Communication

760 relations: ABC-CLIO, Abducens nerve, Absence seizure, Absent-minded professor, Abstraction, Accessory nerve, Acetic acid, Acetylcholine, Acoustic radiation, Action potential, Addiction, Adenosine triphosphate, Aging brain, Akio Mori, Alcmaeon of Croton, Alcohol-related dementia, Alcoholism, Allocortex, Alzheimer's disease, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Amygdala, Anastomosis, Anatomical terms of location, Ancient Egypt, Andreas Vesalius, Anesthetic, Animal locomotion, Anterior cerebral artery, Anterior cingulate cortex, Anterior communicating artery, Anterior inferior cerebellar artery, Anterior lobe of cerebellum, Anticoagulant, Anticonvulsant, Antihypertensive drug, Aortic arch, Aortic body, Aphasia, Apnea, Appetite, Arachnoid mater, Archiangelo Piccolomini, Area postrema, ArhGAP11B and human encephalisation, Aristotle, Aristotle's biology, Arousal, Artificial brain, Aspirin, Astrocyte, ..., Ataxia, Atheroma, Atherosclerosis, Atrial fibrillation, Atrial septal defect, Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Attentional control, Auditory cortex, Australopithecus, Autonomic nervous system, Axon, Bacteria, Baroreceptor, Basal forebrain, Basal ganglia, Basal vein, Base of skull, Basement membrane, Basic research, Basilar artery, Behavior, Benign tumor, Benignity, Betz cell, Bioinformatics, Biological specimen, Biology of depression, Biology of obsessive–compulsive disorder, Biotelemetry, Bipolar disorder, Birth defect, Blood pressure, Blood sugar level, Blood test, Blood vessel, Blood–brain barrier, Bottlenose dolphin, Brain abscess, Brain damage, BRAIN Initiative, Brain ischemia, Brain mapping, Brain morphometry, Brain transplant, Brain tumor, Brain-to-body mass ratio, Brainstem, Brainstem death, Branch of glossopharyngeal nerve to carotid sinus, Breast cancer, Breathing, Broca's area, Brodmann area, Butyric acid, Cambridge University Press, Camillo Golgi, Cancer, Cancer staging, Capillary, Caprylic acid, Carbohydrate, Carbon dioxide, Carl Wernicke, Carotid artery stenosis, Carotid body, Carotid canal, Carotid sinus, Caudate nucleus, Cavernous sinus, Cell (biology), Cell death, Cell migration, Cengage, Central canal, Central nervous system, Central nervous system disease, Central sulcus, Cephalic disorder, Cephalic flexure, Cephalization, Cerebellar peduncle, Cerebellar tentorium, Cerebellar veins, Cerebellar vermis, Cerebellum, Cerebral aqueduct, Cerebral atrophy, Cerebral circulation, Cerebral contusion, Cerebral cortex, Cerebral hemisphere, Cerebral veins, Cerebrospinal fluid, Cerebrum, Cervical vertebrae, Chalcedon, Charles Scott Sherrington, Chemotherapy, Chimpanzee, Cholinergic, Choroid plexus, Christopher Wren, Chromosome abnormality, Chronic traumatic encephalopathy, Cingulate cortex, Circadian clock, Circadian rhythm, Circle of Willis, Circulatory system, Circumventricular organs, Cisterna magna, Claustrum, Clivus (anatomy), Clopidogrel, Closed-head injury, Cochlear nucleus, Cognition, Cognitive behavioral therapy, Cognitive flexibility, Cognitive inhibition, Cognitive linguistics, Cognitive neuroscience, Columbia University Press, Coma, Commissure, Common carotid artery, Computed tomography angiography, Concussion, Confluence of sinuses, Connectogram, Connectome, Consciousness, Contact sport, Contralateral brain, Corneal reflex, Corpus callosum, Correlation and dependence, Cortex (anatomy), Cortical homunculus, Cortical spreading depression, Cortical stimulation mapping, Corticospinal tract, Corticosteroid, Coup contrecoup injury, Cranial nerve nucleus, Cranial nerves, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, Cribriform plate, CT scan, Cubic centimetre, Cuneus, Cyborg, David Rioch, De humani corporis fabrica, Decade of the Brain, Decision-making, Decompression (surgery), Decussation, Default mode network, Dementia, Dendrite, Dexamethasone, Diagonal band of Broca, Dictionary.com, Diencephalon, Differential diagnosis, Diffuse axonal injury, Diplopia, DNA, DNA annotation, Donovan's Brain, Dopamine, Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway, Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, Duct (anatomy), Dura mater, Dural venous sinuses, Dysarthria, Echocardiography, Echoic memory, Ectoderm, Edema, Edwin Smith Papyrus, Effector cell, Egghead, ELAV-like protein 3, Electrocardiography, Electrocorticography, Electrode, Electroencephalography, Electromagnetic radiation, Electrophysiology, Elsevier, Embolectomy, Embolus, Embryo, Emil du Bois-Reymond, Emotion, Encephalitis, Enchanted loom, Endolymph, Endurance training, Ependyma, Epilepsy, Epileptic seizure, Epithalamus, Erasistratus, Executive functions, Exhalation, Extrapyramidal system, F. 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ABC-CLIO

ABC-CLIO, LLC is a publishing company for academic reference works and periodicals primarily on topics such as history and social sciences for educational and public library settings.

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Abducens nerve

The abducens nerve is a nerve that controls the movement of the lateral rectus muscle in humans, responsible for outward gaze.

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Absence seizure

Absence seizures are one of several kinds of generalized seizures.

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Absent-minded professor

The absent-minded professor is a stock character of popular fiction, usually portrayed as a talented academic whose academic brilliance is accompanied by below-par functioning in other areas, leading to forgetfulness and mistakes.

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Abstraction

Abstraction in its main sense is a conceptual process where general rules and concepts are derived from the usage and classification of specific examples, literal ("real" or "concrete") signifiers, first principles, or other methods.

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Accessory nerve

The accessory nerve is a spinal nerve that supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.

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Acetic acid

Acetic acid, systematically named ethanoic acid, is a colourless liquid organic compound with the chemical formula CH3COOH (also written as CH3CO2H or C2H4O2).

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Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals, including humans, as a neurotransmitter—a chemical message released by nerve cells to send signals to other cells.

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Acoustic radiation

The acoustic radiations or auditory radiations are structures found in the brain, in the ventral cochlear pathway, a part of the auditory system.

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Action potential

In physiology, an action potential occurs when the membrane potential of a specific axon location rapidly rises and falls: this depolarisation then causes adjacent locations to similarly depolarise.

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Addiction

Addiction is a brain disorder characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli despite adverse consequences.

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Adenosine triphosphate

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that participates in many processes.

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Aging brain

Aging is a major risk factor for most common neurodegenerative diseases, including mild cognitive impairment, dementias including Alzheimer's disease, cerebrovascular disease, Parkinson's disease and Lou Gehrig's disease.

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Akio Mori

is a Japanese physiologist, sports scientist and writer.

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Alcmaeon of Croton

Alcmaeon of Croton (in Magna Graecia) (Ἀλκμαίων ὁ Κροτωνιάτης, Alkmaiōn, gen.: Ἀλκμαίωνος; 5th century BC) has been described as one of the most eminent natural philosophers and medical theorists of antiquity.

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Alcohol-related dementia

Alcohol-related dementia (ARD) is a form of dementia caused by long-term, excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages, resulting in neurological damage and impaired cognitive function.

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Alcoholism

Alcoholism, also known as alcohol use disorder (AUD), is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in mental or physical health problems.

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Allocortex

The allocortex (also known as heterogenetic cortex) is one of the two types of cerebral cortex, the other being the neocortex.

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Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), also referred to simply as Alzheimer's, is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time.

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American Association for the Advancement of Science

The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) is an American international non-profit organization with the stated goals of promoting cooperation among scientists, defending scientific freedom, encouraging scientific responsibility, and supporting scientific education and science outreach for the betterment of all humanity.

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Amygdala

The amygdala (plural: amygdalae; also corpus amygdaloideum; Latin from Greek, ἀμυγδαλή, amygdalē, 'Almond', 'tonsil') is one of two almond-shaped groups of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans.

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Anastomosis

An anastomosis (plural anastomoses) is a connection or opening between two things (especially cavities or passages) that are normally diverging or branching, such as between blood vessels, leaf veins, or streams.

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Anatomical terms of location

Standard anatomical terms of location deal unambiguously with the anatomy of animals, including humans.

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Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River - geographically Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt, in the place that is now occupied by the countries of Egypt and Sudan.

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Andreas Vesalius

Andreas Vesalius (31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564) was a 16th-century Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body).

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Anesthetic

An anesthetic (or anaesthetic) is a drug to prevent pain during surgery, completely blocking any feeling as opposed to an analgesic.

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Animal locomotion

Animal locomotion, in ethology, is any of a variety of movements or methods that animals use to move from one place to another.

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Anterior cerebral artery

The anterior cerebral artery (ACA) is one of a pair of arteries on the brain that supplies oxygenated blood to most midline portions of the frontal lobes and superior medial parietal lobes.

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Anterior cingulate cortex

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is the frontal part of the cingulate cortex that resembles a "collar" surrounding the frontal part of the corpus callosum.

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Anterior communicating artery

In human anatomy, the anterior communicating artery is a blood vessel of the brain that connects the left and right anterior cerebral arteries.

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Anterior inferior cerebellar artery

The anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA) is one of three pairs of arteries that supplies blood to the cerebellum.

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Anterior lobe of cerebellum

The anterior lobe of cerebellum is the portion of the cerebellum responsible for mediating unconscious proprioception.

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Anticoagulant

Anticoagulants, commonly referred to as blood thinners, are chemical substances that prevent or reduce coagulation of blood, prolonging the clotting time.

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Anticonvulsant

Anticonvulsants (also commonly known as antiepileptic drugs or as antiseizure drugs) are a diverse group of pharmacological agents used in the treatment of epileptic seizures.

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Antihypertensive drug

Antihypertensives are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure).

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Aortic arch

The aortic arch, arch of the aorta, or transverse aortic arch is the part of the aorta between the ascending and descending aorta.

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Aortic body

The aortic body is one of several small clusters of peripheral chemoreceptors known as glomus cells, baroreceptors, and supporting cells located along the aortic arch.

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Aphasia

Aphasia is an inability to comprehend and formulate language because of damage to specific brain regions.

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Apnea

Apnea or apnoea is suspension of breathing.

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Appetite

Appetite is the desire to eat food, sometimes due to hunger.

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Arachnoid mater

The arachnoid mater is one of the three meninges, the protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord.

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Archiangelo Piccolomini

Archiangelo Piccolomini (1525-1586) was an Italian anatomist from Rome.

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Area postrema

The area postrema is a medullary structure in the brain that controls vomiting.

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ArhGAP11B and human encephalisation

ARHGAP11B is a human-specific gene which appeared after the divergence from chimpanzees.

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Aristotle

Aristotle (Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs,; 384–322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece.

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Aristotle's biology

Aristotle's biology is the theory of biology, grounded in systematic observation and collection of data, mainly zoological, embodied in Aristotle's books on the science.

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Arousal

Arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception.

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Artificial brain

An artificial brain (or artificial mind) is software and hardware with cognitive abilities similar to those of the animal or human brain.

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Aspirin

Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a medication used to treat pain, fever, or inflammation.

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Astrocyte

Astrocytes (Astro from Greek astron.

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Ataxia

Ataxia is a neurological sign consisting of lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements that includes gait abnormality.

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Atheroma

An atheroma is a reversible accumulation of degenerative material in the inner layer of an artery wall.

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Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a disease in which the inside of an artery narrows due to the build up of plaque.

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Atrial fibrillation

Atrial fibrillation (AF or A-fib) is an abnormal heart rhythm characterized by rapid and irregular beating of the atria.

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Atrial septal defect

Atrial septal defect (ASD) is a heart defect in which blood flows between the atria (upper chambers) of the heart.

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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type.

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Attentional control

Attentional control refers to an individual's capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore.

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Auditory cortex

The primary auditory cortex is the part of the temporal lobe that processes auditory information in humans and other vertebrates.

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Australopithecus

Australopithecus (informal australopithecine or australopith, although the term australopithecine has a broader meaning as a member of the subtribe Australopithecina which includes this genus as well as Paranthropus, Kenyanthropus, Ardipithecus, and Praeanthropus) is an extinct genus of hominins.

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Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system (ANS), formerly the vegetative nervous system, is a division of the peripheral nervous system that supplies smooth muscle and glands, and thus influences the function of internal organs.

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Axon

An axon (from Greek ἄξων áxōn, axis) or nerve fiber, is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that typically conducts electrical impulses known as action potentials, away from the nerve cell body.

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Bacteria

Bacteria (common noun bacteria, singular bacterium) is a type of biological cell.

