the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan and empties into the Indus River near Attock, Pakistan.
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Kabul Shahi
The Kabul Shahi dynasties also called ShahiyaSehrai, Fidaullah (1979).
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Kalat, Pakistan
Kalāt or Qalāt (Brahui/Urdu: قلات) is a historical town located in Kalat District, Balochistan, Pakistan.
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Kalhana
Kalhana (sometimes spelled Kalhan or Kalhan'a) (c. 12th century), a Kashmiri, was the author of Rajatarangini (River of Kings), an account of the history of Kashmir.
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Kambojas
The Kambojas were a tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali literature.
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Kandahar
Kandahār or Qandahār (کندهار; قندهار; known in older literature as Candahar) is the second-largest city in Afghanistan, with a population of about 557,118.
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Kanishka
Kanishka I (कनिष्क), or Kanishka the Great, was the emperor of the Kushan dynasty in the second century (c. 127–150 CE).
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Kashmir
Kashmir is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent.
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Kashmir Smast
The Kashmir Smast (کشمیر سمست) caves, also called Kashmir Smats, are a series of natural limestone caves, artificially expanded from the Kushan to the Shahi periods, situated in the Pirsai Sakrah mountains in the Sudam Valley Mardan in Northern Pakistan.
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Kūkai
Kūkai (空海), also known posthumously as, 774–835, was a Japanese Buddhist monk, civil servant, scholar, poet, and artist who founded the Shingon or "True Word" school of Buddhism.
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Kharan Desert
The Kharan Desert (صحرائے خاران) is a sandy and mountainous desert situated in Balochistan province in south-western Pakistan.
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Kharosthi
The Kharosthi script, also spelled Kharoshthi or Kharoṣṭhī, is an ancient script used in ancient Gandhara and ancient India (primarily modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan) to write the Gandhari Prakrit and Sanskrit.
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Khuzdar
Khuzdār (Brahui/خوزدار; خُضدار) is the capital city of Khuzdar District in the central part of Balochistan Province, Pakistan.
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Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (abbreviated as KP; خیبر پختونخوا; خیبر پښتونخوا) is one of the four administrative provinces of Pakistan, located in the northwestern region of the country along the international border with Afghanistan.
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Khyber Pass
The Khyber Pass (د خیبر درہ, درۂ خیبر) (elevation) is a mountain pass in the north of Pakistan, close to the border with Afghanistan.
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Kingdom of the Videhas
The Kingdom of the Videhas (also known as Mithila and Tirabhukti) was an ancient kingdom in Vedic India which rose to prominence under King Janaka.
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Kohistan District, Pakistan
Kohistan (اباسين کوهستان; "Land of Mountains"), also called Abasin Kohistan or Indus Kohistan, was an administrative district within Hazara Division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province in Pakistan, covering an area of; it had a population of 472,570 at the 1998 Census.
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Kshatriya
Kshatriya (Devanagari: क्षत्रिय; from Sanskrit kṣatra, "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of the Hindu society.
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Kunar Valley
Kunar Valley is a valley in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
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Kuru Kingdom
Kuru (कुरु) was the name of a Vedic Indo-Aryan tribal union in northern Iron Age India, encompassing the modern-day states of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Uttarakhand and the western part of Uttar Pradesh (the region of Doab, till Prayag), which appeared in the Middle Vedic period (c. 1200 – c. 900 BCE) and developed into the first recorded state-level society in the Indian subcontinent.
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Kurukshetra War
The Kurukshetra War, also called the Mahabharata War, is a war described in the Indian epic Mahabharata.
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Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire (Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; Κυϸανο, Kushano; कुषाण साम्राज्य Kuṣāṇa Samrajya; BHS:; Chinese: 貴霜帝國; Kušan-xšaθr) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century.
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Kushanshah
Kushanshah was the title used by the governors of the Sasanian Empire who ruled the parts of the former Kushan Empire, in the areas of Sogdiana, Bactria and Gandhara, named Kushanshahr by the Sasanians, during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE.
