Communication

414 relations: Academic specialization, Academy, Accuracy and precision, Adam Burski, Adam Ignacy Zabellewicz, Adam Mahrburg, Adam Mickiewicz, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Adam of Łowicz, Adolf Dygasiński, Aesthetics, Age of Enlightenment, Albertus Magnus, Aleksander Świętochowski, Alexander Bain, Alfred Tarski, Alma mater, Alumnus, Amsterdam, Analytic philosophy, Anathema, Ancient history, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Andrzej Stanisław Załuski, Andrzej Towiański, Anioł Dowgird, Arabic, Aristotle, Association (psychology), Astronomical object, Atheism, August Cieszkowski, Auguste Comte, Augustine of Hippo, Augustus III of Poland, Austria, Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, Baruch Spinoza, Being, Bishop, Bolesław Prus, Book of Optics, Bronisław Trentowski, Catholic Church, Charles Darwin, Chemistry, Christian Wolff (philosopher), Christopher Kasparek, Cicero, Civilization, ..., Cologne, Color, Commission of National Education, Common sense, Communism, Compromise, Concept, Congress of Vienna, Congress Poland, Constantine the Great, Continental philosophy, Contradiction, Conventionalism, Counter-Reformation, Critique, Culture, Czechs, Czesław Znamierowski, Dante Alighieri, Deductive reasoning, Deism, Democracy, Determinism, Dissenter, Dominican Order, Dominik Szulc, Duchy of Warsaw, Dugald Stewart, Eclecticism, Economics, Economy, Edinburgh, Edmund Husserl, Edward Abramowski, Edward Dembowski, Emanationism, Empirical evidence, Empiricism, Encyclopédistes, Encyklopedia Polski, England, Enlightenment in Poland, Epistemology, Ethics, Europe, Exile, Experiment, Feeling, Feliks Jaroński, Florence, Florian Znaniecki, Force, France, Francis Bacon, Franciscans, Franciszek Krupiński, Franz Brentano, Free Polish University, Freethought, Friedrich Albert Lange, Galicia (Eastern Europe), Galileo Galilei, Geometry, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Germany, God, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Government, Grammar, Great Britain, Greater Poland, Gresham's law, Grudziądz, Grzegorz of Stawiszyn, Harald Høffding, Heinrich Rickert, Heliocentrism, Henri Bergson, Henri Poincaré, Henry Thomas Buckle, Herbert Spencer, Hermann von Helmholtz, Hierarchy, Higher education, Hippolyte Taine, History, Honorary degree, House of Medici, Hugo Kołłątaj, Humanism, Ibn al-Haytham, Idealism, Immanuel Kant, Inductive reasoning, Internetowa encyklopedia PWN, Interwar period, Invasion, Isaac Newton, Italy, Ivan Śleszyński, Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, Jagiellonian University, Jakub Górski, Jakub of Gostynin, Jan Łukasiewicz, Jan Śniadecki, Jan of Stobnica, Jan Szylling, Jan Woleński, January Uprising, Józef Emanuel Jankowski, Józef Gołuchowski, Józef Kalasanty Szaniawski, Józef Kasparek, Józef Kremer, Józef Maria Bocheński, Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński, Józef Supiński, Jędrzej Śniadecki, Jean Buridan, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Johannes Peter Müller, John Amos Comenius, John Cantius, John Jonston, John Locke, John of Głogów, John Stuart Mill, Journalist, Julian Ochorowicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Kantianism, Karol Libelt, Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz, Kazimierz Łyszczyński, Kazimierz Kuratowski, Kazimierz Twardowski, Königsberg, Konstanty Michalski, Kraków, Kremenets, Krystyn Lach-Szyrma, Latin, Law, Learned society, Leipzig University, Leon Chwistek, Leon Petrazycki, Leszczyński, Leszek Kołakowski, Leszno, Light, Linguistics, Literature, Logic, Logical positivism, Lorenz Christoph Mizler, Lviv, Lwów–Warsaw school, Lyceum, Many-valued logic, Marek Siemek, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Marian Massonius, Marquis de Condorcet, Marsilio Ficino, Marxism, Marxist philosophy, Mathematical logic, Matter, Maximalism, Medieval philosophy, Medieval studies, Medievalism, Messiah, Messianism, Metaphysics, Methodology, Michał Falkener, Michał Twaróg of Bystrzyków, Michał Wiszniewski, Middle Ages, Modern language, Monarch, Monarchy, Motion (physics), Mysticism, Nation, Natural philosophy, Natural science, Naturalism (philosophy), Neo-Kantianism, Neoplatonism, Nicolaus Copernicus, Nominalism, Nontrinitarianism, November Uprising, Objectivity (philosophy), Observation, Olsztyn, Optics, Padua, Pantheism, Paris, Partitions of Poland, Pedagogy, Pergamon Press, Peripatetic school, Pharmacy, Phenomenology (philosophy), Philosopher, Philosophy, Physician, Physics, Piarists, Pilzno, Piotr Chmielowski, Piotr Semenenko, Plato, Pleiades, Plutarch, Poet, Poland, Poles, Polish Academy of Learning, Polish Biographical Dictionary, Polish Brethren, Polish language, Polish notation, Polish Philosophical Society, Polish Scientific Publishers PWN, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Politics, Polymath, Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Pope John Paul II, Pope Paul III, Positivism, Poznań, Pragmatism, Prehistory, Proportionality (mathematics), Psychoanalysis, Psychology, Ptolemy, Pythagoreanism, Quantity theory of money, Radiation, Rationalism, Rector (academia), Reform, Renaissance, Renaissance in Poland, Resurrection, Rhetoric, Roger Bacon, Roman Ingarden, Romantic poetry, Romanticism, Rome, Royal elections in Poland, Russia, Salvation, Saxony, Scholasticism, Science, Scientist, Scotism, Scottish common sense realism, Sebastian Petrycy, Sensationalism, Silesia, Simon & Schuster, Social equality, Social science, Society, Society of Jesus, Socinianism, Sociology, Soteriology, Soul, Soviet Union, Speed, Sphere of influence, Spirit, Spiritualism, Stanisław August Poniatowski, Stanisław Brzozowski (writer), Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, Stanisław Konarski, Stanisław Kostka Potocki, Stanisław Leśniewski, Stanisław Leszczyński, Stanisław Staszic, Stefan Błachowski, Stefan Pawlicki, Stoicism, Subjectivity, Switzerland, System, Tadeusz Czacki, Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Terminism, Terminology, The Polish Review, Theatines, Theism, Theology, Theory, Theory of impetus, Thesis, antithesis, synthesis, Thomas Aquinas, Thomas Gresham, Thomas Henry Huxley, Thomism, Thuringia, Transcendence (philosophy), Translation, Truth, Unitarianism, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United States, Universe, University of Bonn, University of California, Berkeley, University of Fribourg, University of Lviv, University of Notre Dame, University of Paris, University of Warsaw, Unmoved mover, Utilitarianism, Vernacular, Victor Cousin, Vilnius, Vilnius University, Violence, Visual perception, Vitello, Vocation, War, Warsaw, Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki, Władysław Heinrich, Władysław II Jagiełło, Władysław Mieczysław Kozłowski, Władysław Tatarkiewicz, Władysław Weryho, Władysław Witwicki, Western Europe, Western philosophy, Wilhelm Dilthey, Wilhelm Wundt, Will (philosophy), Will Durant, William of Ockham, Wincenty Lutosławski, World War I, World War II, Wrocław, Zamość, ZNAK, Zygmunt Krasiński. 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Academic specialization

In academia, specialization (or specialisation) may be a course of study or major at an academic institution or may refer to the field that a specialist practices in.

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Academy

An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary education, higher learning, research, or honorary membership.

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Accuracy and precision

Precision is a description of random errors, a measure of statistical variability.

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Adam Burski

Adam Burski or Bursius (ca. 1560–1611) was a Polish philosopher of the Renaissance period.

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Adam Ignacy Zabellewicz

Adam Ignacy Zabellewicz (1784–1831) was a professor of philosophy at Warsaw University.

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Adam Mahrburg

Adam Mahrburg (1855–1913) was a Polish philosopher—the outstanding philosophical mind of Poland's Positivist period.

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Adam Mickiewicz

Adam Bernard Mickiewicz (24 December 179826 November 1855) was a Polish poet, dramatist, essayist, publicist, translator, professor of Slavic literature, and political activist.

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Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań (Uniwersytet im., Polish abbreviation UAM) is one of the major Polish universities, located in the city of Poznań, Greater Poland, in the west of the country.

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Adam of Łowicz

Adam of Łowicz (also "Adam of Bocheń" and "Adamus Polonus"; born in Bocheń, near Łowicz, Poland; died 7 February 1514, in Kraków, Poland) was a professor of medicine at the University of Krakow, its rector in 1510–1511, a humanist, writer and philosopher.