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Baroreceptor

Baroreceptors (or archaically, pressoreceptors) are sensors located in the blood vessels of all vertebrate animals.

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Basal forebrain

The basal forebrain structures are located in the forebrain to the front of and below the striatum.

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Basal ganglia

The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) is a group of subcortical nuclei, of varied origin, in the brains of vertebrates including humans, which are situated at the base of the forebrain.

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Basal vein

The basal vein is a vein in the brain.

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Base of skull

The base of skull is the most inferior area of the skull.

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Basement membrane

The basement membrane is a thin, fibrous, extracellular matrix of tissue that separates the lining of an internal or external body surface from underlying connective tissue in metazoans.

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Basic research

Basic research, also called pure research or fundamental research, has the scientific research aim to improve scientific theories for improved understanding or prediction of natural or other phenomena.

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Basilar artery

In human anatomy, the basilar artery is one of the arteries that supplies the brain with oxygen-rich blood.

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Behavior

Behavior (American English) or behaviour (Commonwealth English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the (inanimate) physical environment.

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Benign tumor

A benign tumor is a mass of cells (tumor) that lacks the ability to invade neighboring tissue or metastasize.

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Benignity

Benignity (from Latin benignus "kind, good", itself deriving from bonus "good" and genus "origin") is any condition that is harmless in the long run.

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Betz cell

Betz cells (also known as pyramidal cells of Betz) are giant pyramidal cells (neurons) located within the fifth layer of the grey matter in the primary motor cortex.

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Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data.

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Biological specimen

A biological specimen (also called a biospecimen) is a biological laboratory specimen held by a biorepository for research.

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Biology of depression

Scientific studies have found that numerous brain areas show altered activity in patients suffering from depression, and this has encouraged advocates of various theories that seek to identify a biochemical origin of the disease, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes.

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Biology of obsessive–compulsive disorder

The biology of obsessive-compulsive disorder(OCD) refers biologically based theories about the mechanism of OCD.

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Biotelemetry

Biotelemetry (or medical telemetry) involves the application of telemetry in biology, medicine, and other health care to remotely monitor various vital signs of ambulatory patients.

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Bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder, previously known as manic depression, is a mental disorder that causes periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood.

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Birth defect

A birth defect, also known as a congenital disorder, is a condition present at birth regardless of its cause.

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Blood pressure

Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels.

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Blood sugar level

The blood sugar level, blood sugar concentration, or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of humans and other animals.

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Blood test

A blood test is a laboratory analysis performed on a blood sample that is usually extracted from a vein in the arm using a hypodermic needle, or via fingerprick.

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Blood vessel

The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system, and microcirculation, that transports blood throughout the human body.

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Blood–brain barrier

The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable membrane barrier that separates the circulating blood from the brain and extracellular fluid in the central nervous system (CNS).

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Bottlenose dolphin

Bottlenose dolphins, the genus Tursiops, are the most common members of the family Delphinidae, the family of oceanic dolphin.

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Brain abscess

Brain abscess (or cerebral abscess) is an abscess caused by inflammation and collection of infected material, coming from local (ear infection, dental abscess, infection of paranasal sinuses, infection of the mastoid air cells of the temporal bone, epidural abscess) or remote (lung, heart, kidney etc.) infectious sources, within the brain tissue.

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Brain damage

Brain damage or brain injury (BI) is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells.

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BRAIN Initiative

The White House BRAIN Initiative (Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies), is a collaborative, public-private research initiative announced by the Obama administration on April 2, 2013, with the goal of supporting the development and application of innovative technologies that can create a dynamic understanding of brain function.

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Brain ischemia

Brain ischemia (a.k.a. cerebral ischemia, cerebrovascular ischemia) is a condition in which there is insufficient blood flow to the brain to meet metabolic demand.

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Brain mapping

Brain mapping is a set of neuroscience techniques predicated on the mapping of (biological) quantities or properties onto spatial representations of the (human or non-human) brain resulting in maps.

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Brain morphometry

Brain morphometry is a subfield of both morphometry and the brain sciences, concerned with the measurement of brain structures and changes thereof during development, aging, learning, disease and evolution.

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Brain transplant

A brain transplant or whole-body transplant is a procedure in which the brain of one organism is transplanted into the body of another.

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Brain tumor

A brain tumor occurs when abnormal cells form within the brain.

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Brain-to-body mass ratio

Brain-to-body mass ratio, also known as the brain-to-body weight ratio, is the ratio of brain mass to body mass, which is hypothesized to be a rough estimate of the intelligence of an animal, although fairly inaccurate in many cases.

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Brainstem

The brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior part of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the spinal cord.

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Brainstem death

Brainstem death is a clinical syndrome defined by the absence of reflexes with pathways through the brainstem—the "stalk" of the brain, which connects the spinal cord to the mid-brain, cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres—in a deeply comatose, ventilator-dependent patient.

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Branch of glossopharyngeal nerve to carotid sinus

The branch of glossopharyngeal nerve to the carotid sinus (Hering's nerve) is a small nerve in the neck, that innervates the carotid sinus and the carotid body.

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Breast cancer

Breast cancer is cancer that develops from breast tissue.

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Breathing

Breathing (or respiration, or ventilation) is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal environment, mostly by bringing in oxygen and flushing out carbon dioxide.

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Broca's area

Broca's area or the Broca area or is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the hominid brain with functions linked to speech production.

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Brodmann area

A Brodmann area is a region of the cerebral cortex, in the human or other primate brain, defined by its cytoarchitecture, or histological structure and organization of cells.

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Butyric acid

Butyric acid (from βούτῡρον, meaning "butter"), also known under the systematic name butanoic acid, abbreviated BTA, is a carboxylic acid with the structural formula CH3CH2CH2-COOH.

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Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press (CUP) is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge.

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Camillo Golgi

Camillo Golgi (7 July 1843 – 21 January 1926) was an Italian biologist and pathologist known for his works on the central nervous system.

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Cancer

Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.

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Cancer staging

Cancer staging is the process of determining the extent to which a cancer has developed by growing and spreading.

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Capillary

A capillary is a small blood vessel from 5 to 10 micrometres (µm) in diameter, and having a wall one endothelial cell thick.

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Caprylic acid

Caprylic acid is the common name for the eight-carbon saturated fatty acid known by the systematic name octanoic acid.

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Carbohydrate

A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (where m may be different from n).

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Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide (chemical formula) is a colorless gas with a density about 60% higher than that of dry air.

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Carl Wernicke

Carl (or Karl) Wernicke (15 May 1848 – 15 June 1905) was a German physician, anatomist, psychiatrist and neuropathologist.

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Carotid artery stenosis

Carotid artery stenosis is a narrowing or constriction of any part of the carotid arteries, usually caused by atherosclerosis.

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Carotid body

The carotid body (carotid glomus or glomus caroticum) is a small cluster of chemoreceptors and supporting cells located near the fork (bifurcation) of the carotid artery (which runs along both sides of the throat).

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Carotid canal

The carotid canal is the passageway in the temporal bone through which the internal carotid artery enters the middle cranial fossa from the neck.

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Carotid sinus

In human anatomy, the carotid sinus is a dilated area at the base of the internal carotid artery just superior to the bifurcation of the internal carotid and external carotid at the level of the superior border of thyroid cartilage.

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Caudate nucleus

The caudate nucleus is one of the structures that make up the dorsal striatum, which is a component of the basal ganglia.

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Cavernous sinus

The cavernous sinus within the human head, is a true dural venous sinus (not a venous plexus) creating a cavity called the lateral sellar compartment bordered by the temporal bone of the skull and the sphenoid bone, lateral to the sella turcica.

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Cell (biology)

The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms.

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Cell death

Cell death is the event of a biological cell ceasing to carry out its functions.

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Cell migration

Cell migration is a central process in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms.

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Cengage

Cengage is an educational content, technology, and services company for the higher education, K-12, professional, and library markets worldwide.

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Central canal

The central canal, also known as ependymal canal, is the cerebrospinal fluid-filled space that runs longitudinally through the length of the entire spinal cord.

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Central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

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Central nervous system disease

Central nervous system diseases, also known as central nervous system disorders, are a group of neurological disorders that affect the structure or function of the brain or spinal cord, which collectively form the central nervous system (CNS).

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Central sulcus

The central sulcus is a sulcus, or fold, in the cerebral cortex in the brains of vertebrates.

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Cephalic disorder

Cephalic disorders (from the Greek word κεφάλι, meaning "head") are congenital conditions that stem from damage to, or abnormal development of, the budding nervous system.

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Cephalic flexure

The mesencephalic flexure or cephalic flexure is the first flexure, or bend, of the embryonic brain; it appears in the region of the mid-brain.

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Cephalization

Cephalization is an evolutionary trend in which, over many generations, the mouth, sense organs, and nerve ganglia become concentrated at the front end of an animal, producing a head region.

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Cerebellar peduncle

Cerebellar peduncles connect the cerebellum to the brain stem.

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Cerebellar tentorium

The cerebellar tentorium or tentorium cerebelli (Latin: "tent of the cerebellum", Greek: "Σκηνίδιο της παρεγκεφαλίδας") is an extension of the dura mater that separates the cerebellum from the inferior portion of the occipital lobes.

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Cerebellar veins

Cerebellar veins are veins which drain the cerebellum.

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Cerebellar vermis

The cerebellar vermis (Latin for worm) is located in the medial, cortico-nuclear zone of the cerebellum, which resides in the posterior fossa of the cranium.

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Cerebellum

The cerebellum (Latin for "little brain") is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates.

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Cerebral aqueduct

The cerebral aqueduct, also known as the aqueductus mesencephali, mesencephalic duct, sylvian aqueduct or the aqueduct of Sylvius is within the mesencephalon (or midbrain), contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and connects the third ventricle in the diencephalon to the fourth ventricle within the region of the mesencephalon and metencephalon, located dorsal to the pons and ventral to the cerebellum.

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Cerebral atrophy

Cerebral atrophy is a common feature of many of the diseases that affect the brain.

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Cerebral circulation

Cerebral circulation is the movement of blood through the network of cerebral arteries and veins supplying the brain.

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Cerebral contusion

Cerebral contusion, Latin contusio cerebri, a form of traumatic brain injury, is a bruise of the brain tissue.

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Cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex is the largest region of the cerebrum in the mammalian brain and plays a key role in memory, attention, perception, cognition, awareness, thought, language, and consciousness.

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Cerebral hemisphere

The vertebrate cerebrum (brain) is formed by two cerebral hemispheres that are separated by a groove, the longitudinal fissure.

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Cerebral veins

The cerebral veins are divisible into external (superficial cerebral veins) and internal (internal cerebral veins) groups according to the outer surfaces or the inner parts of the hemispheres they drain into.

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Cerebrospinal fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord.

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Cerebrum

The cerebrum is a large part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex (of the two cerebral hemispheres), as well as several subcortical structures, including the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb.

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Cervical vertebrae

In vertebrates, cervical vertebrae (singular: vertebra) are the vertebrae of the neck, immediately below the skull.

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Chalcedon

Chalcedon (or;, sometimes transliterated as Chalkedon) was an ancient maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor.

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Charles Scott Sherrington

Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (27 November 1857 – 4 March 1952) was an English neurophysiologist, histologist, bacteriologist, and a pathologist, Nobel laureate and president of the Royal Society in the early 1920s.

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Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen.

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Chimpanzee

The taxonomical genus Pan (often referred to as chimpanzees or chimps) consists of two extant species: the common chimpanzee and the bonobo.

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Cholinergic

In general, the word choline refers to the various quaternary ammonium salts containing the ''N'',''N'',''N''-trimethylethanolammonium cation.

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Choroid plexus

The choroid plexus is a plexus of cells that produces the cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain.

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Christopher Wren

Sir Christopher Wren PRS FRS (–) was an English anatomist, astronomer, geometer, and mathematician-physicist, as well as one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history.

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Chromosome abnormality

A chromosome abnormality, disorder, anomaly, aberration, or mutation is a missing, extra, or irregular portion of chromosomal DNA.

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Chronic traumatic encephalopathy

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative disease found in people who have had multiple head injuries.

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Cingulate cortex

The cingulate cortex is a part of the brain situated in the medial aspect of the cerebral cortex.

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Circadian clock

A circadian clock, or circadian oscillator, is a biochemical oscillator that cycles with a stable phase and is synchronized with solar time.

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Circadian rhythm

A circadian rhythm is any biological process that displays an endogenous, entrainable oscillation of about 24 hours.

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Circle of Willis

The circle of Willis (also called Willis' circle, loop of Willis, cerebral arterial circle, and Willis polygon) is a circulatory anastomosis that supplies blood to the brain and surrounding structures.

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Circulatory system

The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis.

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Circumventricular organs

Circumventricular organs (CVOs) are structures in the brain characterized by their extensive vasculature and highly permeable capillaries unlike those in the rest of the brain where there exists a blood brain barrier (BBB).