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Lahore
Lahore (لاہور, لہور) is the capital city of the Pakistani province of Punjab, and is the country’s second-most populous city after Karachi.
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List of Rigvedic tribes
The tribes mentioned in the Rigveda are described as semi-nomadic pastoralists.
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Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)
Lokakṣema (flourished 147-189) was a Buddhist monk of Central Asian origin who travelled to China during the Han Dynasty and translated Buddhist texts into Chinese, and, as such, is an important figure in Chinese Buddhism.
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Lokottaravāda
The Lokottaravāda (Sanskrit, लोकोत्तरवाद) was one of the early Buddhist schools according to Mahayana doxological sources compiled by Bhāviveka, Vinitadeva and others, and was a subgroup which emerged from the Mahāsāṃghika.
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Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra
The Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (or Infinite Life Sutra) is one of the two Indian Mahayana sutras which describe the pure land of Amitābha.
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Luoyang
Luoyang, formerly romanized as Loyang, is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province.
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Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Macedonia or Macedon (Μακεδονία, Makedonía) was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece.
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Magadha
Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom in southern Bihar, and was counted as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Countries") of ancient India.
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Mahabharata
The Mahābhārata (महाभारतम्) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa.
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Mahajanapada
Mahājanapada (lit, from maha, "great", and janapada "foothold of a tribe, country") was one of the sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE.
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Mahaparinibbana Sutta
The Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta is Sutta 16 in the Digha Nikaya, a scripture belonging the Sutta Pitaka of Theravada Buddhism.
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Mahasthamaprapta
Mahāsthāmaprāpta is a bodhisattva mahāsattva that represents the power of wisdom, often depicted in a trinity with Amitābha and Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin), especially in Pure Land Buddhism.
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Mahayana
Mahāyāna (Sanskrit for "Great Vehicle") is one of two (or three, if Vajrayana is counted separately) main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophies and practice.
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Mahayana sutras
The Mahayana sutras are a broad genre of Buddhist scriptures that various traditions of Mahayana Buddhism accept as canonical.
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Mahāsāṃghika
The Mahāsāṃghika (Sanskrit "of the Great Sangha") was one of the early Buddhist schools.
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Mahāvastu
The Mahāvastu (Sanskrit for "Great Event" or "Great Story") is a text of the Lokottaravāda school of Early Buddhism.
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Mahīśāsaka
Mahīśāsaka is one of the early Buddhist schools according to some records.
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Mahmud of Ghazni
Yamīn-ud-Dawla Abul-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn (یمینالدوله ابوالقاسم محمود بن سبکتگین), more commonly known as Mahmud of Ghazni (محمود غزنوی; November 971 – 30 April 1030), also known as Mahmūd-i Zābulī (محمود زابلی), was the most prominent ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire.
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Maitreya
Maitreya (Sanskrit), Metteyya (Pali), is regarded as a future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology.
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Mandala 1
The first Mandala ("book") of the Rigveda has 191 hymns.
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Mankiala
Mankiala (مانكياله.; also known as Manikyala and Manikiyala) is a village in the Potohar plateau, Punjab near Rawalpindi, Pakistan, known for the nearby Mankiala stupa - a Buddhist stupa located at the site where, according to legend, Buddha sacrificed some of his body parts to feed seven hungry tiger cubs.
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Mardan
Mardān (Pashto,; Urdu; Pashto) is located in Mardan District in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan.
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Maues
Maues (Greek: Μαύης; epigraphically ΜΑΥΟΥ Mauou; r. 85–60 BCE) was an Indo-Scythian king who invaded the Indo-Greek territories.
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Maurya Empire
The Maurya Empire was a geographically-extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between 322 BCE and 180 BCE.
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Megasthenes
Megasthenes (Μεγασθένης, c. 350 – c. 290 BC) was an ancient Greek historian, diplomat and Indian ethnographer and explorer in the Hellenistic period.