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Adolf Dygasiński

Adolf Dygasiński (March 7, 1839, Niegosławice–June 3, 1902, Grodzisk Mazowiecki) was a Polish novelist, publicist and educator.

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Aesthetics

Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty.

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Age of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason; in lit in Aufklärung, "Enlightenment", in L’Illuminismo, “Enlightenment” and in Spanish: La Ilustración, "Enlightenment") was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, "The Century of Philosophy".

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Albertus Magnus

Albertus Magnus, O.P. (c. 1200 – November 15, 1280), also known as Saint Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, was a German Catholic Dominican friar and bishop.

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Aleksander Świętochowski

Aleksander Świętochowski (pseudonyms Poseł Prawdy and others; 18 January 1849 – 25 April 1938) was a Polish writer, educator, and philosopher of the Positivist period that followed the January 1863 Uprising.

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Alexander Bain

Alexander Bain (11 June 1818 – 18 September 1903) was a Scottish philosopher and educationalist in the British school of empiricism and a prominent and innovative figure in the fields of psychology, linguistics, logic, moral philosophy and education reform.

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Alfred Tarski

Alfred Tarski (January 14, 1901 – October 26, 1983), born Alfred Teitelbaum,School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews,, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews.

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Alma mater

Alma mater (Latin: "nourishing/kind", "mother"; pl.) is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college.

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Alumnus

An alumnus ((masculine), an alumna ((feminine), or an alumnum ((gender-neutral) of a college, university, or other school is a former student. The word is Latin and simply means student. The plural is alumni for men and mixed groups and alumnae for women. The term is often mistakenly thought of as synonymous with "graduate," but they are not synonyms; one can be an alumnus without graduating. (Burt Reynolds, alumnus but not graduate of Florida State, is an example.) An alumnus can also be a former member, employee, contributor, or inmate.

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Amsterdam

Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Netherlands.

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Analytic philosophy

Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a style of philosophy that became dominant in the Western world at the beginning of the 20th century.

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Anathema

Anathema, in common usage, is something or someone that is detested or shunned.

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Ancient history

Ancient history is the aggregate of past events, "History" from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the post-classical history.

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Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski

Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (Andreas Fricius Modrevius) (ca. September 20, 1503 – autumn, 1572) was a Polish Renaissance scholar, humanist and theologian, called "the father of Polish democracy".

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Andrzej Stanisław Załuski

Andrzej Stanisław Kostka Załuski (December 2, 1695 – December 16, 1758) was a priest (bishop) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Andrzej Towiański

Andrzej Tomasz Towiański (January 1, 1799 – May 13, 1878) was a Polish philosopher and Messianist religious leader.

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Anioł Dowgird

Anioł Dowgird (1776–1835) was a philosopher of Polish Enlightenment.

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Arabic

Arabic (العَرَبِيَّة) or (عَرَبِيّ) or) is a Central Semitic language that first emerged in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living from Mesopotamia in the east to the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, in northwestern Arabia, and in the Sinai peninsula. Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage comprising 30 modern varieties, including its standard form, Modern Standard Arabic, which is derived from Classical Arabic. As the modern written language, Modern Standard Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic (fuṣḥā), which is the official language of 26 states and the liturgical language of Islam. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties, and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-classical era, especially in modern times. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also borrowed many words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages, mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese, Valencian and Catalan, owing to both the proximity of Christian European and Muslim Arab civilizations and 800 years of Arabic culture and language in the Iberian Peninsula, referred to in Arabic as al-Andalus. Sicilian has about 500 Arabic words as result of Sicily being progressively conquered by Arabs from North Africa, from the mid 9th to mid 10th centuries. Many of these words relate to agriculture and related activities (Hull and Ruffino). Balkan languages, including Greek and Bulgarian, have also acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. Some of the most influenced languages are Persian, Turkish, Spanish, Urdu, Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Hindi, Malay, Maldivian, Indonesian, Pashto, Punjabi, Tagalog, Sindhi, and Hausa, and some languages in parts of Africa. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed words from other languages, including Greek and Persian in medieval times, and contemporary European languages such as English and French in modern times. Classical Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.8 billion Muslims and Modern Standard Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script and is written from right to left, although the spoken varieties are sometimes written in ASCII Latin from left to right with no standardized orthography.

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Aristotle

Aristotle (Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs,; 384–322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece.

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Association (psychology)

Association in psychology refers to a mental connection between concepts, events, or mental states that usually stems from specific experiences.

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Astronomical object

An astronomical object or celestial object is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists in the observable universe.

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Atheism

Atheism is, in the broadest sense, the absence of belief in the existence of deities.

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August Cieszkowski

Count August Dołęga Cieszkowski (12 September 1814, Nowa Sucha – 12 March 1894, Oberbrunn) was a Polish philosopher, economist and social and political activist.

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Auguste Comte

Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte (19 January 1798 – 5 September 1857) was a French philosopher who founded the discipline of praxeology and the doctrine of positivism.

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Augustine of Hippo

Saint Augustine of Hippo (13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was a Roman African, early Christian theologian and philosopher from Numidia whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy.

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Augustus III of Poland

Augustus III (August III Sas, Augustas III; 17 October 1696 5 October 1763) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1734 until 1763, as well as Elector of Saxony in the Holy Roman Empire from 1733 until 1763 where he was known as Frederick Augustus II (Friedrich August II).

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Austria

Austria (Österreich), officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich), is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.8 million people in Central Europe.

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Étienne Bonnot de Condillac

Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (30 September 1714 – 3 August 1780) was a French philosopher and epistemologist, who studied in such areas as psychology and the philosophy of the mind.

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Baruch Spinoza

Baruch Spinoza (born Benedito de Espinosa,; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677, later Benedict de Spinoza) was a Dutch philosopher of Sephardi/Portuguese origin.

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Being

Being is the general concept encompassing objective and subjective features of reality and existence.

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Bishop

A bishop (English derivation from the New Testament of the Christian Bible Greek επίσκοπος, epískopos, "overseer", "guardian") is an ordained, consecrated, or appointed member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight.

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Bolesław Prus

Bolesław Prus (pronounced: bɔ'lεswaf 'prus; 20 August 1847 – 19 May 1912), born Aleksander Głowacki, is a leading figure in the history of Polish literature and philosophy and a distinctive voice in world literature.

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Book of Optics

The Book of Optics (Kitāb al-Manāẓir; Latin: De Aspectibus or Perspectiva; Italian: Deli Aspecti) is a seven-volume treatise on optics and other fields of study composed by the medieval Arab scholar Ibn al-Haytham, known in the West as Alhazen or Alhacen (965– c. 1040 AD).

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Bronisław Trentowski

Bronisław Ferdynand Trentowski (21 January 1808 in Opole – 16 June 1869) was a Polish "Messianist" philosopher, pedagogist, journalist and Freemason, and the chief representative of the Polish Messianist "national philosophy.""Trentowski, Bronisław Ferdynand," Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN, vol.

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Catholic Church

The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.299 billion members worldwide.

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Charles Darwin

Charles Robert Darwin, (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.

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Chemistry

Chemistry is the scientific discipline involved with compounds composed of atoms, i.e. elements, and molecules, i.e. combinations of atoms: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other compounds.

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Christian Wolff (philosopher)

Christian Wolff (less correctly Wolf,; also known as Wolfius; ennobled as Christian Freiherr von Wolff; 24 January 1679 – 9 April 1754) was a German philosopher.

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Christopher Kasparek

Christopher Kasparek (born 1945) is a Scottish-born writer of Polish descent who has translated works by numerous authors, including Ignacy Krasicki, Bolesław Prus, Florian Znaniecki, Władysław Tatarkiewicz, Marian Rejewski, and Władysław Kozaczuk, as well as the Polish-Lithuanian Constitution of 3 May 1791.

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Cicero

Marcus Tullius Cicero (3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, orator, lawyer and philosopher, who served as consul in the year 63 BC.

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Civilization

A civilization or civilisation (see English spelling differences) is any complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification imposed by a cultural elite, symbolic systems of communication (for example, writing systems), and a perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment.

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Cologne

Cologne (Köln,, Kölle) is the largest city in the German federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth most populated city in Germany (after Berlin, Hamburg, and Munich).

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Color

Color (American English) or colour (Commonwealth English) is the characteristic of human visual perception described through color categories, with names such as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, or purple.

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Commission of National Education

The Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, abbreviated KEN, Edukacinė komisija, Адукацыйная камісія) was the central educational authority in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created by the Sejm and the King Stanisław August Poniatowski on October 14, 1773.

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Common sense

Common sense is sound practical judgment concerning everyday matters, or a basic ability to perceive, understand, and judge that is shared by ("common to") nearly all people.

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Communism

In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal") is the philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money and the state.

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Compromise

To compromise is to make a deal between different parties where each party gives up part of their demand.