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Cisterna magna

The cisterna magna (or cerebellomedullaris cistern) is one of three principal openings in the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid and pia mater layers of the meninges surrounding the brain.

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Claustrum

The claustrum is a thin, irregular sheet of neurons that is attached to the underside of the neocortex in the center of the brain.

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Clivus (anatomy)

The clivus (Latin for "slope") is a bony part of the cranium at the skull base, a shallow depression behind the dorsum sellæ that slopes obliquely backward.

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Clopidogrel

Clopidogrel, sold as the brandname Plavix among others, is an antiplatelet medication that is used to reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke in those at high risk.

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Closed-head injury

Closed-head injury is a type of traumatic brain injury in which the skull and dura mater remain intact.

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Cochlear nucleus

The cochlear nuclear (CN) complex comprises two cranial nerve nuclei in the human brainstem, the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) and the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN).

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Cognition

Cognition is "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses".

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Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psycho-social intervention that is the most widely used evidence-based practice aimed at improving mental health.

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Cognitive flexibility

Cognitive flexibility has been described as the mental ability to switch between thinking about two different concepts, and to think about multiple concepts simultaneously.

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Cognitive inhibition

Cognitive inhibition refers to the mind's ability to tune out stimuli that are irrelevant to the task/process at hand or to the mind's current state.

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Cognitive linguistics

Cognitive linguistics (CL) is an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics, combining knowledge and research from both psychology and linguistics.

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Cognitive neuroscience

The term cognitive neuroscience was coined by George Armitage Miller and Michael Gazzaniga in year 1976.

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Columbia University Press

Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University.

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Coma

Coma is a state of unconsciousness in which a person cannot be awaken; fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light, or sound; lacks a normal wake-sleep cycle; and does not initiate voluntary actions.

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Commissure

A commissure is the place where two things abut or are joined.

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Common carotid artery

In anatomy, the left and right common carotid arteries (carotids) are arteries that supply the head and neck with oxygenated blood; they divide in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries.

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Computed tomography angiography

Computed tomography angiography (also called CT angiography or CTA) is a computed tomography technique used to visualize arterial and venous vessels throughout the body.

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Concussion

Concussion, also known as mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is typically defined as a head injury that temporarily affects brain functioning.

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Confluence of sinuses

The confluence of sinuses, torcular herophili, or torcula is the connecting point of the superior sagittal sinus, straight sinus, and occipital sinus.

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Connectogram

Connectograms are graphical representations of connectomics, the field of study dedicated to mapping and interpreting all of the white matter fiber connections in the human brain.

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Connectome

A connectome is a comprehensive map of neural connections in the brain, and may be thought of as its "wiring diagram".

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Consciousness

Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself.

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Contact sport

Contact sports are sports that emphasize or require physical contact between players.

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Contralateral brain

The contralateral organization of the forebrain (Latin: contra ‚against‘; latus ‚side‘, lateral ‚sided‘) is the property that the hemispheres of the cerebrum and the thalamus represent mainly the contralateral side of the body.

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Corneal reflex

The corneal reflex, also known as the blink reflex, is an involuntary blinking of the eyelids elicited by stimulation of the cornea (such as by touching or by a foreign body), though could result from any peripheral stimulus.

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Corpus callosum

The corpus callosum (Latin for "tough body"), also callosal commissure, is a wide commissure, a flat bundle of commissural fibers, about 10 cm long beneath the cerebral cortex in the brains of placental mammals.

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Correlation and dependence

In statistics, dependence or association is any statistical relationship, whether causal or not, between two random variables or bivariate data.

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Cortex (anatomy)

In anatomy and zoology, the cortex (Latin for bark, rind, shell or husk) is the outermost (or superficial) layer of an organ.

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Cortical homunculus

A cortical homunculus is a distorted representation of the human body, based on a neurological "map" of the areas and proportions of the human brain dedicated to processing motor functions, or sensory functions, for different parts of the body.

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Cortical spreading depression

Cortical spreading depression (CSD) or spreading depolarization is a wave of electrophysiological hyperactivity followed by a wave of inhibition.

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Cortical stimulation mapping

Cortical stimulation mapping (CSM) is a type of electrocorticography that involves a physically invasive procedure and aims to localize the function of specific brain regions through direct electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex.

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Corticospinal tract

The corticospinal tract is a white matter motor pathway starting at the cerebral cortex that terminates on lower motor neurons and interneurons in the spinal cord, controlling movements of the limbs and trunk.

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Corticosteroid

Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones that are produced in the adrenal cortex of vertebrates, as well as the synthetic analogues of these hormones.

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Coup contrecoup injury

In head injury, a coup injury occurs under the site of impact with an object, and a contrecoup injury occurs on the side opposite the area that was hit.

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Cranial nerve nucleus

A cranial nerve nucleus is a collection of neurons (gray matter) in the brain stem that is associated with one or more cranial nerves.

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Cranial nerves

Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), in contrast to spinal nerves (which emerge from segments of the spinal cord).

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Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) is a universally fatal brain disorder.

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Cribriform plate

In human anatomy, the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone (horizontal lamina or lamina cribrosa) is received into the ethmoidal notch of the frontal bone and roofs in the nasal cavities.

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CT scan

A CT scan, also known as computed tomography scan, makes use of computer-processed combinations of many X-ray measurements taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of specific areas of a scanned object, allowing the user to see inside the object without cutting.

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Cubic centimetre

A cubic centimetre (or cubic centimeter in US English) (SI unit symbol: cm3; non-SI abbreviations: cc and ccm) is a commonly used unit of volume that extends the derived SI-unit cubic metre, and corresponds to the volume of a cube that measures 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm.

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Cuneus

The '''cuneus''' (Latin for "wedge"; plural, cunei) is a smaller lobe in the occipital lobe of the brain.

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Cyborg

A cyborg (short for "'''cyb'''ernetic '''org'''anism") is a being with both organic and biomechatronic body parts.

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David Rioch

David McKenzie Rioch (July 6, 1900 – September 11, 1985) was a psychiatric research scientist and neuroanatomist, known as a pioneer in brain research and for leading the interdisciplinary neuropsychiatry division at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (1951–1970), a program that contributed to the formation of the then-nascent field of neuroscience.

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De humani corporis fabrica

De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (Latin for "On the fabric of the human body in seven books") is a set of books on human anatomy written by Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) and published in 1543.

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Decade of the Brain

The Decade of the Brain was a designation for 1990–1999 by U.S. president George H. W. Bush as part of a larger effort involving the Library of Congress and the National Institute of Mental Health of the National Institutes of Health "to enhance public awareness of the benefits to be derived from brain research".

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Decision-making

In psychology, decision-making (also spelled decision making and decisionmaking) is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several alternative possibilities.

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Decompression (surgery)

In medicine, Decompression refers to the removal or repositioning of any structure compressing any other structure.

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Decussation

Decussation is used in biological contexts to describe a crossing (Latin: the roman numeral for ten, deca, is an uppercase 'X').

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Default mode network

In neuroscience, the default mode network (DMN), also default network, or default state network, is a large scale brain network of interacting brain regions known to have activity highly correlated with each other and distinct from other networks in the brain.

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Dementia

Dementia is a broad category of brain diseases that cause a long-term and often gradual decrease in the ability to think and remember that is great enough to affect a person's daily functioning.

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Dendrite

Dendrites (from Greek δένδρον déndron, "tree"), also dendrons, are branched protoplasmic extensions of a nerve cell that propagate the electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project.

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Dexamethasone

Dexamethasone is a type of corticosteroid medication.

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Diagonal band of Broca

The diagonal band of Broca is one of the basal forebrain structures that are derived from the ventral telencephalon during development.

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Dictionary.com

Dictionary.com is an online dictionary whose domain was first registered on May 14, 1995.

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Diencephalon

The diencephalon is a division of the forebrain (embryonic prosencephalon), and is situated between the telencephalon and the midbrain (embryonic mesencephalon).

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Differential diagnosis

In medicine, a differential diagnosis is the distinguishing of a particular disease or condition from others that present similar clinical features.

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Diffuse axonal injury

Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is a brain injury in which extensive lesions in white matter tracts occur over a widespread area.

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Diplopia

Diplopia, commonly known as double vision, is the simultaneous perception of two images of a single object that may be displaced horizontally, vertically, diagonally (i.e., both vertically and horizontally), or rotationally in relation to each other.

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DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a thread-like chain of nucleotides carrying the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

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DNA annotation

DNA annotation or genome annotation is the process of identifying the locations of genes and all of the coding regions in a genome and determining what those genes do.

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Donovan's Brain

Donovan's Brain is a 1942 science fiction novel by American writer Curt Siodmak.

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Dopamine

Dopamine (DA, a contraction of 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine) is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families that plays several important roles in the brain and body.

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Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway

The dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway (DCML) (also known as the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway (PCML)) is a sensory pathway of the central nervous system that conveys sensations of fine touch, vibration, two-point discrimination, and proprioception (position) from the skin and joints.

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Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC or DL-PFC) is an area in the prefrontal cortex of the brain of humans and non-human primates.

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Duct (anatomy)

In anatomy and physiology, a duct is a circumscribed channel leading from an exocrine gland or organ.

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Dura mater

Dura mater, or dura, is a thick membrane made of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

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Dural venous sinuses

The dural venous sinuses (also called dural sinuses, cerebral sinuses, or cranial sinuses) are venous channels found between the endosteal and meningeal layers of dura mater in the brain.

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Dysarthria

Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder resulting from neurological injury of the motor component of the motor-speech system and is characterized by poor articulation of phonemes.

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Echocardiography

An echocardiogram, often referred to as a cardiac echo or simply an echo, is a sonogram of the heart.

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Echoic memory

Echoic memory is the sensory memory register specific to auditory information (sounds).

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Ectoderm

Ectoderm is one of the three primary germ layers in the very early embryo.

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Edema

Edema, also spelled oedema or œdema, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitium, located beneath the skin and in the cavities of the body, which can cause severe pain.

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Edwin Smith Papyrus

The Edwin Smith Papyrus is an ancient Egyptian medical text, named after the dealer who bought it in 1862, and the oldest known surgical treatise on trauma.

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Effector cell

An effector cell is any of various types of cell that actively responds to a stimulus and effects some change (brings it about).

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Egghead

In the U.S. English slang, egghead is an anti-elitist epithet used to refer to intellectuals or people considered too out-of-touch with ordinary people and too lacking in realism, common sense, sexual interests, etc.

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ELAV-like protein 3

ELAV-like protein 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ELAVL3 gene.

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Electrocardiography

Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) is the process of recording the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time using electrodes placed on the skin.

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Electrocorticography

Electrocorticography (ECoG), or intracranial electroencephalography (iEEG), is a type of electrophysiological monitoring that uses electrodes placed directly on the exposed surface of the brain to record electrical activity from the cerebral cortex.

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Electrode

An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e.g. a semiconductor, an electrolyte, a vacuum or air).

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Electroencephalography

Electroencephalography (EEG) is an electrophysiological monitoring method to record electrical activity of the brain.

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Electromagnetic radiation

In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space-time, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy.

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Electrophysiology

Electrophysiology (from Greek ἥλεκτρον, ēlektron, "amber"; φύσις, physis, "nature, origin"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues.

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Elsevier

Elsevier is an information and analytics company and one of the world's major providers of scientific, technical, and medical information.

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Embolectomy

Embolectomy is the emergency surgical removal of emboli which are blocking blood circulation.

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Embolus

An embolus (plural emboli; from the Greek ἔμβολος "wedge", "plug") is an unattached mass that travels through the bloodstream and is capable of clogging arterial capillary beds (create an arterial occlusion) at a site distant from its point of origin.

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Embryo

An embryo is an early stage of development of a multicellular diploid eukaryotic organism.

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Emil du Bois-Reymond

Prof.

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Emotion

Emotion is any conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a certain degree of pleasure or displeasure.

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Encephalitis

Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain.

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Enchanted loom

The enchanted loom is a famous metaphor for the human brain invented by the pioneering neuroscientist Charles S. Sherrington in a passage from his 1942 book Man on his nature, in which he poetically describes his conception of what happens in the cerebral cortex during arousal from sleep: The "loom" he refers to was undoubtedly meant to be a Jacquard loom, used for weaving fabric into complex patterns.

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Endolymph

Endolymph is the fluid contained in the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear.

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Endurance training

Endurance training is the act of exercising to increase endurance.

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Ependyma

Ependyma is the thin neuroepithelial lining of the ventricular system of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord, made up of ependymal cells.

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Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a group of neurological disorders characterized by epileptic seizures.

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Epileptic seizure

An epileptic seizure is a brief episode of signs or symptoms due to abnormally excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.

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Epithalamus

The epithalamus is a (dorsal) posterior segment of the diencephalon.

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Erasistratus

Erasistratus (Ἐρασίστρατος; c. 304 – c. 250 BC) was a Greek anatomist and royal physician under Seleucus I Nicator of Syria.