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Menander I
Menander I Soter (Μένανδρος Α΄ ὁ Σωτήρ, Ménandros A' ho Sōtḗr, "Menander I the Saviour"; known in Indian Pali sources as Milinda) was an Indo-Greek King of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (165Bopearachchi (1998) and (1991), respectively. The first date is estimated by Osmund Bopearachchi and R. C. Senior, the other Boperachchi/155 –130 BC) who administered a large empire in the Northwestern regions of the Indian Subcontinent from his capital at Sagala.
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Mihirakula
Mihirakula, also Mahiragula, was one of the most important rulers of the Alchon Huns, who led a conquest and gained temporary control of Gandhara, Kashmir, northern and central India.
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Milinda Panha
The Milinda Pañha ("Questions of Milinda") is a Buddhist text which dates from sometime between 100 BCE and 200 CE.
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Mortimer Wheeler
Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler (10 September 1890 – 22 July 1976) was a British archaeologist and officer in the British Army.
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Muchukunda
Muchukunda, son of King Mandhata, and brother of equally illustrious Ambarisha was born in the Ikshvaku dynasty.
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Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire (گورکانیان, Gūrkāniyān)) or Mogul Empire was an empire in the Indian subcontinent, founded in 1526. It was established and ruled by a Muslim dynasty with Turco-Mongol Chagatai roots from Central Asia, but with significant Indian Rajput and Persian ancestry through marriage alliances; only the first two Mughal emperors were fully Central Asian, while successive emperors were of predominantly Rajput and Persian ancestry. The dynasty was Indo-Persian in culture, combining Persianate culture with local Indian cultural influences visible in its traits and customs. The Mughal Empire at its peak extended over nearly all of the Indian subcontinent and parts of Afghanistan. It was the second largest empire to have existed in the Indian subcontinent, spanning approximately four million square kilometres at its zenith, after only the Maurya Empire, which spanned approximately five million square kilometres. The Mughal Empire ushered in a period of proto-industrialization, and around the 17th century, Mughal India became the world's largest economic power, accounting for 24.4% of world GDP, and the world leader in manufacturing, producing 25% of global industrial output up until the 18th century. The Mughal Empire is considered "India's last golden age" and one of the three Islamic Gunpowder Empires (along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia). The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, in the First Battle of Panipat (1526). The Mughal emperors had roots in the Turco-Mongol Timurid dynasty of Central Asia, claiming direct descent from both Genghis Khan (founder of the Mongol Empire, through his son Chagatai Khan) and Timur (Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire). During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as religious harmony, and the monarchs were interested in local religious and cultural traditions. Akbar was a successful warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but most of them were subdued by Akbar. All Mughal emperors were Muslims; Akbar, however, propounded a syncretic religion in the latter part of his life called Dīn-i Ilāhī, as recorded in historical books like Ain-i-Akbari and Dabistān-i Mazāhib. The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in the local societies during most of its existence, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. Traditional and newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Maratha Empire|Marathas, the Rajputs, the Pashtuns, the Hindu Jats and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience. The reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658, was the zenith of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Jama Masjid, Delhi, and the Lahore Fort. The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb and also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Category:History of Bengal Category:History of West Bengal Category:History of Bangladesh Category:History of Kolkata Category:Empires and kingdoms of Afghanistan Category:Medieval India Category:Historical Turkic states Category:Mongol states Category:1526 establishments in the Mughal Empire Category:1857 disestablishments in the Mughal Empire Category:History of Pakistan.
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Nagasena
Nāgasena was a Sarvastivadan Buddhist sage born in Kashmir and lived around 150 BCE.
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Nandana
Nandana or Nandna was a fort built at strategic location on a hilly range on the eastern flanks of the Salt Range in Punjab Pakistan.
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Nanjing
Nanjing, formerly romanized as Nanking and Nankin, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China and the second largest city in the East China region, with an administrative area of and a total population of 8,270,500.
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Naqsh-e Rustam
Naqsh-e Rustam (نقش رستم) is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km northwest of Persepolis, in Fars Province, Iran, with a group of ancient Iranian rock reliefs cut into the cliff, from both the Achaemenid and Sassanid periods.