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Concept

Concepts are mental representations, abstract objects or abilities that make up the fundamental building blocks of thoughts and beliefs.

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Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna (Wiener Kongress) also called Vienna Congress, was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814.

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Congress Poland

The Kingdom of Poland, informally known as Congress Poland or Russian Poland, was created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a sovereign state of the Russian part of Poland connected by personal union with the Russian Empire under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland until 1832.

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Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great (Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus; Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Μέγας; 27 February 272 ADBirth dates vary but most modern historians use 272". Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59. – 22 May 337 AD), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was a Roman Emperor of Illyrian and Greek origin from 306 to 337 AD.

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Continental philosophy

Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe.

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Contradiction

In classical logic, a contradiction consists of a logical incompatibility between two or more propositions.

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Conventionalism

Conventionalism is the philosophical attitude that fundamental principles of a certain kind are grounded on (explicit or implicit) agreements in society, rather than on external reality.

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Counter-Reformation

The Counter-Reformation, also called the Catholic Reformation or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, beginning with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War (1648).

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Critique

Critique is a method of disciplined, systematic study of a written or oral discourse.

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Culture

Culture is the social behavior and norms found in human societies.

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Czechs

The Czechs (Češi,; singular masculine: Čech, singular feminine: Češka) or the Czech people (Český národ), are a West Slavic ethnic group and a nation native to the Czech Republic in Central Europe, who share a common ancestry, culture, history and Czech language.

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Czesław Znamierowski

Czesław Znamierowski (1888–1967) was a Polish philosopher, jurist and sociologist.

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Dante Alighieri

Durante degli Alighieri, commonly known as Dante Alighieri or simply Dante (c. 1265 – 1321), was a major Italian poet of the Late Middle Ages.

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Deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, logical deduction is the process of reasoning from one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion.

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Deism

Deism (or; derived from Latin "deus" meaning "god") is a philosophical belief that posits that God exists and is ultimately responsible for the creation of the universe, but does not interfere directly with the created world.

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Democracy

Democracy (δημοκρατία dēmokraa thetía, literally "rule by people"), in modern usage, has three senses all for a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting.

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Determinism

Determinism is the philosophical theory that all events, including moral choices, are completely determined by previously existing causes.

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Dissenter

A dissenter (from the Latin dissentire, "to disagree") is one who disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, etc.

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Dominican Order

The Order of Preachers (Ordo Praedicatorum, postnominal abbreviation OP), also known as the Dominican Order, is a mendicant Catholic religious order founded by the Spanish priest Dominic of Caleruega in France, approved by Pope Honorius III via the Papal bull Religiosam vitam on 22 December 1216.

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Dominik Szulc

Dominik Szulc (June 10, 1787 – December 27, 1860) was a Polish philosopher, historian, and a significant precursor to Polish positivism.

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Duchy of Warsaw

The Duchy of Warsaw (Księstwo Warszawskie, Duché de Varsovie, Herzogtum Warschau) was a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit.

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Dugald Stewart

Dugald Stewart (22 November 175311 June 1828) was a Scottish philosopher and mathematician.

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Eclecticism

Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories in particular cases.

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Economics

Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

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Economy

An economy (from Greek οίκος – "household" and νέμoμαι – "manage") is an area of the production, distribution, or trade, and consumption of goods and services by different agents.

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Edinburgh

Edinburgh (Dùn Èideann; Edinburgh) is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 council areas.

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Edmund Husserl

Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (or;; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938) was a German philosopher who established the school of phenomenology.

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Edward Abramowski

Edward Abramowski (17 August 1868 – 21 June 1918) was a Polish philosopher, libertarian socialist, anarchist, psychologist, ethician, and supporter of cooperatives.

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Edward Dembowski

Edward Dembowski (25 April or 31 May 1822 – 27 February 1846) was a Polish philosopher, literary critic, journalist, and leftist independence activist.

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Emanationism

Emanationism is an idea in the cosmology or cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems.

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Empirical evidence

Empirical evidence, also known as sensory experience, is the information received by means of the senses, particularly by observation and documentation of patterns and behavior through experimentation.

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Empiricism

In philosophy, empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience.

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Encyclopédistes

The Encyclopédistes were members of the Société des gens de lettres, a French writer's society, who contributed to the development of the Encyclopédie from June 1751 to December 1765 under editors Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert.

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Encyklopedia Polski

Encyklopedia Polski (Encyclopedia of Poland) is a Polish-language encyclopedia of Polish history and culture.

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England

England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom.

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Enlightenment in Poland

The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment in Poland were developed later than in Western Europe, as the Polish bourgeoisie was weaker, and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Liberty) were in deep crisis.

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Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge.

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Ethics

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.

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Europe

Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere.

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Exile

To be in exile means to be away from one's home (i.e. city, state, or country), while either being explicitly refused permission to return or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return.

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Experiment

An experiment is a procedure carried out to support, refute, or validate a hypothesis.

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Feeling

Feeling is the nominalization of the verb to feel.

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Feliks Jaroński

Feliks Jaroński (6 June 1777 – 26 December 1827) was a Polish Catholic priest and philosopher.

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Florence

Florence (Firenze) is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany.

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Florian Znaniecki

Florian Witold Znaniecki (15 January 1882 – 23 March 1958) was a Polish philosopher and sociologist who taught and wrote in Poland and in the United States.

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Force

In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object.

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France

France, officially the French Republic (République française), is a sovereign state whose territory consists of metropolitan France in Western Europe, as well as several overseas regions and territories.

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Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, (22 January 15619 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author.

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Franciscans

The Franciscans are a group of related mendicant religious orders within the Catholic Church, founded in 1209 by Saint Francis of Assisi.

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Franciszek Krupiński

Franciszek Salezy Krupiński (January 22, 1836, Łukowie near Siedlce–August 16, 1898, Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher.

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Franz Brentano

Franz Clemens Honoratus Hermann Brentano (16 January 1838 – 17 March 1917) was an influential German philosopher, psychologist, and priest whose work strongly influenced not only students Edmund Husserl, Sigmund Freud, Tomáš Masaryk, Rudolf Steiner, Alexius Meinong, Carl Stumpf, Anton Marty, Kazimierz Twardowski, and Christian von Ehrenfels, but many others whose work would follow and make use of his original ideas and concepts.

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Free Polish University

Free Polish University (Wolna Wszechnica Polska), founded in 1918 in Warsaw, was a private high school with different departments: mathematics and natural sciences, humanities, political sciences and social pedagogy.

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Freethought

Freethought (or "free thought") is a philosophical viewpoint which holds that positions regarding truth should be formed on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism, rather than authority, tradition, revelation, or dogma.

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Friedrich Albert Lange

Friedrich Albert Lange (28 September 1828 – 23 November 1875) was a German philosopher and sociologist.

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Galicia (Eastern Europe)

Galicia (Ukrainian and Галичина, Halyčyna; Galicja; Czech and Halič; Galizien; Galícia/Kaliz/Gácsország/Halics; Galiția/Halici; Галиция, Galicija; גאַליציע Galitsiye) is a historical and geographic region in Central Europe once a small Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia and later a crown land of Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, that straddled the modern-day border between Poland and Ukraine.

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Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564Drake (1978, p. 1). The date of Galileo's birth is given according to the Julian calendar, which was then in force throughout Christendom. In 1582 it was replaced in Italy and several other Catholic countries with the Gregorian calendar. Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according to the Gregorian calendar. – 8 January 1642) was an Italian polymath.

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Geometry

Geometry (from the γεωμετρία; geo- "earth", -metron "measurement") is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space.

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Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher and the most important figure of German idealism.

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Germany

Germany (Deutschland), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland), is a sovereign state in central-western Europe.

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God

In monotheistic thought, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and the principal object of faith.

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Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz (or; Leibnitz; – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath and philosopher who occupies a prominent place in the history of mathematics and the history of philosophy.

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Government

A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state.

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Grammar

In linguistics, grammar (from Greek: γραμματική) is the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language.

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Great Britain

Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe.

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Greater Poland

Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (Großpolen; Latin: Polonia Maior), is a historical region of west-central Poland.

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Gresham's law

In economics, Gresham's law is a monetary principle stating that "bad money drives out good".

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Grudziądz

Grudziądz (Graudenz, Graudentum or Graudentium or Grudentia); the form Grudentia is used by, e.g., A. Lentz, Philologus 23 (1866), p. 175.

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Grzegorz of Stawiszyn

Grzegorz of Stawiszyn (Grzegorz ze Stawiszyna; 1481–1540), was a Polish philosopher and theologian of the mid 16th century, Rector of the University of Krakow in the years 1538-1540.

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Harald Høffding

Harald Høffding (11 March 1843 – 2 July 1931) was a Danish philosopher and theologian.

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Heinrich Rickert

Heinrich John Rickert (25 May 1863 – 25 July 1936) was a German philosopher, one of the leading Neo-Kantians.