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Executive functions

Executive functions (collectively referred to as executive function and cognitive control) are a set of cognitive processes that are necessary for the cognitive control of behavior: selecting and successfully monitoring behaviors that facilitate the attainment of chosen goals.

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Exhalation

Exhalation (or expiration) is the flow of the breath out of an organism.

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Extrapyramidal system

In anatomy, the extrapyramidal system is a part of the motor system network causing involuntary actions.

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F. A. Davis

Frank Allston Davis (September 8, 1850Hartzell, p. 51. – January 2, 1917Hartzell, p. 55) was a publishing executive who founded the F. A. Davis Company in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

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Facial

A facial is a family of skin care treatments for the face, including steam, exfoliation, extraction, creams, lotions, facial masks, peels, and massage.

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Facial nerve

The facial nerve is the seventh cranial nerve, or simply cranial nerve VII.

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Falling (accident)

Falling is the second leading cause of accidental death worldwide and is a major cause of personal injury, especially for the elderly.

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FAST (stroke)

FAST is an acronym used as a mnemonic to help detect and enhance responsiveness to the needs of a person having a stroke.

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Fasting

Fasting is the willing abstinence or reduction from some or all food, drink, or both, for a period of time.

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Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are a group of conditions that can occur in a person whose mother drank alcohol during pregnancy.

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Fever

Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set-point.

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Fifth-century Athens

Fifth-century Athens is the Greek city-state of Athens in the time from 480 BC-404 BC.

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Flocculonodular lobe

The flocculonodular lobe (vestibulocerebellum) is a lobe of the cerebellum consisting of the nodule and the flocculus.

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Fluid and crystallized intelligence

In psychology, fluid and crystallized intelligence (respectively abbreviated Gf and Gc) are factors of general intelligence, originally identified by Raymond Cattell.

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Focal seizure

Focal seizures (also called partial seizures and localized seizures) are seizures which affect initially only one hemisphere of the brain.

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Food energy

Food energy is chemical energy that animals (including humans) derive from food through the process of cellular respiration.

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Foramen magnum

The foramen magnum (great hole) is a large oval opening (foramen) in the occipital bone of the skull in humans and various other animals.

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Forebrain

In the anatomy of the brain of vertebrates, the forebrain or prosencephalon is the rostral-most (forward-most) portion of the brain.

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Fourth ventricle

The fourth ventricle is one of the four connected fluid-filled cavities within the human brain.

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Francis O. Schmitt

Francis O. Schmitt (November 23, 1903 – October 3, 1995) was an American biologist and Institute Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

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Frontal gyrus

The frontal gyrus is the gyrus of the frontal lobe in the brain.

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Frontal lobe

The frontal lobe, located at the front of the brain, is the largest of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the mammalian brain.

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Functional genomics

Functional genomics is a field of molecular biology that attempts to make use of the vast wealth of data given by genomic and transcriptomic projects (such as genome sequencing projects and RNA sequencing) to describe gene (and protein) functions and interactions.

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Functional imaging

Functional imaging (or physiological imaging), is a medical imaging technique of detecting or measuring changes in metabolism, blood flow, regional chemical composition, and absorption.

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Functional magnetic resonance imaging

Functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI (fMRI) measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow.

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Functional near-infrared spectroscopy

Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIR or fNIRS), is the use of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for the purpose of functional neuroimaging.

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Functional neuroimaging

Functional neuroimaging is the use of neuroimaging technology to measure an aspect of brain function, often with a view to understanding the relationship between activity in certain brain areas and specific mental functions.

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Fungus

A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms.

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Futile medical care

Futile medical care is the continued provision of medical care or treatment to a patient when there is no reasonable hope of a cure or benefit.

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GAD1

Glutamate decarboxylase 1 (brain, 67kDa) (GAD67), also known as GAD1, is a human gene.

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Gale (publisher)

Gale is an educational publishing company based in Farmington Hills, Michigan, in the western suburbs of Detroit.

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Galen

Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 AD – /), often Anglicized as Galen and better known as Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire.

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Game brain

is a term coined by Akio Mori referring to human brains affected by the long-term effect of playing video games.

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Gamma-Aminobutyric acid

gamma-Aminobutyric acid, or γ-aminobutyric acid, or GABA, is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system.

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Gene

In biology, a gene is a sequence of DNA or RNA that codes for a molecule that has a function.

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Gene expression

Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product.

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Gene–environment interaction

Gene–environment interaction (or genotype–environment interaction or G×E) is when two different genotypes respond to environmental variation in different ways.

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GeneCards

GeneCards is a database of human genes that provides genomic, proteomic, transcriptomic, genetic and functional information on all known and predicted human genes.

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General Electric

General Electric Company (GE) is an American multinational conglomerate incorporated in New York and headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts.

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General visceral afferent fibers

The general visceral afferent fibers (GVA) conduct sensory impulses (usually pain or reflex sensations) from the internal organs, glands, and blood vessels to the central nervous system.

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Generalized epilepsy

Generalized epilepsy, also known as primary generalized epilepsy or idiopathic epilepsy, is a form of epilepsy characterised by generalised seizures with no apparent cause.

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Genomics

Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of science focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes.

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Glia limitans

The glia limitans, or the glial limiting membrane, is a thin barrier of astrocyte foot processes associated with the parenchymal basal lamina surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

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Globus pallidus

The globus pallidus (Latin for "pale globe") also known as paleostriatum or dorsal pallidum, is a subcortical structure of the brain.

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Glossopharyngeal nerve

The glossopharyngeal nerve, known as the ninth cranial nerve (CN IX), is a mixed nerve that carries afferent sensory and efferent motor information.

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Glucose

Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6.

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Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

In neuroscience, glutamate refers to the anion of glutamic acid in its role as a neurotransmitter: a chemical that nerve cells use to send signals to other cells.

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Glycogen

Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in humans, animals, fungi, and bacteria.

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Glymphatic system

The glymphatic system (or glymphatic clearance pathway, or paravascular system) is a functional waste clearance pathway for the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS).

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Golgi's method

Golgi's method is a silver staining technique that is used to visualize nervous tissue under light microscopy.

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Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz (or; Leibnitz; – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath and philosopher who occupies a prominent place in the history of mathematics and the history of philosophy.

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Great cerebral vein

The great cerebral vein is one of the large blood vessels in the skull draining the cerebrum of the brain.

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Grey matter

Grey matter (or gray matter) is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and myelinated as well as unmyelinated axons), glial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), synapses, and capillaries.

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Guilford Press

Guilford Publications, Inc. is a New York City-based independent publisher founded in 1973 that specializes in publishing books, journals, and DVDs in psychology, psychiatry, the behavioral sciences, education, and geography.

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Gustatory cortex

The primary gustatory cortex is a brain structure responsible for the perception of taste.

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Gut–brain axis

The gut–brain axis is the biochemical signaling that takes place between the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and the central nervous system (CNS).

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Gyrification

Gyrification is the process of forming the characteristic folds of the cerebral cortex.

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Gyrus

In neuroanatomy, a gyrus (pl. gyri) is a ridge on the cerebral cortex.

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Haemodynamic response

In haemodynamics, the body must respond to physical activities, external temperature, and other factors by homeostatically adjusting its blood flow to deliver nutrients such as oxygen and glucose to stressed tissues and allow them to function.

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Harvey Cushing

Harvey Williams Cushing (April 8, 1869 – October 7, 1939) was an American neurosurgeon, pathologist, writer and draftsman.

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Head injury

A head injury is any injury that results in trauma to the skull or brain.

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Hearing

Hearing, or auditory perception, is the ability to perceive sounds by detecting vibrations, changes in the pressure of the surrounding medium through time, through an organ such as the ear.

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Hearing loss

Hearing loss, also known as hearing impairment, is a partial or total inability to hear.

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Heart rate

Heart rate is the speed of the heartbeat measured by the number of contractions of the heart per minute (bpm).

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Heptanoic acid

Heptanoic acid, also called enanthic acid, is an organic compound composed of a seven-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid.

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Hermann von Helmholtz

Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (August 31, 1821 – September 8, 1894) was a German physician and physicist who made significant contributions in several scientific fields.

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Herophilos

Herophilos (Ἡρόφιλος; 335–280 BC), sometimes Latinised Herophilus, was a Greek physician deemed to be the first anatomist.

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Hieroglyph

A hieroglyph (Greek for "sacred writing") was a character of the ancient Egyptian writing system.

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Highbrow

Used colloquially as a noun or adjective, "highbrow" is synonymous with intellectual; as an adjective, it also means elite, and generally carries a connotation of high culture.

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Hindbrain

The hindbrain or rhombencephalon is a developmental categorization of portions of the central nervous system in vertebrates.

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Hippocampus

The hippocampus (named after its resemblance to the seahorse, from the Greek ἱππόκαμπος, "seahorse" from ἵππος hippos, "horse" and κάμπος kampos, "sea monster") is a major component of the brains of humans and other vertebrates.

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Hippocrates

Hippocrates of Kos (Hippokrátēs ho Kṓos), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the Age of Pericles (Classical Greece), and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine.

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Histology

Histology, also microanatomy, is the study of the anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals using microscopy.

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History of neuroscience

From the ancient Egyptian mummifications to 18th century scientific research on "globules" and neurons, there is evidence of neuroscience practice throughout the early periods of history.

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HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) are neurological disorders associated with HIV infection and AIDS.

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Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the tendency of organisms to auto-regulate and maintain their internal environment in a stable state.

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Hominidae

The Hominidae, whose members are known as great apes or hominids, are a taxonomic family of primates that includes eight extant species in four genera: Pongo, the Bornean, Sumatran and Tapanuli orangutan; Gorilla, the eastern and western gorilla; Pan, the common chimpanzee and the bonobo; and Homo, which includes modern humans and its extinct relatives (e.g., the Neanderthal), and ancestors, such as Homo erectus.

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Homo habilis

Homo habilis was a species of early humans, who lived between roughly 2.1 and 1.5 million years ago.

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Human

Humans (taxonomically Homo sapiens) are the only extant members of the subtribe Hominina.

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Human body

The human body is the entire structure of a human being.

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Human Connectome Project

The Human Connectome Project (HCP) is a five-year project sponsored by sixteen components of the National Institutes of Health, split between two consortia of research institutions.

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Human embryogenesis

Human embryogenesis is the process of cell division and cellular differentiation of the embryo that occurs during the early stages of development.

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Human evolution

Human evolution is the evolutionary process that led to the emergence of anatomically modern humans, beginning with the evolutionary history of primates – in particular genus Homo – and leading to the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species of the hominid family, the great apes.

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Human eye

The human eye is an organ which reacts to light and pressure.

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Human head

In human anatomy, the head is the upper portion of the human body.

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Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD), also known as Huntington's chorea, is an inherited disorder that results in death of brain cells.

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Hydrocephalus

Hydrocephalus is a condition in which there is an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the brain.

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Hypertension

Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated.

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Hypoglossal nerve

The hypoglossal nerve is the twelfth cranial nerve, and innervates all the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the tongue, except for the palatoglossus which is innervated by the vagus nerve.

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Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia, also known as low blood sugar, is when blood sugar decreases to below normal levels.

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Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus(from Greek ὑπό, "under" and θάλαμος, thalamus) is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions.

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Hypothermia

Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs.

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Image analysis

Image analysis is the extraction of meaningful information from images; mainly from digital images by means of digital image processing techniques.

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Impulse (psychology)

Impulse is a biological force in the human unconscious in the case of continuous activity and excitement.

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Infection

Infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they produce.

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Inferior cerebellar peduncle

The upper part of the posterior district of the medulla oblongata is occupied by the inferior cerebellar peduncle, a thick rope-like strand situated between the lower part of the fourth ventricle and the roots of the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. Each cerebellar inferior peduncle connects the spinal cord and medulla oblongata with the cerebellum, and comprises the juxtarestiform body and restiform body. Important fibers running through the inferior cerebellar peduncle include the dorsal spinocerebellar tract and axons from the inferior olivary nucleus, among others.

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Inferior cerebral veins

The inferior cerebral veins are veins that drain the undersurface of the cerebral hemispheres and empty into the cavernous and transverse sinuses.

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Inferior frontal gyrus

The inferior frontal gyrus is a part of the frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe (the yellow area of the human brain image to the right).

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Inferior petrosal sinus

The inferior petrosal sinuses are two small sinuses situated on the inferior border of the petrous part of the temporal bone, one on each side.

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Inferior sagittal sinus

The inferior sagittal sinus (also known as inferior longitudinal sinus), within the human head, is an area beneath the brain which allows blood to drain outwards posteriorly from the center of the head.

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Inhalation

Inhalation (also known as inspiration) happens when oxygen from the air enters the lungs.

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Inhibitory control

Inhibitory control, also known as response inhibition, is a cognitive process that permits an individual to inhibit their impulses and natural, habitual, or dominant behavioral responses to stimuli (prepotent responses) in order to select a more appropriate behavior that is consistent with completing their goals.