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Nezak Huns
The Nezak Huns were one of the four groups of Huna people in the area of the Hindu Kush.
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Oddiyana
(Sanskrit Oḍḍiyāna; Үржин urkhin, ଓଡ଼ିଆଣ), a small country in early medieval India, is ascribed importance in the development and dissemination of Vajrayana Buddhism.
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Olaf Caroe
Sir Olaf Kirkpatrick Kruuse Caroe (15 November 1892 – 23 November 1981) was an administrator in British India, working for the Indian Civil Service and the Indian Political Service.
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Old Persian
Old Persian is one of the two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan).
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Oxyartes
Oxyartes (Old Persian: 𐎢𐎺𐎧𐏁𐎫𐎼, Greek: Oxyártēs, in Persian: وخشارد (Vaxš-ard), from an unattested form in an Old Iranian language: *Huxšaθra-) was a Sogdian or Bactrian nobleman of Bactria, father of Roxana, the wife of Alexander of Macedon.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (پاکِستان), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (اِسلامی جمہوریہ پاکِستان), is a country in South Asia.
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Palm-leaf manuscript
Palm-leaf manuscripts are manuscripts made out of dried palm leaves.
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Pandava
In the Mahabharata, a Hindu epic text, the Pandavas are the five acknowledged sons of Pandu, by his two wives Kunti and Madri, who was the princess of Madra.
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Panjgur
Panjgur or Panggur (Balochi and پنجگور), with the older name Bannajbur, is a small town in Panjgur District, Balochistan,.
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Parinirvana
In Buddhism, the term parinirvana (Sanskrit:; Pali) is commonly used to refer to nirvana-after-death, which occurs upon the death of the body of someone who has attained nirvana during his or her lifetime.
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Parthia
Parthia (𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 Parθava; 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 Parθaw; 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 Pahlaw) is a historical region located in north-eastern Iran.
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Partition of Triparadisus
The Partition of Triparadisus was a power-sharing agreement passed at Triparadisus in 321 BCE between the generals (Diadochi) of Alexander the Great, in which they named a new regent and arranged the repartition of the satrapies of Alexander's empire among themselves.
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Pataliputra
Pataliputra (IAST), adjacent to modern-day Patna, was a city in ancient India, originally built by Magadha ruler Udayin in 490 BCE as a small fort near the Ganges river.
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Patanjali
(पतञ्जलि) is a proper Indian name.
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Pāṇini
(पाणिनि, Frits Staal (1965),, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Apr., 1965), pp. 99-116) is an ancient Sanskrit philologist, grammarian, and a revered scholar in Hinduism.
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Perdiccas
Perdiccas (Περδίκκας, Perdikkas; c. 355 BC – 321/320 BC) became a general in Alexander the Great's army and participated in Alexander's campaign against Persia.
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Perseus Project
The Perseus Project (version 4 also known as "Perseus Hopper") is a digital library project of Tufts University, which is located in Medford and Somerville, near Boston, in the U.S. state of Massachusetts.
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Persian language
Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi (فارسی), is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family.
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Peshawar
Peshawar (پېښور; پشاور; پشور) is the capital of the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
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Philip (son of Machatas)
Philip (Φίλιππoς; died 326 BC), son of Machatas and brother of Harpalus, was an officer in the service of Alexander the Great, who was appointed by him in 327 BC satrap of India, including the provinces westward of the Hydaspes, as far south as the junction of the Indus with the Acesines.
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Porus
Porus or Poros (from Ancient Πῶρος, Pôros), was a great Indian king from the Punjab region, whose territory spanned the region between the Hydaspes (River of Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab River), in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent.
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Pothohar Plateau
The Pothohar Plateau (پوٹھوار, سطح مرتفع پوٹھوہار; alternatively spelled Potohar or Potwar) is a plateau in north-eastern Pakistan, forming the northern part of Punjab.