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Heliocentrism

Heliocentrism is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the Solar System.

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Henri Bergson

Henri-Louis Bergson (18 October 1859 – 4 January 1941) was a French-Jewish philosopher who was influential in the tradition of continental philosophy, especially during the first half of the 20th century until World War II.

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Henri Poincaré

Jules Henri Poincaré (29 April 1854 – 17 July 1912) was a French mathematician, theoretical physicist, engineer, and philosopher of science.

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Henry Thomas Buckle

Henry Thomas Buckle (24 November 1821 – 29 May 1862) was an English historian, the author of an unfinished History of Civilization, and a strong amateur chess player.

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Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era.

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Hermann von Helmholtz

Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (August 31, 1821 – September 8, 1894) was a German physician and physicist who made significant contributions in several scientific fields.

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Hierarchy

A hierarchy (from the Greek hierarchia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "leader of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally.

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Higher education

Higher education (also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education) is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education.

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Hippolyte Taine

Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (21 April 1828 – 5 March 1893) was a French critic and historian.

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History

History (from Greek ἱστορία, historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation") is the study of the past as it is described in written documents.

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Honorary degree

An honorary degree, in Latin a degree honoris causa ("for the sake of the honor") or ad honorem ("to the honor"), is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived the usual requirements, such as matriculation, residence, a dissertation and the passing of comprehensive examinations.

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House of Medici

The House of Medici was an Italian banking family and political dynasty that first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de' Medici in the Republic of Florence during the first half of the 15th century.

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Hugo Kołłątaj

Hugo Stumberg Kołłątaj, alt.

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Humanism

Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism and empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition.

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Ibn al-Haytham

Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized Alhazen; full name أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم) was an Arab mathematician, astronomer, and physicist of the Islamic Golden Age.

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Idealism

In philosophy, idealism is the group of metaphysical philosophies that assert that reality, or reality as humans can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial.

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Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher who is a central figure in modern philosophy.

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Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning (as opposed to ''deductive'' reasoning or ''abductive'' reasoning) is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for the truth of the conclusion.

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Internetowa encyklopedia PWN

Internetowa encyklopedia PWN (Polish for Internet PWN Encyclopedia) is a free online Polish-language encyclopedia published by Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

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Interwar period

In the context of the history of the 20th century, the interwar period was the period between the end of the First World War in November 1918 and the beginning of the Second World War in September 1939.

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Invasion

An invasion is a military offensive in which large parts of combatants of one geopolitical entity aggressively enter territory controlled by another such entity, generally with the objective of either conquering; liberating or re-establishing control or authority over a territory; forcing the partition of a country; altering the established government or gaining concessions from said government; or a combination thereof.

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Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27) was an English mathematician, astronomer, theologian, author and physicist (described in his own day as a "natural philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time, and a key figure in the scientific revolution.

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Italy

Italy (Italia), officially the Italian Republic (Repubblica Italiana), is a sovereign state in Europe.

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Ivan Śleszyński

Ivan SleshinskyAndrew Schumann.

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Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples

Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples or Jacobus Faber Stapulensis (c. 1455 – 1536) was a French theologian and humanist.

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Jagiellonian University

The Jagiellonian University (Polish: Uniwersytet Jagielloński; Latin: Universitas Iagellonica Cracoviensis, also known as the University of Kraków) is a research university in Kraków, Poland.

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Jakub Górski

Jakub Górski (c. 1525 – 1583) was a Polish Renaissance philosopher.

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Jakub of Gostynin

Jakub of Gostynin (Jakub z Gostynina; ca. 1454 – 16 February 1506, Kraków) was a Polish philosopher and theologian of the late 15th century, and Rector of the University of Krakow in 1503–4.

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Jan Łukasiewicz

Jan Łukasiewicz (21 December 1878 – 13 February 1956) was a Polish logician and philosopher born in Lwów, a city in the Galician kingdom of Austria-Hungary.

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Jan Śniadecki

Jan Śniadecki (29 August 1756 – 9 November 1830) was a Polish mathematician, philosopher and astronomer at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries.

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Jan of Stobnica

Jan of Stobnica (ca. 1470 - 1530), was a Polish philosopher, scientist and geographer of the early 16th century.

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Jan Szylling

Jan Szylling (fl. c. 1500) was a Polish Scholastic philosopher.

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Jan Woleński

Jan Hertrich-Woleński (also known as Jan Woleński; born 21 September 1940) is a Polish philosopher specializing in the history of the Lwów–Warsaw school of logic and in analytic philosophy.

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January Uprising

The January Uprising (Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m. sukilimas, Belarusian: Паўстанне 1863-1864 гадоў, Польське повстання) was an insurrection instigated principally in the Russian Partition of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against its occupation by the Russian Empire.

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Józef Emanuel Jankowski

Józef Emanuel Jankowski (1790–1847) was a professor of philosophy at Kraków University.

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Józef Gołuchowski

Józef Gołuchowski (1797–1858) was a Polish philosopher.

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Józef Kalasanty Szaniawski

Józef Kalasanty Szaniawski (1764 in Kalwaria Zebrzydowska – 16 May 1843 in Lwów) was a Polish philosopher and politician.

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Józef Kasparek

Józef Kasparek (1915–2002) was a Polish lawyer, historian and political scientist.

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Józef Kremer

Józef Kremer (February 22, 1806, Kraków - June 2, 1875 Kraków), was a Polish historian of art, a philosopher, an aesthetician and a psychologist.

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Józef Maria Bocheński

Józef Maria Bocheński (Czuszów, Congress Poland, Russian Empire, 30 August 1902 – 8 February 1995, Fribourg, Switzerland) was a Polish Dominican, logician and philosopher.

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Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński

Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński (Josef Hoëné-Wronski,; 23 August 1776 – 9 August 1853) was a Polish Messianist philosopher, mathematician, physicist, inventor, lawyer, and economist.

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Józef Supiński

Józef Supiński (village of Romanów, near Lwów, 21 February 1804 – 16 February 1893, Lwów) was a Polish philosopher, jurist, economist and sociologist.

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Jędrzej Śniadecki

Jędrzej Śniadecki (archaic; 30 November 1768 – 12 May 1838) was a Polish writer, physician, chemist and biologist.

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Jean Buridan

Jean Buridan (Latin: Johannes Buridanus; –) was an influential 14th century French philosopher.

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Jean le Rond d'Alembert

Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert (16 November 1717 – 29 October 1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist.

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer and composer.

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Johannes Peter Müller

Johannes Peter Müller (14 July 1801 – 28 April 1858) was a German physiologist, comparative anatomist, ichthyologist, and herpetologist, known not only for his discoveries but also for his ability to synthesize knowledge.

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John Amos Comenius

John Amos Comenius (Jan Amos Komenský; Johann Amos Comenius; Latinized: Ioannes Amos Comenius; 28 March 1592 – 15 November 1670) was a Czech philosopher, pedagogue and theologian from the Margraviate of Moravia"Clamores Eliae" he dedicated "To my lovely mother, Moravia, one of her faithful son...". Clamores Eliae, p.69, Kastellaun/Hunsrück: A. Henn, 1977.

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John Cantius

Saint John Cantius (Joannis Cantii, Jan z Kęt or Jan Kanty; 23 June 1390 – 24 December 1473) was a Polish priest, scholastic philosopher, physicist and theologian.

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John Jonston

John Jonston (in Polish, Jan Jonston; in Latin, Joannes Jonstonus; Szamotuły, 15 September 1603 – 1675, Legnica) was a Polish scholar and physician, descended from Scottish nobility and closely associated with the Polish magnate family of the Leszczyńskis.

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John Locke

John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism".

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John of Głogów

John of Głogów (Jan z Głogowa, Jan Głogowczyk; Johann von Schelling von Glogau) (c. 1445 – 11 February 1507) was a notable polyhistor at the turn of the Middle Ages and Renaissance—a philosopher, geographer and astronomer at the University of Krakow.

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John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill, also known as J.S. Mill, (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) was a British philosopher, political economist, and civil servant.

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Journalist

A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information to the public.

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Julian Ochorowicz

Julian Leopold Ochorowicz (outside Poland also known as Julien Ochorowitz; Radzymin, 23 February 1850 – 1 May 1917, Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher, psychologist, inventor (precursor of radio and television), poet, publicist, and leading exponent of Polish Positivism.

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Juliusz Słowacki

Juliusz Słowacki (23 August 1809 – 3 April 1849) was a Polish Romantic poet.

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Kantianism

Kantianism is the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher born in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia).

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Karol Libelt

Karol Libelt (8 April 1807, Chwaliszewo, Poznań, Duchy of Warsaw - 9 June 1875, Brdowo) was a Polish philosopher, writer, political and social activist, social worker and liberal, nationalist politician, president of the PTPN.