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Inner ear

The inner ear (internal ear, auris interna) is the innermost part of the vertebrate ear.

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Insular cortex

In each hemisphere of the mammalian brain the insular cortex (also insula and insular lobe) is a portion of the cerebral cortex folded deep within the lateral sulcus (the fissure separating the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes).

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Intelligence

Intelligence has been defined in many different ways to include the capacity for logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, and problem solving.

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Intelligence quotient

An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from several standardized tests designed to assess human intelligence.

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Interdisciplinarity

Interdisciplinarity or interdisciplinary studies involves the combining of two or more academic disciplines into one activity (e.g., a research project).

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Internal capsule

The internal capsule is a white matter structure situated in the inferomedial part of each cerebral hemisphere of the brain.

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Internal carotid artery

The internal carotid artery is a major paired artery, one on each side of the head and neck, in human anatomy.

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Internal cerebral veins

The internal cerebral veins (deep cerebral veins) drain the deep parts of the hemisphere and are two in number; each internal cerebral vein is formed near the interventricular foramina by the union of the superior thalamostriate vein and the superior choroid vein.

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Internal jugular vein

The internal jugular vein is a paired jugular vein that collects blood from the brain and the superficial parts of the face and neck.

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Interneuron

An interneuron (also called internuncial neuron, relay neuron, association neuron, connector neuron, intermediate neuron or local circuit neuron) is a broad class of neurons found in the human body.

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Interpeduncular cistern

The interpeduncular cistern encloses the cerebral peduncles and the structures contained in the interpeduncular fossa, and contains the arterial circle of Willis as well as the oculomotor nerve (CN3).

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Interventricular foramina (neuroanatomy)

In the brain, the interventricular foramina (or foramina of Monro) are channels that connect the paired lateral ventricles with the third ventricle at the midline of the brain.

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Intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), also known as cerebral bleed, is a type of intracranial bleed that occurs within the brain tissue or ventricles.

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Intracranial aneurysm

Intracranial aneurysm, also known as brain aneurysm, is a cerebrovascular disorder in which weakness in the wall of a cerebral artery or vein causes a localized dilation or ballooning of the blood vessel.

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Intracranial hemorrhage

Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), also known as intracranial bleed, is bleeding within the skull.

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Ischemia

Ischemia or ischaemia is a restriction in blood supply to tissues, causing a shortage of oxygen that is needed for cellular metabolism (to keep tissue alive).

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Isolated brain

An isolated brain is a brain kept alive in vitro, either by perfusion by a blood substitute, often an oxygenated solution of various salts, or by submerging the brain in oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

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James Papez

James Wenceslas Papez (Livingston, Kenneth E.. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1981; 1883–1958) was an American neuroanatomist.

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Jean Pierre Flourens

Marie Jean Pierre Flourens (13 April 1794 – 6 December 1867), father of Gustave Flourens, was a French physiologist, the founder of experimental brain science and a pioneer in anesthesia.

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Johannes Peter Müller

Johannes Peter Müller (14 July 1801 – 28 April 1858) was a German physiologist, comparative anatomist, ichthyologist, and herpetologist, known not only for his discoveries but also for his ability to synthesize knowledge.

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John Farquhar Fulton

John Farquhar Fulton (November 1, 1899 – May 29, 1960) was an American neurophysiologist and science writer.

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John Hughlings Jackson

John Hughlings Jackson, FRS (4 April 1835 – 7 October 1911) was an English neurologist.

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John Wiley & Sons

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., also referred to as Wiley, is a global publishing company that specializes in academic publishing.

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Kea (island)

Kea (Κέα), also known as or Tzia (Τζια) and in antiquity Keos (Κέως, Ceos), is a Greek island in the Cyclades archipelago in the Aegean Sea.

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Ketone bodies

Ketone bodies are three water-soluble molecules (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and their spontaneous breakdown product, acetone) containing the ketone group that are produced by the liver from fatty acids during periods of low food intake (fasting), carbohydrate restrictive diets, starvation, prolonged intense exercise, alcoholism or in untreated (or inadequately treated) type 1 diabetes mellitus.

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Korbinian Brodmann

Korbinian Brodmann (17 November 1868 – 22 August 1918) was a German neurologist who became famous for his definition of the cerebral cortex into 52 distinct regions from their cytoarchitectonic (histological) characteristics, known as Brodmann areas.

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Kuru (disease)

Kuru is a very rare, incurable neurodegenerative disorder that was formerly common among the Fore people of Papua New Guinea.

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Language

Language is a system that consists of the development, acquisition, maintenance and use of complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so; and a language is any specific example of such a system.

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Language acquisition

Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate.

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Language processing in the brain

Language processing refers to the way humans use words to communicate ideas and feelings, and how such communications are processed and understood.

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Large scale brain networks

Large scale brain networks are collections of widespread brain regions showing functional connectivity by statistical analysis of the fMRI BOLD signal or other signal fluctuations.

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Lateral aperture

The lateral aperture is a paired structure in human anatomy.

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Lateral geniculate nucleus

The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN; also called the lateral geniculate body or lateral geniculate complex) is a relay center in the thalamus for the visual pathway.

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Lateral hypothalamus

The lateral hypothalamus, also called the lateral hypothalamic area, contains the primary orexinergic nucleus within the hypothalamus that widely projects throughout the nervous system; this system of neurons mediates an array of cognitive and physical processes, such as promoting feeding behavior and arousal, reducing pain perception, and regulating body temperature, digestive functions, and blood pressure, among many others.

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Lateral sulcus

The lateral sulcus (also called Sylvian fissure or lateral fissure) is one of the most prominent features of the human brain.

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Lateral ventricles

The lateral ventricles are the two largest cavities of the ventricular system of the human brain and contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

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Lateralization of brain function

The lateralization of brain function is the tendency for some neural functions or cognitive processes to be specialized to one side of the brain or the other.

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Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519), more commonly Leonardo da Vinci or simply Leonardo, was an Italian polymath of the Renaissance, whose areas of interest included invention, painting, sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature, anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography.

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Limbic system

The limbic system is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, immediately beneath the cerebrum.

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Lipid profile

Lipid profile or lipid panel is a panel of blood tests that serves as an initial screening tool for abnormalities in lipids, such as cholesterol and triglycerides.

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Lipid-lowering agent

Hypolipidemic agents, or antihyperlipidemic agents, are a diverse group of pharmaceuticals that are used in the treatment of high levels of fats (lipids), such as cholesterol, in the blood (hyperlipidemia).

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Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (LWW) is an imprint of the publishing conglomerate Wolters Kluwer.

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Lissencephaly

Lissencephaly is a set of rare brain disorders where the whole or parts of the surface of the brain appear smooth.

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Liver

The liver, an organ only found in vertebrates, detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins, and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion.

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Lobes of the brain

The lobes of the brain were originally a purely anatomical classification, but have been shown also to be related to different brain functions.

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Local field potential

A local field potential (LFP) is an electrophysiological signal generated by the summed electric current flowing from multiple nearby neurons within a small volume of nervous tissue.

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Longitudinal fissure

The longitudinal fissure (or cerebral fissure, medial longitudinal fissure, or interhemispheric fissure) is the deep groove that separates the two hemispheres of the vertebrate brain.

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Lower motor neuron

Lower motor neurons (LMNs) are motor neurons located in either the anterior grey column, anterior nerve roots (spinal lower motor neurons) or the cranial nerve nuclei of the brainstem and cranial nerves with motor function (cranial nerve lower motor neurons).

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Lung cancer

Lung cancer, also known as lung carcinoma, is a malignant lung tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung.

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Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is part of the vascular system and an important part of the immune system, comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph (from Latin, lympha meaning "water") directionally towards the heart.

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Macmillan Publishers

Macmillan Publishers Ltd (occasionally known as the Macmillan Group) is an international publishing company owned by Holtzbrinck Publishing Group.

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Magna Graecia

Magna Graecia (Latin meaning "Great Greece", Μεγάλη Ἑλλάς, Megálē Hellás, Magna Grecia) was the name given by the Romans to the coastal areas of Southern Italy in the present-day regions of Campania, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria and Sicily that were extensively populated by Greek settlers; particularly the Achaean settlements of Croton, and Sybaris, and to the north, the settlements of Cumae and Neapolis.

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Magnetic resonance angiography

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is a group of techniques based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to image blood vessels.

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Magnetic resonance imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both health and disease.

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Magnetoencephalography

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents occurring naturally in the brain, using very sensitive magnetometers.

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Major depressive disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD), also known simply as depression, is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of low mood that is present across most situations.

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Malignancy

Malignancy is the tendency of a medical condition to become progressively worse.

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Malnutrition

Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems.

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Mammal

Mammals are the vertebrates within the class Mammalia (from Latin mamma "breast"), a clade of endothermic amniotes distinguished from reptiles (including birds) by the possession of a neocortex (a region of the brain), hair, three middle ear bones, and mammary glands.

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Margaret Kennard

Margaret Alice Kennard (September 25, 1899—December 12, 1975) was a neurologist who principally studied the effects of neurological damage on primates.

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Mast cell

A mast cell (also known as a mastocyte or a labrocyte) is a type of white blood cell.

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Materialism

Materialism is a form of philosophical monism which holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and that all things, including mental aspects and consciousness, are results of material interactions.

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Medial geniculate nucleus

The medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) or medial geniculate body (MGB) is part of the auditory thalamus and represents the thalamic relay between the inferior colliculus (IC) and the auditory cortex (AC).

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Medial septal nucleus

The medial septal nucleus is one of the septal nuclei.

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Median aperture

The median aperture (also known as the medial aperture, and foramen of Magendie) drains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the fourth ventricle into the cisterna magna.

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Median eminence

The median eminence, part of the inferior boundary of the hypothalamus in the brain, is attached to the infundibulum.

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Medical history

The medical history or case history of a patient is information gained by a physician by asking specific questions, either of the patient or of other people who know the person and can give suitable information, with the aim of obtaining information useful in formulating a diagnosis and providing medical care to the patient.

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Medical imaging

Medical imaging is the technique and process of creating visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention, as well as visual representation of the function of some organs or tissues (physiology).

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Medical literature

Medical literature is the scientific literature of medicine: articles in journals and texts in books devoted to the field of medicine.

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Medulla oblongata

The medulla oblongata (or medulla) is located in the brainstem, anterior and partially inferior to the cerebellum.

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Medullary pyramids (brainstem)

The medullary pyramids are paired white matter structures of the brainstem's medulla oblongata that contain motor fibers of the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts – known together as the pyramidal tracts.

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Melanoma

Melanoma, also known as malignant melanoma, is a type of cancer that develops from the pigment-containing cells known as melanocytes.

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Meningeal lymphatic vessels

The meningeal lymphatic vessels (or meningeal lymphatics) are a recently discovered network of conventional lymphatic vessels located parallel to the dural sinuses and meningeal arteries of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS).

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Meninges

The meninges (singular: meninx, from membrane, adjectival: meningeal) are the three membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord.

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Meningioma

Meningioma, also known as meningeal tumor, is typically a slow-growing tumor that forms from the meninges, the membranous layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

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Meningitis

Meningitis is an acute inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known collectively as the meninges.

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Mental disorder

A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning.

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Metabolism

Metabolism (from μεταβολή metabolē, "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of organisms.

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Metastasis

Metastasis is a pathogenic agent's spread from an initial or primary site to a different or secondary site within the host's body; it is typically spoken of as such spread by a cancerous tumor.

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Microelectrode

This article about application of microelectrodes in electrophysiology.

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Microglia

Microglia are a type of neuroglia (glial cell) located throughout the brain and spinal cord.

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Microscope

A microscope (from the μικρός, mikrós, "small" and σκοπεῖν, skopeîn, "to look" or "see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye.

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Midbrain

The midbrain or mesencephalon (from Greek mesos 'middle', and enkephalos 'brain') is a portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation.

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Middle cerebellar peduncle

The middle cerebellar peduncles (brachia pontis) are paired structures (left and right) that connect the cerebellum to the pons and are composed entirely of centripetal fibers, i.e. incoming fibers.

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Middle cerebral artery

The middle cerebral artery (MCA) is one of the three major paired arteries that supply blood to the cerebrum.

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Middle cerebral veins

The middle cerebral veins are the superficial middle cerebral vein and the deep middle cerebral vein.

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Mind

The mind is a set of cognitive faculties including consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, language and memory.

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Mind–body dualism

Mind–body dualism, or mind–body duality, is a view in the philosophy of mind that mental phenomena are, in some respects, non-physical,Hart, W.D. (1996) "Dualism", in A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind, ed.

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Mind–body problem

The mind–body problem is a philosophical problem concerning the relationship between the human mind and body, although it can also concern animal minds, if any, and animal bodies.