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Prajñā (Buddhist monk)
Prajñā, was an important 9th century Buddhist monk from Gandhara (born in the area of modern Kabul, Afghanistan).
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Prajnaparamita
Prajñāpāramitā means "the Perfection of (Transcendent) Wisdom" in Mahāyāna Buddhism.
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Prakrit
The Prakrits (प्राकृत; pāuda; pāua) are any of several Middle Indo-Aryan languages formerly spoken in India.
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Prātimokṣa
The Prātimokṣa (Sanskrit prātimokṣa) is a list of rules (contained within the vinaya) governing the behaviour of Buddhist monastics (monks or bhikṣus and nuns or bhikṣuṇīs).
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Punjab
The Punjab, also spelled Panjab (land of "five rivers"; Punjabi: پنجاب (Shahmukhi); ਪੰਜਾਬ (Gurumukhi); Πενταποταμία, Pentapotamia) is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India.
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Punjab, Pakistan
Punjab (Urdu, Punjabi:, panj-āb, "five waters") is Pakistan's second largest province by area, after Balochistan, and its most populous province, with an estimated population of 110,012,442 as of 2017.
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Punjabi language
Punjabi (Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬੀ; Shahmukhi: پنجابی) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 100 million native speakers worldwide, ranking as the 10th most widely spoken language (2015) in the world.
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Pushkalavati
Pushkalavati (Pashto and) was the capital of the Gandhara kingdom.
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Pushkar
Pushkar is a town in the Ajmer district in the Indian state of Rajasthan.
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Pyre
A pyre (πυρά; pyrá, from πῦρ, pyr, "fire"), also known as a funeral pyre, is a structure, usually made of wood, for burning a body as part of a funeral rite or execution.
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Rama
Rama or Ram (Sanskrit: राम, IAST: Rāma), also known as Ramachandra, is a major deity of Hinduism.
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Ramayana
Ramayana (रामायणम्) is an ancient Indian epic poem which narrates the struggle of the divine prince Rama to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana.
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Ravi River
The Ravi (ਰਾਵੀ, راوی, रावी) is a transboundary river crossing northwestern India and eastern Pakistan.
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Rigveda
The Rigveda (Sanskrit: ऋग्वेद, from "praise" and "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns along with associated commentaries on liturgy, ritual and mystical exegesis.
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Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland
The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, commonly known as the Royal Asiatic Society (RAS), was established, according to its Royal Charter of 11 August 1824, to further "the investigation of subjects connected with and for the encouragement of science, literature and the arts in relation to Asia." From its incorporation the Society has been a forum, through lectures, its journal, and other publications, for scholarship relating to Asian culture and society of the highest level.
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Sabuktigin
Abu Mansur Sabuktigin (ابو منصور سبکتگین) (ca 942 – August 997), also spelled as Sabuktagin, Sabuktakin, Sebüktegin and Sebük Tigin, was the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty, ruling from 367 A.H/977 A.D to 387 A.H/997A.D.C.E. Bosworth, in Encyclopaedia Iranica.
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Sagala
Sagala (Σάγγαλα), Sangala or Sakala was the name of the ancient predecessor of Sialkot, in Pakistan's northern Punjab province.
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Saka
Saka, Śaka, Shaka or Saca mod. ساکا; Śaka; Σάκαι, Sákai; Sacae;, old *Sək, mod. Sāi) is the name used in Middle Persian and Sanskrit sources for the Scythians, a large group of Eurasian nomads on the Eurasian Steppe speaking Eastern Iranian languages.
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Salt Range
The Salt Range (سلسلہ کوہ نمک) is a hill system in the Punjab province of Pakistan, deriving its name from its extensive deposits of rock salt.
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Samadhi
Samadhi (Sanskrit: समाधि), also called samāpatti, in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools refers to a state of meditative consciousness.
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Sanskrit
Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism; a philosophical language of Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism; and a former literary language and lingua franca for the educated of ancient and medieval India.
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Sarasvati River
Sarasvati River (Sanskrit: सरस्वती नदी, IAST: sárasvatī nadī) is one of the Rigvedic rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda and later Vedic and post-Vedic texts.