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Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz

Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz (12 December 1890 – 12 April 1963) was a Polish philosopher and logician, a prominent figure in the Lwów–Warsaw school of logic.

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Kazimierz Łyszczyński

Coat of Arms of Kazimierz Łyszczyński Kazimierz Łyszczyński (Born on March 4, 1634 in Łyszczyce (today Belarus) – March 30, 1689 in Warsaw, Poland), also known in English as Casimir Liszinski, was a Polish-Lithuanian nobleman, landowner in Brest Litovsk Voivodeship of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, philosopher, and soldier in the ranks of the Sapieha family, who was accused, tried, and executed for atheism in 1689.

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Kazimierz Kuratowski

Kazimierz Kuratowski (Polish pronunciation:, 2 February 1896 – 18 June 1980) was a Polish mathematician and logician.

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Kazimierz Twardowski

Kazimierz Jerzy Skrzypna-Twardowski (20 October 1866 – 11 February 1938) was a Polish philosopher, logician, and rector of the Lviv University.

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Königsberg

Königsberg is the name for a former German city that is now Kaliningrad, Russia.

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Konstanty Michalski

Konstanty Michalski (1879–1947) was a Polish Catholic theologian and philosopher.

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Kraków

Kraków, also spelled Cracow or Krakow, is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland.

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Kremenets

Kremenets (Крем'янець, Кременець, translit. Kremianets', Kremenets'; Krzemieniec; Kremenits) is a city of regional significance in the Ternopil Oblast (province) of western Ukraine.

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Krystyn Lach-Szyrma

Krystyn Lach Szyrma (17 December 1790 – 21 April 1866, Devonport, Devon) was a professor of philosophy at Warsaw University.

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Latin

Latin (Latin: lingua latīna) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages.

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Law

Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior.

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Learned society

A learned society (also known as a learned academy, scholarly society, or academic association) is an organisation that exists to promote an academic discipline, profession, or a group of related disciplines such as the arts.

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Leipzig University

Leipzig University (Universität Leipzig), in Leipzig in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, is one of the world's oldest universities and the second-oldest university (by consecutive years of existence) in Germany.

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Leon Chwistek

Leon Chwistek (Kraków, Austria-Hungary, 13 June 1884 – 20 August 1944, Barvikha near Moscow, Russia) was a Polish avant-garde painter, theoretician of modern art, literary critic, logician, philosopher and mathematician.

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Leon Petrazycki

Leon Petrazycki (Polish: Leon Petrażycki; Russian: Лев Иосифович Петражицкий Lev Iosifovich Petrazhitsky; 13 April 1867 in Vitebsk Governorate15 May 1931 in Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher, legal scholar and sociologist.

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Leszczyński

Leszczyński (plural: Leszczyńscy, feminine form: Leszczyńska) was a prominent Polish noble family.

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Leszek Kołakowski

Leszek Kołakowski (23 October 1927 – 17 July 2009) was a Polish philosopher and historian of ideas.

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Leszno

Leszno (Lissa, between 1800 and 1918 also called Polnisch Lissa or Lissa in Posen) is a town in western Poland with 64,612 inhabitants (2014).

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Light

Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of language, and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context.

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Literature

Literature, most generically, is any body of written works.

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Logic

Logic (from the logikḗ), originally meaning "the word" or "what is spoken", but coming to mean "thought" or "reason", is a subject concerned with the most general laws of truth, and is now generally held to consist of the systematic study of the form of valid inference.

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Logical positivism

Logical positivism and logical empiricism, which together formed neopositivism, was a movement in Western philosophy whose central thesis was verificationism, a theory of knowledge which asserted that only statements verifiable through empirical observation are cognitively meaningful.

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Lorenz Christoph Mizler

Lorenz Christoph Mizler von Kolof (also known as Wawrzyniec Mitzler de Kolof and Mitzler de Koloff; 26 July 1711 – 8 May 1778) was a German physician, historian, printer, mathematician, Baroque music composer, and precursor of the Polish Enlightenment.

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Lviv

Lviv (Львів; Львов; Lwów; Lemberg; Leopolis; see also other names) is the largest city in western Ukraine and the seventh-largest city in the country overall, with a population of around 728,350 as of 2016.

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Lwów–Warsaw school

The Lwów–Warsaw school (Szkoła lwowsko-warszawska) was a Polish school of thought founded by Kazimierz Twardowski in 1895 in Lwów.

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Lyceum

The lyceum is a category of educational institution defined within the education system of many countries, mainly in Europe.

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Many-valued logic

In logic, a many-valued logic (also multi- or multiple-valued logic) is a propositional calculus in which there are more than two truth values.

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Marek Siemek

Marek Jan Siemek (November 27, 1942 – May 30, 2011) was a Polish philosopher and historian of German transcendental philosophy (German idealism).

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Maria Curie-Skłodowska University

Maria Curie-Skłodowska University (Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, UMCS) was founded October 23, 1944 in Lublin.

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Marian Massonius

Piotr Marian Massonius (1 February 1862 in Kursk, Russian Empire – 20 July 1945 in Vilnius (Wilno), prewar Second Polish Republic) was a Polish philosopher and teacher who was born into a family of expatriates during the Partitions of Poland.

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Marquis de Condorcet

Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis of Condorcet (17 September 1743 – 29 March 1794), known as Nicolas de Condorcet, was a French philosopher, mathematician, and early political scientist whose Condorcet method in voting tally selects the candidate who would beat each of the other candidates in a run-off election.

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Marsilio Ficino

Marsilio Ficino (Latin name: Marsilius Ficinus; 19 October 1433 – 1 October 1499) was an Italian scholar and Catholic priest who was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance.

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Marxism

Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that views class relations and social conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development and takes a dialectical view of social transformation.

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Marxist philosophy

Marxist philosophy or Marxist theory are works in philosophy that are strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory, or works written by Marxists.

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Mathematical logic

Mathematical logic is a subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of formal logic to mathematics.

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Matter

In the classical physics observed in everyday life, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume.

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Maximalism

In the arts, maximalism, a reaction against minimalism, is an esthetic of excess and redundancy.

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Medieval philosophy

Medieval philosophy is the philosophy in the era now known as medieval or the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century A.D. to the Renaissance in the 16th century.

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Medieval studies

Medieval studies is the academic interdisciplinary study of the Middle Ages.

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Medievalism

Medievalism is the system of belief and practice characteristic of the Middle Ages, or devotion to elements of that period, which has been expressed in areas such as architecture, literature, music, art, philosophy, scholarship, and various vehicles of popular culture.

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Messiah

In Abrahamic religions, the messiah or messias is a saviour or liberator of a group of people.

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Messianism

In Abrahamic religions, Messianism is the belief and doctrine that is centered on the advent of the messiah, who acts as the chosen savior and leader of humanity by God.

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Metaphysics

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of being, existence, and reality.

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Methodology

Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study.

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Michał Falkener

Michael Falkener, Michał z Wrocławia, Michał Wrocławczyk, Michael de Wratislava, Michael Vratislaviensis (ca. 1450 or 1460 in Wrocław – 1534) was a Polish Scholastic philosopher, astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, theologian, philologist, and professor of the Kraków Academy.

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Michał Twaróg of Bystrzyków

Michał Twaróg of Bystrzyków ('Michał Twaróg z Bystrzykowa'; Michael vulgo Parisiensis de Majori Bystrzyków) (ca. 1450–1520) was a Polish philosopher and theologian of the early 16th century.

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Michał Wiszniewski

Michał Wiszniewski (1794–1865) was a Polish philosopher, psychologist, and literary historian.

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Middle Ages

In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages (or Medieval Period) lasted from the 5th to the 15th century.

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Modern language

A modern language is any human language that is currently in use.

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Monarch

A monarch is a sovereign head of state in a monarchy.

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Monarchy

A monarchy is a form of government in which a group, generally a family representing a dynasty (aristocracy), embodies the country's national identity and its head, the monarch, exercises the role of sovereignty.

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Motion (physics)

In physics, motion is a change in position of an object over time.

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Mysticism

Mysticism is the practice of religious ecstasies (religious experiences during alternate states of consciousness), together with whatever ideologies, ethics, rites, myths, legends, and magic may be related to them.

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Nation

A nation is a stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, ethnicity or psychological make-up manifested in a common culture.

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Natural philosophy

Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin philosophia naturalis) was the philosophical study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science.

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Natural science

Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.

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Naturalism (philosophy)

In philosophy, naturalism is the "idea or belief that only natural (as opposed to supernatural or spiritual) laws and forces operate in the world." Adherents of naturalism (i.e., naturalists) assert that natural laws are the rules that govern the structure and behavior of the natural universe, that the changing universe at every stage is a product of these laws.

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Neo-Kantianism

Neo-Kantianism (Neukantianismus) is a revival of the 18th century philosophy of Immanuel Kant.

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Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism is a term used to designate a strand of Platonic philosophy that began with Plotinus in the third century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion.