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MIT Press

The MIT Press is a university press affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts (United States).

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Monadology

The Monadology (La Monadologie, 1714) is one of Gottfried Leibniz’s best known works representing his later philosophy.

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Mondino de Luzzi

Mondino de Luzzi, or de Liuzzi or de Lucci, (ca. 1270 – 1326), also known as Mundinus, was an Italian physician, anatomist and professor of surgery, who lived and worked in Bologna.

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Motivational salience

Motivational salience is a cognitive process and a form of attention that motivates, or propels, an individual's behavior towards or away from a particular object, perceived event, or outcome.

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Motor control

Motor control is the systematic regulation of movement in organisms that possess a nervous system.

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Motor cortex

The motor cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements.

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Motor neuron

A motor neuron (or motoneuron) is a neuron whose cell body is located in the motor cortex, brainstem or the spinal cord, and whose axon (fiber) projects to the spinal cord or outside of the spinal cord to directly or indirectly control effector organs, mainly muscles and glands.

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Motor neuron disease

A motor neuron disease (MND) is any of several neurodegenerative disorders that selectively affect motor neurons, the cells that control voluntary muscles of the body.

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Motor system

The motor system is the part of the central nervous system that is involved with movement.

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Multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged.

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Muscle

Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals.

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Muscles of respiration

The muscles of respiration are those muscles that contribute to inhalation and exhalation, by aiding in the expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity.

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Mutation

In biology, a mutation is the permanent alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA or other genetic elements.

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Myelin basic protein

Myelin basic protein (MBP) is a protein believed to be important in the process of myelination of nerves in the nervous system.

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Nasal cavity

The nasal cavity (nasal fossa, or nasal passage) is a large air filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face.

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National Institutes of Health

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research, founded in the late 1870s.

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Neanderthal

Neanderthals (also; also Neanderthal Man, taxonomically Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) are an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus Homo, who lived in Eurasia during at least 430,000 to 38,000 years ago.

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Neocortex

The neocortex, also called the neopallium and isocortex, is the part of the mammalian brain involved in higher-order brain functions such as sensory perception, cognition, generation of motor commands, spatial reasoning and language.

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Nerve

A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of axons (nerve fibers, the long and slender projections of neurons) in the peripheral nervous system.

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Nerve tract

A nerve tract, is a bundle of nerve fibers (axons) connecting nuclei of the central nervous system.

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Nervous system

The nervous system is the part of an animal that coordinates its actions by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.

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Neural circuit

A neural circuit, is a population of neurons interconnected by synapses to carry out a specific function when activated.

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Neural crest

Neural crest cells are a temporary group of cells unique to chordates of the group Cristozoa that arise from the embryonic ectoderm cell layer, and in turn give rise to a diverse cell lineage—including melanocytes, craniofacial cartilage and bone, smooth muscle, peripheral and enteric neurons and glia.

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Neural engineering

Neural engineering (also known as neuroengineering) is a discipline within biomedical engineering that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, enhance, or otherwise exploit the properties of neural systems.

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Neural fold

The neural fold is a structure that arises during neurulation in the embryonic development of both birds and mammals among other organisms.

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Neural oscillation

Neural oscillations, or brainwaves, are rhythmic or repetitive patterns of neural activity in the central nervous system.

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Neural pathway

A neural pathway is the connection formed by axons that project from neurons to make synapses onto neurons in another location, to enable a signal to be sent from one region of the nervous system to another.

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Neural plate

The neural plate is a key developmental structure that serves as the basis for the nervous system.

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Neural stem cell

Neural stem cells (NSCs) are self-renewing, multipotent cells that generate the neurons and glia of the nervous system of all animals during embryonic development.

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Neural tube

In the developing chordate (including vertebrates), the neural tube is the embryonic precursor to the central nervous system, which is made up of the brain and spinal cord.

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Neuroanatomy

Neuroanatomy is the study of the structure and organization of the nervous system.

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Neuroanthropology

Neuroanthropology is the study of the relationship between culture and the brain.

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Neurocranium

In human anatomy, the neurocranium, also known as the braincase, brainpan, or brain-pan is the upper and back part of the skull, which forms a protective case around the brain.

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Neurodegeneration

Neurodegeneration is the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, including death of neurons.

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Neuroendocrine cell

Neuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input (neurotransmitters released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules (hormones) to the blood.

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Neuroglia

Neuroglia, also called glial cells or simply glia, are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system.

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Neurogranin

Neurogranin is a calmodulin-binding protein expressed primarily in the brain, particularly in dendritic spines, and participating in the protein kinase C signaling pathway.

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Neuroimaging

Neuroimaging or brain imaging is the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/pharmacology of the nervous system.

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Neuroimmune system

The neuroimmune system is a system of structures and processes involving the biochemical and electrophysiological interactions between the nervous system and immune system which protect neurons from pathogens.

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Neurolinguistics

Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.

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Neurological disorder

A neurological disorder is any disorder of the nervous system.

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Neurological examination

A neurological examination is the assessment of sensory neuron and motor responses, especially reflexes, to determine whether the nervous system is impaired.

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Neurology

Neurology (from νεῦρον (neûron), "string, nerve" and the suffix -logia, "study of") is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system.

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Neuromere

Neuromeres are morphologically or molecularly defined transient segments of the early developing brain.

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Neuron

A neuron, also known as a neurone (British spelling) and nerve cell, is an electrically excitable cell that receives, processes, and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.

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Neuron doctrine

The neuron doctrine is the concept that the nervous system is made up of discrete individual cells, a discovery due to decisive neuro-anatomical work of Santiago Ramón y Cajal and later presented by, among others, H. Waldeyer-Hartz.

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Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity and neural plasticity, is the ability of the brain to change throughout an individual's life, e.g., brain activity associated with a given function can be transferred to a different location, the proportion of grey matter can change, and synapses may strengthen or weaken over time.

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Neuropsychological test

Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway.

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Neuroscience

Neuroscience (or neurobiology) is the scientific study of the nervous system.

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Neuroscience of rhythm

The neuroscience of rhythm refers to the various forms of rhythm generated by the central nervous system (CNS).

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Neuroscience of sleep

The neuroscience of sleep is the study of the neuroscientific and physiological basis of the nature of sleep and its functions.

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Neuroscience Research Program

The Neuroscience Research Program (NRP) is an inter-university and international organisation founded during 1962 by Francis Otto Schmitt and others, which marked a key moment in the foundation of neuroscience as a discipline.

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Neurosurgery

Neurosurgery, or neurological surgery, is the medical specialty concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, surgical treatment, and rehabilitation of disorders which affect any portion of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and extra-cranial cerebrovascular system.

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Neurosyphilis

Neurosyphilis is an infection of the brain or spinal cord caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum.

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Neurotoxicity

Neurotoxicity is a form of toxicity in which a biological, chemical, or physical agent produces an adverse effect on the structure or function of the central and/or peripheral nervous system.

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Neurotransmission

Neurotransmission (Latin: transmissio "passage, crossing" from transmittere "send, let through"), also called synaptic transmission, is the process by which signaling molecules called neurotransmitters are released by the axon terminal of a neuron (the presynaptic neuron), and bind to and activate the receptors on the dendrites of another neuron (the postsynaptic neuron).

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Neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission.

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Neurulation

Neurulation refers to the folding process in vertebrate embryos, which includes the transformation of the neural plate into the neural tube.

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New Scientist

New Scientist, first published on 22 November 1956, is a weekly, English-language magazine that covers all aspects of science and technology.

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Niccolò Massa

Niccolò Massa (1485–1569) was an Italian anatomist who wrote an early anatomy text Anatomiae Libri Introductorius in 1536.

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Nobel Prize

The Nobel Prize (Swedish definite form, singular: Nobelpriset; Nobelprisen) is a set of six annual international awards bestowed in several categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances.

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Nuclear medicine

Nuclear medicine is a medical specialty involving the application of radioactive substances in the diagnosis and treatment of disease.

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Nucleus (neuroanatomy)

In neuroanatomy, a nucleus (plural form: nuclei) is a cluster of neurons in the central nervous system, located deep within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem.

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Nucleus accumbens

The nucleus accumbens (NAc or NAcc), also known as the accumbens nucleus, or formerly as the nucleus accumbens septi (Latin for nucleus adjacent to the septum) is a region in the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus.

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Nucleus basalis

The nucleus basalis, also nucleus basalis of Meynert is a group of neurons in the substantia innominata of the basal forebrain which has wide projections to the neocortex and is rich in acetylcholine and choline acetyltransferase.

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Obsessive–compulsive disorder

Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder where people feel the need to check things repeatedly, perform certain routines repeatedly (called "rituals"), or have certain thoughts repeatedly (called "obsessions").

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Occipital bone

The occipital bone is a cranial dermal bone, and is the main bone of the occiput (back and lower part of the skull).

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Occipital lobe

The occipital lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals.

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Occupational therapist

An occupational therapist works with a client to help them achieve a fulfilled and satisfied state in life through the use of "purposeful activity or interventions designed to achieve occupational outcomes which promote health, prevent injury or disability to develop, improve, sustain or restore the highest possible level of independence." A practical definition for OT can also be illustrated with the use of models such as the Occupational Performance Model (Australia), known as the OPM(A).

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Oculomotor nerve

The oculomotor nerve is the third cranial nerve.

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Olfaction

Olfaction is a chemoreception that forms the sense of smell.

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Olfactory bulb

The olfactory bulb (bulbus olfactorius) is a neural structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, the sense of smell.

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Olfactory epithelium

The olfactory epithelium is a specialized epithelial tissue inside the nasal cavity that is involved in smell.

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Olfactory mucosa

The olfactory mucosa is located in the upper region of the nasal cavity and is made up of the olfactory epithelium and the underlying lamina propria, connective tissue containing fibroblasts, blood vessels, Bowman's glands and bundles of fine axons from the olfactory neurons.

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Olfactory nerve

The olfactory nerve is typically considered the first cranial nerve, or simply CN I, that contains sensory nerve fibers relating to smell.

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Olfactory receptor neuron

An olfactory receptor neuron (ORN), also called an olfactory sensory neuron (OSN), is a transduction cell within the olfactory system.

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Olfactory system

The olfactory system, or sense of smell, is the part of the sensory system used for smelling (olfaction).

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OLIG2

Oligodendrocyte transcription factor (OLIG2) is a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor encoded by the Olig2 gene.

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Oligodendrocyte

Oligodendrocytes, or oligodendroglia,.

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Online Etymology Dictionary

The Online Etymology Dictionary is a free online dictionary written and compiled by Douglas Harper that describes the origins of English-language words.

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Optic chiasm

The optic chiasm or optic chiasma (Greek χίασμα, "crossing", from the Greek χιάζω 'to mark with an X', after the Greek letter 'Χ', chi) is the part of the brain where the optic nerves partially cross.

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Optic nerve

The optic nerve, also known as cranial nerve II, is a paired nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.

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Optic radiation

The optic radiation (also known as the geniculocalcarine tract, the geniculostriate pathway, and posterior thalamic radiation) are axons from the neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus to the primary visual cortex.

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Orbit (anatomy)

In anatomy, the orbit is the cavity or socket of the skull in which the eye and its appendages are situated.

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Orbitofrontal cortex

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is a prefrontal cortex region in the frontal lobes in the brain which is involved in the cognitive processing of decision-making.

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Orexin

Orexin, also known as hypocretin, is a neuropeptide that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite.

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Organ (anatomy)

Organs are collections of tissues with similar functions.

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Organ donation

Organ donation is when a person allows an organ of theirs to be removed, legally, either by consent while the donor is alive or after death with the assent of the next of kin.

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Ossicles

The ossicles (also called auditory ossicles) are three bones in either middle ear that are among the smallest bones in the human body.

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Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press (OUP) is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press.

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Oxygen

Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8.

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Oxytocin

Oxytocin (Oxt) is a peptide hormone and neuropeptide.

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Pain

Pain is a distressing feeling often caused by intense or damaging stimuli.

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Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (a division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)), the other being the sympathetic nervous system.

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Parenchyma

Parenchyma is the bulk of a substance.

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Parietal lobe

The parietal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The parietal lobe is positioned above the temporal lobe and behind the frontal lobe and central sulcus. The parietal lobe integrates sensory information among various modalities, including spatial sense and navigation (proprioception), the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch (mechanoreception) in the somatosensory cortex which is just posterior to the central sulcus in the postcentral gyrus, and the dorsal stream of the visual system. The major sensory inputs from the skin (touch, temperature, and pain receptors), relay through the thalamus to the parietal lobe. Several areas of the parietal lobe are important in language processing. The somatosensory cortex can be illustrated as a distorted figure – the homunculus (Latin: "little man"), in which the body parts are rendered according to how much of the somatosensory cortex is devoted to them.Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. L. & Wegner, D. M. (2009). Psychology. (2nd ed.). New York (NY): Worth Publishers. The superior parietal lobule and inferior parietal lobule are the primary areas of body or spacial awareness. A lesion commonly in the right superior or inferior parietal lobule leads to hemineglect. The name comes from the parietal bone, which is named from the Latin paries-, meaning "wall".