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Sarnath
Sarnath is a place located 10 kilometres north-east of Varanasi near the confluence of the Ganges and the Varuna rivers in Uttar Pradesh, India.
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Sattagydia
Sattagydia (Old Persian Thataguš, country of the "hundred cows") was one of the easternmost satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire, situated east of the Kirthar Mountains on the Indus River, corresponding approximately to southern Indoscythia and to the current Sindh region of Pakistan.
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Schøyen Collection
The Schøyen Collection is the largest private manuscript collection in the world, mostly located in Oslo and London.
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Scylax of Caryanda
Scylax of Caryanda (Σκύλαξ ο Καρυανδεύς) was a renowned Greek explorer and writer of the late 6th and early 5th centuries BCE.
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Seleucus I Nicator
Seleucus I Nicator (Σέλευκος Α΄ Νικάτωρ Séleukos Α΄ Nikátōr; "Seleucus the Victor") was one of the Diadochi.
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Shakuni
Shakuni (शकुनि, lit. bird) also known as Saubala (Sanskrit: सौबल, lit. son of Subala), Gandhararaja (Sanskrit: गान्धारराज, (lit. king of Gandhara) and Subalraja (Sanskrit): सुबलराज, lit. "King of the Kingdom of Subala" was the prince of Gandhara Kingdom in present-day Gandhara, later to become the King after his father's death and one of the main villains in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. He was the brother of Gandhari and hence Duryodhana's maternal uncle. Portrayed as an extremely intelligent but devious man, Shakuni is often credited as the mastermind behind the Kurukshetra war. Shakuni had a son named Uluka. It is believed that Shakuni was the personification of Dvapara Yuga.
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Shangla District
Shangla District is located in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
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Silk Road
The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes that connected the East and West.
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Sindh
Sindh (سنڌ; سِندھ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, in the southeast of the country.
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Sirkap
Sirkap (Urdu and سر کپ) is the name of an archaeological site on the bank opposite to the city of Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan.
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Sogdia
Sogdia or Sogdiana was an ancient Iranian civilization that at different times included territory located in present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan such as: Samarkand, Bukhara, Khujand, Panjikent and Shahrisabz.
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Song Yun
Song Yun was a Chinese Buddhist monk who was sent by the devout Buddhist Empress Hu (胡, ?-528 CE) of the Northern Wei Dynasty with some companions including the monk Hui Zheng, Fa Li and Zheng (or Wang) Fouze, to northwestern India to search for Buddhist texts.
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Stucco
Stucco or render is a material made of aggregates, a binder and water.
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Sutlej
The Sutlej River (alternatively spelled as Satluj River) (सतलुज, ਸਤਲੁਜ, शतद्रुम (shatadrum), is the longest of the five rivers that flow through the historic crossroads region of Punjab in northern India and Pakistan. The Sutlej River is also known as Satadree. It is the easternmost tributary of the Indus River. The waters of the Sutlej are allocated to India under the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan, and are mostly diverted to irrigation canals in India. There are several major hydroelectric projects on the Sutlej, including the 1,000 MW Bhakra Dam, the 1,000 MW Karcham Wangtoo Hydroelectric Plant, and the 1,530 MW Nathpa Jhakri Dam. The river basin area in India is located in Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan and Haryana states.
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Swat District
Swāt (Pashto, Urdu: سوات) is a valley and an administrative district in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
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Swat River
The Swat River (دریائے سوات, سوات سیند) is a perennial river in the northern region of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan.
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Taliban
The Taliban (طالبان "students"), alternatively spelled Taleban, which refers to itself as the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (IEA), is a Sunni Islamic fundamentalist political movement in Afghanistan currently waging war (an insurgency, or jihad) within that country.
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Taranatha
Tāranātha (1575–1634) was a Lama of the Jonang school of Tibetan Buddhism.