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Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik; Nikolaus Kopernikus; Niklas Koppernigk; 19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe, likely independently of Aristarchus of Samos, who had formulated such a model some eighteen centuries earlier.

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Nominalism

In metaphysics, nominalism is a philosophical view which denies the existence of universals and abstract objects, but affirms the existence of general or abstract terms and predicates.

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Nontrinitarianism

Nontrinitarianism is a form of Christianity that rejects the mainstream Christian doctrine of the Trinity—the teaching that God is three distinct hypostases or persons who are coeternal, coequal, and indivisibly united in one being, or essence (from the Greek ousia).

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November Uprising

The November Uprising (1830–31), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire.

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Objectivity (philosophy)

Objectivity is a central philosophical concept, objective means being independent of the perceptions thus objectivity means the property of being independent from the perceptions, which has been variously defined by sources.

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Observation

Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source.

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Olsztyn

Olsztyn (Allenstein; Old Polish: Holstin; Old Prussian: Alnāsteini or Alnestabs; Alnaštynas, Alnštynas, Alštynas (historical) and Olštynas (modern)) is a city on the Łyna River in northeastern Poland.

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Optics

Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.

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Padua

Padua (Padova; Pàdova) is a city and comune in Veneto, northern Italy.

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Pantheism

Pantheism is the belief that reality is identical with divinity, or that all-things compose an all-encompassing, immanent god.

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Paris

Paris is the capital and most populous city of France, with an area of and a population of 2,206,488.

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Partitions of Poland

The Partitions of Poland were three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 123 years.

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Pedagogy

Pedagogy is the discipline that deals with the theory and practice of teaching and how these influence student learning.

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Pergamon Press

Pergamon Press was an Oxford-based publishing house, founded by Paul Rosbaud and Robert Maxwell, which published scientific and medical books and journals.

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Peripatetic school

The Peripatetic school was a school of philosophy in Ancient Greece.

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Pharmacy

Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing and dispensing drugs.

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Phenomenology (philosophy)

Phenomenology (from Greek phainómenon "that which appears" and lógos "study") is the philosophical study of the structures of experience and consciousness.

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Philosopher

A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy, which involves rational inquiry into areas that are outside either theology or science.

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Philosophy

Philosophy (from Greek φιλοσοφία, philosophia, literally "love of wisdom") is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.

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Physician

A physician, medical practitioner, medical doctor, or simply doctor is a professional who practises medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining, or restoring health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury, and other physical and mental impairments.

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Physics

Physics (from knowledge of nature, from φύσις phýsis "nature") is the natural science that studies matterAt the start of The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Richard Feynman offers the atomic hypothesis as the single most prolific scientific concept: "If, in some cataclysm, all scientific knowledge were to be destroyed one sentence what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another..." and its motion and behavior through space and time and that studies the related entities of energy and force."Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events." Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, and its main goal is to understand how the universe behaves."Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Scientists of all disciplines use the ideas of physics, including chemists who study the structure of molecules, paleontologists who try to reconstruct how dinosaurs walked, and climatologists who study how human activities affect the atmosphere and oceans. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and technology. No engineer could design a flat-screen TV, an interplanetary spacecraft, or even a better mousetrap without first understanding the basic laws of physics. (...) You will come to see physics as a towering achievement of the human intellect in its quest to understand our world and ourselves."Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns that relate these phenomena.""Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you." Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through its inclusion of astronomy, perhaps the oldest. Over the last two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were a part of natural philosophy, but during the scientific revolution in the 17th century, these natural sciences emerged as unique research endeavors in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences and suggest new avenues of research in academic disciplines such as mathematics and philosophy. Advances in physics often enable advances in new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism and nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.

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Piarists

The Order of Poor Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of the Pious Schools (Ordo Clericorum Regularium pauperum Matris Dei Scholarum Piarum, Sch. P. or S. P.) or, in short, Piarists, is the oldest Catholic educational order, also known as the Scolopi, Escolapios or Poor Clerics of the Mother of God (in both cases clerics can also become clerks, from the same etymology).

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Pilzno

Pilzno is a town in Poland, in Subcarpathian Voivodeship, in Dębica County.

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Piotr Chmielowski

Piotr Chmielowski (9 February 1848 in Zawadyn'ci, Volhynia – 22 April 1904 in Lwów) was a Polish philosopher, literary historian and critic.

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Piotr Semenenko

Piotr Semenenko (June 29, 1814 - November 18, 1886) was a leading Polish theologian of the Roman Catholic Church in the 19th century.

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Plato

Plato (Πλάτων Plátōn, in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.

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Pleiades

The Pleiades (also known as the Seven Sisters and Messier 45), are an open star cluster containing middle-aged, hot B-type stars located in the constellation of Taurus.

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Plutarch

Plutarch (Πλούταρχος, Ploútarkhos,; c. CE 46 – CE 120), later named, upon becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, (Λούκιος Μέστριος Πλούταρχος) was a Greek biographer and essayist, known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia.

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Poet

A poet is a person who creates poetry.

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Poland

Poland (Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country located in Central Europe.

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Poles

The Poles (Polacy,; singular masculine: Polak, singular feminine: Polka), commonly referred to as the Polish people, are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Poland in Central Europe who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Polish language.

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Polish Academy of Learning

The Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences or Polish Academy of Learning (Polska Akademia Umiejętności), headquartered in Kraków, is one of two institutions in contemporary Poland having the nature of an academy of sciences.

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Polish Biographical Dictionary

Polski Słownik Biograficzny (PSB; Polish Biographical Dictionary) is a Polish-language biographical dictionary, comprising an alphabetically arranged compilation of authoritative biographies of some 25,000 notable Poles and of foreigners who have been active in Poland – famous as well as less well known persons, from Popiel, Piast Kołodziej and Mieszko I, at the dawn of Polish history, to persons who died in the year 2000.

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Polish Brethren

The Polish Brethren (Polish: Bracia Polscy) were members of the Minor Reformed Church of Poland, a Nontrinitarian Protestant church that existed in Poland from 1565 to 1658.

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Polish language

Polish (język polski or simply polski) is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles.

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Polish notation

Polish notation (PN), also known as normal Polish notation (NPN), Łukasiewicz notation, Warsaw notation, Polish prefix notation or simply prefix notation, is a mathematical notation in which operators precede their operands, in contrast to reverse Polish notation (RPN) in which operators follow their operands.

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Polish Philosophical Society

The Polish Philosophical Society is a scientific society based in Poland, founded in 1904 in Lwów, whose statutory goal is to practice and promote philosophy, especially onthology, theory of knowledge, logic, methodology, ethics, history of philosophy as well as the history of social science.

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Polish Scientific Publishers PWN

Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN; until 1991 Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe - National Scientific Publishers PWN, PWN) is a Polish book publisher, founded in 1951.

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Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, after 1791 the Commonwealth of Poland, was a dualistic state, a bi-confederation of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch, who was both the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania.

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Politics

Politics (from Politiká, meaning "affairs of the cities") is the process of making decisions that apply to members of a group.

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Polymath

A polymath (πολυμαθής,, "having learned much,"The term was first recorded in written English in the early seventeenth century Latin: uomo universalis, "universal man") is a person whose expertise spans a significant number of different subject areas—such a person is known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific problems.

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Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas

The Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas (PUST), also known as the Angelicum in honor of its patron the Doctor Angelicus Thomas Aquinas, is located in the historic center of Rome, Italy.

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Pope John Paul II

Pope John Paul II (Ioannes Paulus II; Giovanni Paolo II; Jan Paweł II; born Karol Józef Wojtyła;; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005) served as Pope and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 1978 to 2005.

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Pope Paul III

Pope Paul III (Paulus III; 29 February 1468 – 10 November 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope from 13 October 1534 to his death in 1549.

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Positivism

Positivism is a philosophical theory stating that certain ("positive") knowledge is based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations.

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Poznań

Poznań (Posen; known also by other historical names) is a city on the Warta River in west-central Poland, in the Greater Poland region.

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Pragmatism

Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870.

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Prehistory

Human prehistory is the period between the use of the first stone tools 3.3 million years ago by hominins and the invention of writing systems.

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Proportionality (mathematics)

In mathematics, two variables are proportional if there is always a constant ratio between them.

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Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques related to the study of the unconscious mind, which together form a method of treatment for mental-health disorders.

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Psychology

Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, including conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought.

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Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemy (Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; Claudius Ptolemaeus) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology.

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Pythagoreanism

Pythagoreanism originated in the 6th century BC, based on the teachings and beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans, who were considerably influenced by mathematics and mysticism.

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Quantity theory of money

In monetary economics, the quantity theory of money (QTM) states that the general price level of goods and services is directly proportional to the amount of money in circulation, or money supply.

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Radiation

In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium.

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Rationalism

In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".