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Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the motor system.

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Paul Broca

Pierre Paul Broca (28 June 1824 – 9 July 1880) was a French physician, anatomist and anthropologist.

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Paul D. MacLean

Paul Donald MacLean (May 1, 1913 – December 26, 2007) was an American physician and neuroscientist who made significant contributions in the fields of physiology, psychiatry, and brain research through his work at Yale Medical School and the National Institute of Mental Health.

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Perception

Perception (from the Latin perceptio) is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information, or the environment.

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Pericyte

Pericytes are contractile cells that wrap around the endothelial cells that line the capillaries and venules throughout the body.

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Peripheral chemoreceptors

Peripheral chemoreceptors (of the carotid and aortic bodies) are so named because they are sensory extensions of the peripheral nervous system into blood vessels where they detect changes in chemical concentrations.

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PH

In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.

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Pharyngeal reflex

The pharyngeal reflex or gag reflex (also known as a laryngeal spasm) is a reflex contraction of the back of the throat, evoked by touching the roof of the mouth, the back of the tongue, the area around the tonsils, the uvula, and the back of the throat.

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Philosophy of mind

Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind.

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Phineas Gage

Phineas P. Gage (18231860) was an American railroad construction foreman remembered for his improbable survival of an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior over the remaining 12 years of his lifeeffects sufficiently profound (for a time at least) that friends saw him as "no longer Gage".

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Photoreceptor cell

A photoreceptor cell is a specialized type of neuroepithelial cell found in the retina that is capable of visual phototransduction.

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Phrenic nerve

The phrenic nerve is a nerve that originates in the neck (C3-C5) and passes down between the lung and heart to reach the diaphragm.

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Phrenology

Phrenology is a pseudomedicine primarily focused on measurements of the human skull, based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific functions or modules.

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Physical examination

A physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination (more popularly known as a check-up) is the process by which a medical professional investigates the body of a patient for signs of disease.

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Physical medicine and rehabilitation

Physical medicine and rehabilitation, also known as physiatry, is a branch of medicine that aims to enhance and restore functional ability and quality of life to those with physical impairments or disabilities.

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Physical therapy

Physical therapy (PT), also known as physiotherapy, is one of the allied health professions that, by using mechanical force and movements (bio-mechanics or kinesiology), manual therapy, exercise therapy, and electrotherapy, remediates impairments and promotes mobility and function.

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Pia mater

Pia mater (or in, retrieved 2012-07-28.), often referred to as simply the pia, is the delicate innermost layer of the meninges, the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

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Pineal gland

The pineal gland, also known as the conarium, kônarion or epiphysis cerebri, is a small endocrine gland in the vertebrate brain.

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Pituitary gland

An explanation of the development of the pituitary gland (Hypophysis cerebri) & the congenital anomalies. In vertebrate anatomy, the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing in humans.

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Planning

Planning is the process of thinking about the activities required to achieve a desired goal.

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Pons

The pons (Latin for "bridge") is part of the brainstem, and in humans and other bipeds lies inferior to the midbrain, superior to the medulla oblongata and anterior to the cerebellum.

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Positron emission tomography

Positron-emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine functional imaging technique that is used to observe metabolic processes in the body as an aid to the diagnosis of disease.

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Posterior cerebral artery

The posterior cerebral artery (PCA) is one of a pair of blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood to the posterior aspect of the brain (occipital lobe) in human anatomy.

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Posterior communicating artery

In human anatomy, the left and right posterior communicating arteries are arteries at the base of the brain that form part of the circle of Willis.

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Posterior cranial fossa

The posterior cranial fossa is part of the cranial cavity, located between the foramen magnum and tentorium cerebelli.

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Posterior inferior cerebellar artery

The posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA), the largest branch of the vertebral artery, is one of the three main arterial blood supplies for the cerebellum, part of the brain.

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Posterior lobe of cerebellum

The posterior lobe of cerebellum or neocerebellum, is the portion of the cerebellum below the primary fissure.

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Posttraumatic stress disorder

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)Acceptable variants of this term exist; see the Terminology section in this article.

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Prefrontal cortex

In mammalian brain anatomy, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the cerebral cortex which covers the front part of the frontal lobe.

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Pregnancy

Pregnancy, also known as gestation, is the time during which one or more offspring develops inside a woman.

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Premotor cortex

The premotor cortex is an area of motor cortex lying within the frontal lobe of the brain just anterior to the primary motor cortex.

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Prenatal development

Prenatal development is the process in which an embryo and later fetus develops during gestation.

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Prentice Hall

Prentice Hall is a major educational publisher owned by Pearson plc.

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Pressure

Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed.

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Preventive healthcare

Preventive healthcare (alternately preventive medicine, preventative healthcare/medicine, or prophylaxis) consists of measures taken for disease prevention, as opposed to disease treatment.

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Primary motor cortex

The primary motor cortex (Brodmann area 4) is a brain region that in humans is located in the dorsal portion of the frontal lobe.

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Primary sensory areas

The primary sensory areas are the primary cortical regions of the five sensory systems in the brain (taste, olfaction, touch, hearing and vision).

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Primary somatosensory cortex

The primary somatosensory cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus, and is part of the somatosensory system.

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Primate

A primate is a mammal of the order Primates (Latin: "prime, first rank").

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Principles of Neural Science

First published in 1981 by Elsevier, Principles of Neural Science is an influential neuroscience textbook edited by Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M. Jessell.

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Problem solving

Problem solving consists of using generic or ad hoc methods, in an orderly manner, to find solutions to problems.

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Professor Branestawm

Professor Branestawm is a series of thirteen books written by the English author Norman Hunter.

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Propionic acid

Propionic acid (from the Greek words protos, meaning "first", and pion, meaning "fat"; also known as propanoic acid) is a naturally occurring carboxylic acid with chemical formula C2H5COOH.

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Proprioception

Proprioception, from Latin proprius, meaning "one's own", "individual", and capio, capere, to take or grasp, is the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement.

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Pseudoscience

Pseudoscience consists of statements, beliefs, or practices that are claimed to be both scientific and factual, but are incompatible with the scientific method.

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Psychiatry

Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of mental disorders.

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Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language.

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Psychologist

A psychologist studies normal and abnormal mental states from cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior by observing, interpreting, and recording how individuals relate to one another and to their environments.

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Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal interaction, to help a person change behavior and overcome problems in desired ways.

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Pulmonary stretch receptors

Pulmonary stretch receptors are mechanoreceptors found in the lungs.

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Purkinje cell

Purkinje cells, or Purkinje neurons, are a class of GABAergic neurons located in the cerebellum.

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Putamen

The putamen is a round structure located at the base of the forebrain (telencephalon).

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Pyramidal cell

Pyramidal cells, or (pyramidal neurons), are a type of multipolar neuron found in areas of the brain including the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and the amygdala.

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Radial glial cell

Radial glial cells are bipolar-shaped cells that span the width of the cortex in the developing vertebrate central nervous system (CNS) and serve as primary progenitor cells capable of generating neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes.

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Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy or radiotherapy, often abbreviated RT, RTx, or XRT, is therapy using ionizing radiation, generally as part of cancer treatment to control or kill malignant cells and normally delivered by a linear accelerator.

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Reason

Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying logic, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information.

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Recovery approach

Psychological recovery or recovery model or the recovery approach to mental disorder or substance dependence emphasizes and supports a person's potential for recovery.

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Recreational drug use

Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive drug to induce an altered state of consciousness for pleasure, by modifying the perceptions, feelings, and emotions of the user.

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REEP2

Receptor expression-enhancing protein 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the REEP2 gene.

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Reflex

A reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus.

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René Descartes

René Descartes (Latinized: Renatus Cartesius; adjectival form: "Cartesian"; 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist.

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Renin

Renin (etymology and pronunciation), also known as an angiotensinogenase, is an aspartic protease protein and enzyme secreted by the kidneys that participates in the body's renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS)—also known as the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone axis—that mediates the volume of extracellular fluid (blood plasma, lymph and interstitial fluid), and arterial vasoconstriction.

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Respiration (physiology)

In physiology, respiration is defined as the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction.

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Respiratory center

The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and pons, in the brainstem.

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Respiratory rate

The respiratory rate is the rate at which breathing occurs.

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Resting state fMRI

Resting state fMRI (rsfMRI or R-fMRI) is a method of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that is used in brain mapping to evaluate regional interactions that occur in a resting or task-negative state, when an explicit task is not being performed.

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Reticular formation

The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem.

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Retina

The retina is the innermost, light-sensitive "coat", or layer, of shell tissue of the eye of most vertebrates and some molluscs.

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Rhombomere

In the vertebrate embryo, a rhombomere is a transiently divided segment of the developing neural tube, within the hindbrain region (a neuromere) in the area that will eventually become the rhombencephalon.

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Richard Caton

Richard Caton (1842, Bradford – 1926), of Liverpool, England, was a British physician, physiologist and Lord Mayor of Liverpool who was crucial in discovering the electrical nature of the brain and laid the groundwork for Hans Berger to discover Alpha wave activity in the human brain.

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Roman Empire

The Roman Empire (Imperium Rōmānum,; Koine and Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, tr.) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa and Asia.

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Rome

Rome (Roma; Roma) is the capital city of Italy and a special comune (named Comune di Roma Capitale).

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S100B

S100 calcium-binding protein B (S100B) is a protein of the S-100 protein family.

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Sagittal plane

A sagittal plane or longitudinal plane is an anatomical plane which divides the body into right and left parts.

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Salience network

The salience network (SN) is a large scale brain network of the human brain that is primarily composed of the anterior insula (AI) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC).

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Santiago Ramón y Cajal

Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1 May 1852 – 17 October 1934) was a Spanish neuroscientist and pathologist, specializing in neuroanatomy, particularly the histology of the central nervous system.

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Scalp

The scalp is the anatomical area bordered by the face at the front, and by the neck at the sides and back.

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Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal social behavior and failure to understand reality.

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Scientific American

Scientific American (informally abbreviated SciAm) is an American popular science magazine.

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Segmentation (biology)

Segmentation in biology is the division of some animal and plant body plans into a series of repetitive segments.

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Self-control

Self-control, an aspect of inhibitory control, is the ability to regulate one's emotions, thoughts, and behavior in the face of temptations and impulses.

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Sense

A sense is a physiological capacity of organisms that provides data for perception.

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Sense of balance

The sense of balance or equilibrioception is one of the physiological senses related to balance.

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Sensorium

A sensorium (/sɛnˈsɔːrɪəm/) (plural: sensoria) is the sum of an organism's perception, the "seat of sensation" where it experiences and interprets the environments within which it lives.

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Sensory cortex

The sensory cortex can refer informally to the primary somatosensory cortex, or it can be used as a term for the primary and secondary cortices of the different senses (two cortices each, on left and right hemisphere): the visual cortex on the occipital lobes, the auditory cortex on the temporal lobes, the primary olfactory cortex on the uncus of the piriform region of the temporal lobes, the gustatory cortex on the insular lobe (also referred to as the insular cortex), and the primary somatosensory cortex on the anterior parietal lobes.

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Sensory nerve

A sensory nerve, also called an afferent nerve, is a nerve that carries sensory information toward the central nervous system (CNS).

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Sensory nervous system

The sensory nervous system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information.

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Sensory neuron

Sensory neurons also known as afferent neurons are neurons that convert a specific type of stimulus, via their receptors, into action potentials or graded potentials.

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Sensory-motor coupling

Sensory-motor coupling is the coupling or integration of the sensory system and motor system.

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Septum pellucidum

The septum pellucidum (translucent wall) is a thin, triangular, vertical double membrane separating the anterior horns of the left and right lateral ventricles of the brain.

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Serotonin

Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter.

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Sex differences in intelligence

Differences in intelligence have long been a topic of debate among researchers and scholars.

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Short-chain fatty acid

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), also referred to as volatile fatty acids (VFAs), are fatty acids with two to six carbon atoms.

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Sigmoid sinus

The sigmoid sinuses (sigma- or s-shaped hollow curve), also known as the pars sigmoid, are venous sinuses within the skull that receive blood from posterior dural venous sinus veins.

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Silver stain

Silver staining is the use of silver to selectively alter the appearance of a target in microscopy of histological sections; in temperature gradient gel electrophoresis; and in polyacrylamide gels.

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Single-photon emission computed tomography

Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT, or less commonly, SPET) is a nuclear medicine tomographic imaging technique using gamma rays.

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Single-unit recording

In neuroscience, single-unit recordings provide a method of measuring the electro-physiological responses of single neurons using a microelectrode system.

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Skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle is one of three major muscle types, the others being cardiac muscle and smooth muscle.