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Taxila
Taxila (from Pāli: Takkasilā, Sanskrit: तक्षशिला,, meaning "City of Cut Stone" or " Rock") is a town and an important archaeological site in the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab, Pakistan, situated about north-west of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, just off the famous Grand Trunk Road.
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Taxiles
Taxiles (in Greek Tαξίλης or Ταξίλας; lived 4th century BC) was the Greek chroniclers' name for a prince or king who reigned over the tract between the Indus and the Jhelum (Hydaspes) Rivers in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent at the time of Alexander the Great's expedition.
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The Anabasis of Alexander
The Anabasis of Alexander (Ἀλεξάνδρου Ἀνάβασις, Alexándrou Anábasis; Anabasis Alexandri) was composed by Arrian of Nicomedia in the second century AD, most probably during the reign of Hadrian.
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Thomas the Apostle
Thomas the Apostle (תומאס הקדוש; ⲑⲱⲙⲁⲥ; ܬܐܘܡܐ ܫܠܝܚܐ Thoma Shliha; also called Didymus which means "the twin") was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus, according to the New Testament.
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Trilochanapala
Trilochanpala was the son of Anandapala and was one of the last kings of the Kabul Shahis.
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University of Peshawar
The University of Peshawar (جامعۂ پشاور; د پېښور پوهنتون; abbreviated UoP; known more popularly as Peshawar University), is a public research university located in Peshawar, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
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Uttarapatha
Ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts use Uttarapatha as the name of the northern part of Jambudvipa, one of the "continents" in Hindu mythology.
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Vajrapani
(Sanskrit: "Vajra in hand") is one of the earliest-appearing bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism.
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Valley of Peshawar
The Valley of Peshawar is a broad valley situated in northern Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
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Varanasi
Varanasi, also known as Benares, Banaras (Banāras), or Kashi (Kāśī), is a city on the banks of the Ganges in the Uttar Pradesh state of North India, south-east of the state capital, Lucknow, and east of Allahabad.
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Vedas
The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेद, "knowledge") are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent.
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Vedic period
The Vedic period, or Vedic age, is the period in the history of the northwestern Indian subcontinent between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation in the central Gangetic Plain which began in BCE.
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Vibhishana
Vibhishana (IAST: or Bibhishan) was a king of Lanka in the legendary epic Ramayana.
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Xuanzang
Xuanzang (fl. c. 602 – 664) was a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator who travelled to India in the seventh century and described the interaction between Chinese Buddhism and Indian Buddhism during the early Tang dynasty.
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Yamuna
The Yamuna (Hindustani: /jəmʊnaː/), also known as the Jumna, (not to be mistaken with the Jamuna of Bangladesh) is the longest and the second largest tributary river of the Ganges (Ganga) in northern India.
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Yona
The word Yona in Pali and the Prakrits, and the analogue "Yavana" in Sanskrit, are words used in Ancient India to designate Greek speakers.
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Yudhishthira
In the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Yudhishthira (Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर, IAST: Yudhiṣṭhira) was the eldest son of King Pandu and Queen Kunti and the king of Indraprastha and later of Hastinapura (Kuru).
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Yuezhi
The Yuezhi or Rouzhi were an ancient people first reported in Chinese histories as nomadic pastoralists living in an arid grassland area in the western part of the modern Chinese province of Gansu, during the 1st millennium BC.
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Zhi Qian
Zhi Qian (fl. 222–252 CE) was a Chinese Buddhist layman of Yuezhi ancestry who translated a wide range of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.
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Zhi Yao (monk)
Zhi Yao was a Kushan Buddhist monk from modern-day Kabul, Afghanistan of Yuezhi ethnicity.
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Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism, or more natively Mazdayasna, is one of the world's oldest extant religions, which is monotheistic in having a single creator god, has dualistic cosmology in its concept of good and evil, and has an eschatology which predicts the ultimate destruction of evil.
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Gandahara, Gandhar(city/kingdom), Gandhara civilization, Gandhara culture, Gandhara period, Gandharan, Gandhāra, Ghandahra, Ghandara, Waihand.
References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhara