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Rector (academia)

A rector ("ruler", from meaning "ruler") is a senior official in an educational institution, and can refer to an official in either a university or a secondary school.

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Reform

Reform (reformo) means the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc.

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Renaissance

The Renaissance is a period in European history, covering the span between the 14th and 17th centuries.

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Renaissance in Poland

The Renaissance in Poland (Renesans, Odrodzenie; literally: the Rebirth) lasted from the late 15th to the late 16th century and is widely considered to have been the Golden Age of Polish culture.

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Resurrection

Resurrection is the concept of coming back to life after death.

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Rhetoric

Rhetoric is the art of discourse, wherein a writer or speaker strives to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations.

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Roger Bacon

Roger Bacon (Rogerus or Rogerius Baconus, Baconis, also Rogerus), also known by the scholastic accolade Doctor, was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empiricism.

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Roman Ingarden

Roman Witold Ingarden (February 5, 1893 – June 14, 1970) was a Polish philosopher who worked in phenomenology, ontology and aesthetics.

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Romantic poetry

Romantic poetry is the poetry of the Romantic era, an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century.

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Romanticism

Romanticism (also known as the Romantic era) was an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850.

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Rome

Rome (Roma; Roma) is the capital city of Italy and a special comune (named Comune di Roma Capitale).

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Royal elections in Poland

Royal elections in Poland (wolna elekcja, lit. free election) was the election of individual kings, rather than of dynasties, to the Polish throne.

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Russia

Russia (rɐˈsʲijə), officially the Russian Federation (p), is a country in Eurasia. At, Russia is the largest country in the world by area, covering more than one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area, and the ninth most populous, with over 144 million people as of December 2017, excluding Crimea. About 77% of the population live in the western, European part of the country. Russia's capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world; other major cities include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg and Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares land borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both with Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and North Korea. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait. The East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century. In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century. The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland on the west to Alaska on the east. Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the world's first constitutionally socialist state. The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II, and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the world's second largest economy, largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, twelve independent republics emerged from the USSR: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and the Baltic states regained independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality and a successor of the Soviet Union. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic. The Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas globally. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and an active global partner of ASEAN, as well as a member of the G20, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO), as well as being the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), along with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

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Salvation

Salvation (salvatio; sōtēría; yāšaʕ; al-ḵalaṣ) is being saved or protected from harm or being saved or delivered from a dire situation.

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Saxony

The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen; Swobodny stat Sakska) is a landlocked federal state of Germany, bordering the federal states of Brandenburg, Saxony Anhalt, Thuringia, and Bavaria, as well as the countries of Poland (Lower Silesian and Lubusz Voivodeships) and the Czech Republic (Karlovy Vary, Liberec, and Ústí nad Labem Regions).

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Scholasticism

Scholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics ("scholastics", or "schoolmen") of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100 to 1700, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending dogma in an increasingly pluralistic context.

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Science

R. P. Feynman, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.1, Chaps.1,2,&3.

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Scientist

A scientist is a person engaging in a systematic activity to acquire knowledge that describes and predicts the natural world.

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Scotism

Scotism is the name given to the philosophical and theological system or school named after Blessed John Duns Scotus.

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Scottish common sense realism

Scottish Common Sense Realism, also known as the Scottish School of Common Sense, is a school of philosophy that originated in the ideas of Scottish philosophers Thomas Reid, Adam Ferguson, James Beattie, and Dugald Stewart during the 18th century Scottish Enlightenment.

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Sebastian Petrycy

Sebastian Petrycy of Pilzno (1554–1626) was a Polish philosopher and physician.

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Sensationalism

Sensationalism is a type of editorial bias in mass media in which events and topics in news stories and pieces are overhyped to present biased impressions on events, which may cause a manipulation to the truth of a story.

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Silesia

Silesia (Śląsk; Slezsko;; Silesian German: Schläsing; Silesian: Ślůnsk; Šlazyńska; Šleska; Silesia) is a region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany.

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Simon & Schuster

Simon & Schuster, Inc., a subsidiary of CBS Corporation, is an American publishing company founded in New York City in 1924 by Richard Simon and Max Schuster.

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Social equality

Social equality is a state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same status in certain respects, including civil rights, freedom of speech, property rights and equal access to certain social goods and services.

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Social science

Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society.

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Society

A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.

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Society of Jesus

The Society of Jesus (SJ – from Societas Iesu) is a scholarly religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in sixteenth-century Spain.

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Socinianism

Socinianism is a system of Christian doctrine named for Fausto Sozzini (Latin: Faustus Socinus), which was developed among the Polish Brethren in the Minor Reformed Church of Poland during the 16th and 17th centuries and embraced by the Unitarian Church of Transylvania during the same period.

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Sociology

Sociology is the scientific study of society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture.

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Soteriology

Soteriology (σωτηρία "salvation" from σωτήρ "savior, preserver" and λόγος "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation.

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Soul

In many religious, philosophical, and mythological traditions, there is a belief in the incorporeal essence of a living being called the soul. Soul or psyche (Greek: "psychē", of "psychein", "to breathe") are the mental abilities of a living being: reason, character, feeling, consciousness, memory, perception, thinking, etc.

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Soviet Union

The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991.

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Speed

In everyday use and in kinematics, the speed of an object is the magnitude of its velocity (the rate of change of its position); it is thus a scalar quantity.

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Sphere of influence

In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence (SOI) is a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity, accommodating to the interests of powers outside the borders of the state that controls it.

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Spirit

A spirit is a supernatural being, often but not exclusively a non-physical entity; such as a ghost, fairy, or angel.

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Spiritualism

Spiritualism is a new religious movement based on the belief that the spirits of the dead exist and have both the ability and the inclination to communicate with the living.

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Stanisław August Poniatowski

Stanisław II Augustus (also Stanisław August Poniatowski; born Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski; 17 January 1732 – 12 February 1798), who reigned as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1764 to 1795, was the last monarch of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Stanisław Brzozowski (writer)

Stanisław Brzozowski (28 June 1878 – 30 April 1911) was a Polish philosopher, writer, publicist, literary and theatre critic.

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Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz

Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (24 February 188518 September 1939), commonly known as Witkacy, was a Polish writer, painter, philosopher, playwright, novelist, and photographer active in the interwar period.

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Stanisław Konarski

Stanisław Konarski (actual name: Hieronim Konarski; 30 September 1700 – 3 August 1773) was a Polish pedagogue, educational reformer, political writer, poet, dramatist, Piarist priest and precursor of the Enlightenment in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Stanisław Kostka Potocki

Count Stanisław Kostka Potocki (November 1755 – 14 September 1821) was a Polish noble, politician, writer, publicist, collector and patron of art.

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Stanisław Leśniewski

Stanisław Leśniewski (March 30, 1886 – May 13, 1939) was a Polish mathematician, philosopher and logician.

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Stanisław Leszczyński

Stanisław I Leszczyński (also Anglicized and Latinized as Stanislaus I, Stanislovas Leščinskis, Stanislas Leszczynski; 20 October 1677 – 23 February 1766) was King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Duke of Lorraine and a count of the Holy Roman Empire.

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Stanisław Staszic

Stanisław Wawrzyniec Staszic (baptised 6 November 1755 – 20 January 1826) was a leading figure in the Polish Enlightenment: a Catholic priest, philosopher, geologist, writer, poet, translator and statesman.

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Stefan Błachowski

Stefan Błachowski (Opawa, 19 May 1889 – 31 January 1962, Warsaw, Poland) was a Polish psychologist and professor at Poznań University.

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Stefan Pawlicki

Stefan Zachariasz Pawlicki (2 September 1839, Danzig (Gdańsk) – 28 April 1916, Kraków) was a Polish Catholic priest, philosopher, historian of philosophy, professor and rector of Kraków's Jagiellonian University.

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Stoicism

Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC.

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Subjectivity

Subjectivity is a central philosophical concept, related to consciousness, agency, personhood, reality, and truth, which has been variously defined by sources.

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Switzerland

Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a sovereign state in Europe.

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System

A system is a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming an integrated whole.

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Tadeusz Czacki

Tadeusz Czacki (28 August 1765 in Poryck, Volhynia – 8 February 1813 in Dubno) was a Polish historian, pedagogue and numismatist.

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Tadeusz Kotarbiński

Tadeusz Kotarbiński (31 March 1886 – 3 October 1981), was a Polish philosopher, logician and ethicist.

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Terminism

Terminism is the Christian doctrine that there is a time limit for repentance from sin, after which God no longer wills the conversion and salvation of that person.

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Terminology

Terminology is the study of terms and their use.

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The Polish Review

The Polish Review is an English-language academic journal published quarterly in New York City by the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America.

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Theatines

The Theatines or the Congregation of Clerics Regular of the Divine Providence are a religious order of the Catholic Church, with the post-nominal initials "C.R.".

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Theism

Theism is broadly defined as the belief in the existence of the Supreme Being or deities.

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Theology

Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine.

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Theory

A theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking, or the results of such thinking.

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Theory of impetus

The theory of impetus was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity.

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Thesis, antithesis, synthesis

The triad thesis, antithesis, synthesis (These, Antithese, Synthese; originally: Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis) is often used to describe the thought of German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.

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Thomas Aquinas

Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church.

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Thomas Gresham

Sir Thomas Gresham the Elder (c. 1519 – 21 November 1579), was an English merchant and financier who acted on behalf of King Edward VI (1547–1553) and Edward's half-sisters, queens Mary I (1553–1558) and Elizabeth I (1558–1603).

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Thomas Henry Huxley

Thomas Henry Huxley (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English biologist specialising in comparative anatomy.

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Thomism

Thomism is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), philosopher, theologian, and Doctor of the Church.

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Thuringia

The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen) is a federal state in central Germany.

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Transcendence (philosophy)

In philosophy, transcendence conveys the basic ground concept from the word's literal meaning (from Latin), of climbing or going beyond, albeit with varying connotations in its different historical and cultural stages.

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Translation

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.

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Truth

Truth is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard.

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Unitarianism

Unitarianism (from Latin unitas "unity, oneness", from unus "one") is historically a Christian theological movement named for its belief that the God in Christianity is one entity, as opposed to the Trinity (tri- from Latin tres "three") which defines God as three persons in one being; the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

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United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland.

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United States

The United States of America (USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a federal republic composed of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories, and various possessions.

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Universe

The Universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy.

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University of Bonn

The University of Bonn (Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn) is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany.

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University of California, Berkeley

The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California) is a public research university in Berkeley, California.

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University of Fribourg

The University of Fribourg (Université de Fribourg; Universität Freiburg) is a university in the city of Fribourg, Switzerland.

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University of Lviv

The University of Lviv (Львівський університет, Uniwersytet Lwowski, Universität Lemberg, briefly known as the Theresianum in the early 19th-century), presently the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv (Львівський національний університет імені Івана Франка) is the oldest university foundation in Ukraine, dating from 1661 when the Polish King, John II Casimir, granted it its first royal charter.

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University of Notre Dame

The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame or ND) is a private, non-profit Catholic research university in the community of Notre Dame, Indiana, near the city of South Bend, in the United States.

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University of Paris

The University of Paris (Université de Paris), metonymically known as the Sorbonne (one of its buildings), was a university in Paris, France, from around 1150 to 1793, and from 1806 to 1970.

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University of Warsaw

The University of Warsaw (Uniwersytet Warszawski, Universitas Varsoviensis), established in 1816, is the largest university in Poland.

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Unmoved mover

The unmoved mover (that which moves without being moved) or prime mover (primum movens) is a concept advanced by Aristotle as a primary cause or "mover" of all the motion in the universe.

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Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes utility.

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Vernacular

A vernacular, or vernacular language, is the language or variety of a language used in everyday life by the common people of a specific population.

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Victor Cousin

Victor Cousin (28 November 179214 January 1867) was a French philosopher.

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Vilnius

Vilnius (see also other names) is the capital of Lithuania and its largest city, with a population of 574,221.

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Vilnius University

Vilnius University (Vilniaus universitetas; former names exist) is the oldest university in the Baltic states and one of the oldest in Northern Europe.

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Violence

Violence is defined by the World Health Organization as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation," although the group acknowledges that the inclusion of "the use of power" in its definition expands on the conventional understanding of the word.

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Visual perception

Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the environment.

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Vitello

Witelo (also Erazmus Ciołek Witelo; Witelon; Vitellio; Vitello; Vitello Thuringopolonis; Vitulon; Erazm Ciołek); born ca.

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Vocation

A vocation is an occupation to which a person is specially drawn or for which they are suited, trained, or qualified.

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War

War is a state of armed conflict between states, societies and informal groups, such as insurgents and militias.

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Warsaw

Warsaw (Warszawa; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland.

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Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki

Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (Laurentius Grimaldius Goslicius; between 1530 and 1540 – 31 October 1607) was a Polish nobleman, Bishop of Poznań (1601–1607), political thinker and philosopher best known for his book De optimo senatore (1568).

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Władysław Heinrich

Władysław Heinrich (Warsaw, 1 January 1869 – 30 June 1957, Kraków, Poland) was a Polish historian of philosophy, psychologist, professor at Kraków University and member of the Polish Academy of Learning.

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Władysław II Jagiełło

Jogaila (later Władysław II JagiełłoHe is known under a number of names: Jogaila Algirdaitis; Władysław II Jagiełło; Jahajła (Ягайла). See also: Names and titles of Władysław II Jagiełło. (c. 1352/1362 – 1 June 1434) was the Grand Duke of Lithuania (1377–1434) and then the King of Poland (1386–1434), first alongside his wife Jadwiga until 1399, and then sole King of Poland. He ruled in Lithuania from 1377. Born a pagan, in 1386 he converted to Catholicism and was baptized as Władysław in Kraków, married the young Queen Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło. In 1387 he converted Lithuania to Christianity. His own reign in Poland started in 1399, upon the death of Queen Jadwiga, and lasted a further thirty-five years and laid the foundation for the centuries-long Polish–Lithuanian union. He was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Poland that bears his name and was previously also known as the Gediminid dynasty in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The dynasty ruled both states until 1572,Anna Jagiellon, the last member of royal Jagiellon family, died in 1596. and became one of the most influential dynasties in late medieval and early modern Central and Eastern Europe. During his reign, the Polish-Lithuanian state was the largest state in the Christian world. Jogaila was the last pagan ruler of medieval Lithuania. After he became King of Poland, as a result of the Union of Krewo, the newly formed Polish-Lithuanian union confronted the growing power of the Teutonic Knights. The allied victory at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, followed by the Peace of Thorn, secured the Polish and Lithuanian borders and marked the emergence of the Polish–Lithuanian alliance as a significant force in Europe. The reign of Władysław II Jagiełło extended Polish frontiers and is often considered the beginning of Poland's Golden Age.

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Władysław Mieczysław Kozłowski

Władysław Mieczysław Kozłowski (November 17, 1858 in Kiev – April 25, 1935 in Konstancin-Jeziorna) was a Polish philosopher.

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Władysław Tatarkiewicz

Władysław Tatarkiewicz (3 April 1886, Warsaw – 4 April 1980, Warsaw) was a Polish philosopher, historian of philosophy, historian of art, esthetician, and ethicist.

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Władysław Weryho

Władysław Weryho (1868–1916) was a Polish social activist, popularizer of learning, especially of philosophy and psychology, and organizer of learned life in partitioned Poland.

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Władysław Witwicki

Władysław Witwicki (1878, Lubaczów – 1948, Konstancin) was a Polish psychologist, philosopher, translator, historian (of philosophy and art) and artist.

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Western Europe

Western Europe is the region comprising the western part of Europe.

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Western philosophy

Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world.

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Wilhelm Dilthey

Wilhelm Dilthey (19 November 1833 – 1 October 1911) was a German historian, psychologist, sociologist, and hermeneutic philosopher, who held G. W. F. Hegel's Chair in Philosophy at the University of Berlin.

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Wilhelm Wundt

Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (16 August 1832 – 31 August 1920) was a German physician, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology.

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Will (philosophy)

Will, generally, is that faculty of the mind which selects, at the moment of decision, the strongest desire from among the various desires present.

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Will Durant

William James "Will" Durant (November 5, 1885 – November 7, 1981) was an American writer, historian, and philosopher.

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William of Ockham

William of Ockham (also Occam, from Gulielmus Occamus; 1287 – 1347) was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher and theologian, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey.

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Wincenty Lutosławski

Wincenty Lutosławski (1863–1954) was a Polish philosopher, author, and member of the Polish National League.

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World War I

World War I (often abbreviated as WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918.

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World War II

World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although conflicts reflecting the ideological clash between what would become the Allied and Axis blocs began earlier.

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Wrocław

Wrocław (Breslau; Vratislav; Vratislavia) is the largest city in western Poland.

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Zamość

Zamość (Yiddish: זאמאשטש Zamoshtsh) is a city in southeastern Poland, situated in the southern part of Lublin Voivodeship (since 1999), about from Lublin, from Warsaw and from the border with Ukraine.

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ZNAK

ZNAK Ltd. – is a Ukrainian manufacturer of plastic payment cards, document application forms and polycarbonate pages for passports, etc.

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Zygmunt Krasiński

Count Zygmunt Krasiński (19 February 1812 – 23 February 1859), a Polish nobleman traditionally ranked with Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki as one of Poland's Three National Bards — the trio of great Romantic poets who influenced national consciousness during the period of Poland's political bondage.

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Redirects here:

History of Polish philosophy, History of philosophy in poland, Philosophy of Poland, Polish philosophy, The history of philosophy in Poland.

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland

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