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Skull

The skull is a bony structure that forms the head in vertebrates.

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Skull fracture

A skull fracture is a break in one or more of the eight bones that form the cranial portion of the skull, usually occurring as a result of blunt force trauma.

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Sleep

Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body, characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles, and reduced interactions with surroundings.

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Sleep deprivation

Sleep deprivation is the condition of not having enough sleep; it can be either chronic or acute.

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Social interventionism

Social interventionism is an action which involves the intervention of a government or an organization in social affairs.

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Solitary nucleus

In the human brainstem, the solitary nucleus (SN) (nucleus of the solitary tract, nucleus solitarius, nucleus tractus solitarii) is a series of purely sensory nuclei (clusters of nerve cell bodies) forming a vertical column of grey matter embedded in the medulla oblongata.

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Solitary tract

The solitary tract (tractus solitarius, or fasciculus solitarius) is a compact fiber bundle that extends longitudinally through the posterolateral region of the medulla.

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Soma (biology)

The soma (pl. somata or somas), perikaryon (pl. perikarya), neurocyton, or cell body is the bulbous, non-process portion of a neuron or other brain cell type, containing the cell nucleus.

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Somatosensory system

The somatosensory system is a part of the sensory nervous system.

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Spatial visualization ability

Spatial visualization ability or visual-spatial ability is the ability to mentally manipulate 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional figures.

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Special senses

In medicine and anatomy, the special senses are the senses that have specialized organs devoted to them.

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Speech-language pathology

Speech-language pathology is a field of expertise practiced by a clinician known as a speech-language pathologist (SLP), also sometimes referred to as a speech and language therapist or a speech therapist. SLP is considered a "related health profession" along with audiology, optometry, occupational therapy, clinical psychology, physical therapy, and others.

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Sphenoid bone

The sphenoid bone is an unpaired bone of the neurocranium. It is situated in the middle of the skull towards the front, in front of the temporal bone and the basilar part of the occipital bone. The sphenoid bone is one of the seven bones that articulate to form the orbit. Its shape somewhat resembles that of a butterfly or bat with its wings extended.

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Spinal cord

The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column.

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Spinal nerve

A spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body.

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Spinal veins

The spinal veins (veins of the medulla spinalis or veins of the spinal cord) are situated in the pia mater and form a minute, tortuous, venous plexus.

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Spinothalamic tract

The spinothalamic tract (also known as anterolateral system or the ventrolateral system) is a sensory pathway from the skin to the thalamus.

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Split-brain

Split-brain is a lay term to describe the result when the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed to some degree.

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Springer Science+Business Media

Springer Science+Business Media or Springer, part of Springer Nature since 2015, is a global publishing company that publishes books, e-books and peer-reviewed journals in science, humanities, technical and medical (STM) publishing.

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Status epilepticus

Status epilepticus (SE) is a single epileptic seizure lasting more than five minutes or two or more seizures within a five-minute period without the person returning to normal between them.

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Stellate cell

In neuroscience, stellate cells are any neuron that have a star-like shape formed by dendritic processes radiating from the cell body. The three most common stellate cells are the inhibitory interneurons found within the molecular layer of the cerebellum, excitatory spiny stellate cells and inhibitory aspiny stellate interneurons. Cerebellar stellate cells synapse onto the dendritic arbors of Purkinje cells. Cortical spiny stellate cells are found in layer IVC of the V1 region in the visual cortex. They receive excitatory synaptic fibres from the thalamus and process feed forward excitation to 2/3 layer of V1 visual cortex to pyramidal cells. Cortical spiny stellate cells have a 'regular' firing pattern. Stellate cells are chromophobes, that is cells that does not stain readily, and thus appears relatively pale under the microscope.

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Stephen Kuffler

Stephen William Kuffler (August 24 Tap, Hungary, 1913 – October 11, 1980) was a pre-eminent Hungarian-American neurophysiologist.

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Straight sinus

The straight sinus, also known as tentorial sinus or the sinus rectus, is an area within the skull beneath the brain that receives venous blood.

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Striatum

The striatum, or corpus striatum (also called the neostriatum and the striate nucleus) is a nucleus (a cluster of neurons) in the subcortical basal ganglia of the forebrain.

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Stroke

A stroke is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain results in cell death.

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Stroop effect

---- ---- Naming the font color of a printed word is an easier and quicker task if word meaning and font color are not incongruent.

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Subarachnoid cisterns

The subarachnoid cisterns are spaces formed by openings in the subarachnoid space, an anatomic space in the meninges of the brain.

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Subclavian artery

In human anatomy, the subclavian arteries are paired major arteries of the upper thorax, below the clavicle.

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Substance abuse

Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of a drug in which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or others, and is a form of substance-related disorder.

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Substantia innominata

The substantia innominata also innominate substance, or substantia innominata of Meynert (Latin for unnamed substance) is a series of layers in the human brain consisting partly of gray and partly of white matter, which lies below the anterior part of the thalamus and lentiform nucleus.

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Substantia nigra

The substantia nigra (SN) is a basal ganglia structure located in the midbrain that plays an important role in reward and movement.

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Subthalamic nucleus

The subthalamic nucleus is a small lens-shaped nucleus in the brain where it is, from a functional point of view, part of the basal ganglia system.

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Subthalamus

The subthalamus or prethalamus is a part of the diencephalon.

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Sulcus (neuroanatomy)

In neuroanatomy, a sulcus (Latin: "furrow", pl. sulci) is a depression or groove in the cerebral cortex.

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Superior cerebellar artery

The superior cerebellar artery (SCA) arises near the termination of the basilar artery.

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Superior cerebellar peduncle

In the human brain, the superior cerebellar peduncle (brachium conjunctivum) is a paired structure of white matter that connects the cerebellum to the midbrain.

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Superior cerebral veins

The superior cerebral veins, numbering eight to twelve, drain the superior, lateral, and medial surfaces of the hemispheres.

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Superior olivary complex

The superior olivary complex (or SOC or superior olive) is a collection of brainstem nuclei that functions in multiple aspects of hearing and is an important component of the ascending and descending auditory pathways of the auditory system.

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Superior petrosal sinus

The superior petrosal sinus is one of the dural venous sinuses located beneath the brain.

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Superior sagittal sinus

The superior sagittal sinus (also known as the superior longitudinal sinus), within the human head, is an unpaired area along the attached margin of the falx cerebri.

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Supplementary motor area

The supplementary motor area (SMA) is a part of the primate cerebral cortex that contributes to the control of movement.

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Suprachiasmatic nucleus

The suprachiasmatic nucleus or nuclei (SCN) is a tiny region of the brain in the hypothalamus, situated directly above the optic chiasm.

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Supramarginal gyrus

The supramarginal gyrus is a portion of the parietal lobe.

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Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system.

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Synapse

In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target efferent cell.

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Tanycyte

Tanycytes are special ependymal cells found in the third ventricle of the brain, and on the floor of the fourth ventricle and have processes extending deep into the hypothalamus.

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Task switching (psychology)

Task switching, or set-shifting, is an executive function that involves the ability to unconsciously shift attention between one task and another.

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Taste

Taste, gustatory perception, or gustation is one of the five traditional senses that belongs to the gustatory system.

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Taste receptor

A taste receptor is a type of receptor which facilitates the sensation of taste.

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Tay–Sachs disease

Tay–Sachs disease is a genetic disorder that results in the destruction of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord.

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Taylor & Francis

Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in England that publishes books and academic journals.

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Temperature

Temperature is a physical quantity expressing hot and cold.

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Temporal lobe

The temporal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals.

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Temporal resolution

Temporal resolution (TR) refers to the precision of a measurement with respect to time.

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Ten percent of the brain myth

The 10 percent of the brain myth is a widely perpetuated urban legend that most or all humans only use 10 percent (or some other small percentage) of their brains.

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Teratology

Teratology is the study of abnormalities of physiological development.

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Thalamus

The thalamus (from Greek θάλαμος, "chamber") is the large mass of gray matter in the dorsal part of the diencephalon of the brain with several functions such as relaying of sensory signals, including motor signals, to the cerebral cortex, and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.

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The FASEB Journal

The FASEB Journal is a scientific journal related to experimental biosciences, promoting scientific progress and education.

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The Journal of Neuroscience

The Journal of Neuroscience is a weekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Society for Neuroscience.

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Third ventricle

The third ventricle is one of four connected fluid-filled cavities comprising the ventricular system within the mammalian brain.

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Thomas Willis

Thomas Willis (27 January 1621 – 11 November 1675) was an English doctor who played an important part in the history of anatomy, neurology and psychiatry.

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Thoracic diaphragm

For other uses, see Diaphragm (disambiguation). The thoracic diaphragm, or simply the diaphragm (partition), is a sheet of internal skeletal muscle in humans and other mammals that extends across the bottom of the thoracic cavity.

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Thought

Thought encompasses a “goal oriented flow of ideas and associations that leads to reality-oriented conclusion.” Although thinking is an activity of an existential value for humans, there is no consensus as to how it is defined or understood.

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Thrombolysis

Thrombolysis is the breakdown (lysis) of blood clots formed in blood vessels, using medication.

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Tight junction

Tight junctions, also known as occluding junctions or zonulae occludentes (singular, zonula occludens) are multiprotein junctional complex whose general function is to prevent leakage of transported solutes and water and seals the paracellular pathway.

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Tobacco smoking

Tobacco smoking is the practice of smoking tobacco and inhaling tobacco smoke (consisting of particle and gaseous phases).

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Tourette syndrome

Tourette syndrome (TS or simply Tourette's) is a common neuropsychiatric disorder with onset in childhood, characterized by multiple motor tics and at least one vocal (phonic) tic.

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Tractography

In neuroscience, tractography is a 3D modeling technique used to visually represent neural tracts using data collected by diffusion-weighted images (DWI).

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Traffic collision

A traffic collision, also called a motor vehicle collision (MVC) among other terms, occurs when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, pedestrian, animal, road debris, or other stationary obstruction, such as a tree, pole or building.

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Transcellular fluid

Transcellular fluid is the portion of total body water contained within epithelial lined spaces.

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Transcriptome

The transcriptome is the set of all RNA molecules in one cell or a population of cells.

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Transcriptomics technologies

Transcriptomics technologies are the techniques used to study an organism’s transcriptome, the sum of all of its RNA transcripts.

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Transient ischemic attack

A transient ischemic attack (TIA) is a brief episode of neurological dysfunction caused by loss of blood flow (ischemia) in the brain, spinal cord, or retina, without tissue death (infarction).

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Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), also known as prion diseases, are a group of progressive, invariably fatal, conditions that affect the brain (encephalopathies) and nervous system of many animals, including humans.

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Transverse sinuses

The transverse sinuses (left and right lateral sinuses), within the human head, are two areas beneath the brain which allow blood to drain from the back of the head. They run laterally in a groove along the interior surface of the occipital bone. They drain from the confluence of sinuses (by the internal occipital protuberance) to the sigmoid sinuses, which ultimately connect to the internal jugular vein. See diagram (at right): labeled under the brain as "" (for Latin: sinus transversus). The transverse sinuses are of large size and begin at the internal occipital protuberance; one, generally the right, being the direct continuation of the superior sagittal sinus, the other of the straight sinus. Each transverse sinus passes lateralward and forward, describing a slight curve with its convexity upward, to the base of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and lies, in this part of its course, in the attached margin of the tentorium cerebelli; it then leaves the tentorium and curves downward and medialward (an area sometimes referred to as the sigmoid sinus) to reach the jugular foramen, where it ends in the internal jugular vein. In its course it rests upon the squama of the occipital, the mastoid angle of the parietal, the mastoid part of the temporal, and, just before its termination, the jugular process of the occipital; the portion which occupies the groove on the mastoid part of the temporal is sometimes termed the sigmoid sinus. The transverse sinuses are frequently of unequal size, with the one formed by the superior sagittal sinus being the larger; they increase in size as they proceed, from back to center. On transverse section, the horizontal portion exhibits a prismatic form, the curved portion has a semicylindrical form. They receive the blood from the superior petrosal sinuses at the base of the petrous portion of the temporal bone; they communicate with the veins of the pericranium by means of the mastoid and condyloid emissary veins; and they receive some of the inferior cerebral and inferior cerebellar veins, and some veins from the diploë. The petrosquamous sinus, when present, runs backward along the junction of the squama and petrous portion of the temporal, and opens into the transverse sinus.

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Traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI), also known as intracranial injury, occurs when an external force injures the brain.

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Treeshrew

The treeshrews (or tree shrews or banxrings) are small Euarchontoglire mammals native to the tropical forests of Southeast Asia.

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Trigeminal nerve

The trigeminal nerve (the fifth cranial nerve, or simply CN V) is a nerve responsible for sensation in the face and motor functions such as biting and chewing; it is the largest of the cranial nerves.

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Trochlear nerve

The trochlear nerve, also called the fourth cranial nerve or cranial nerve IV, is a motor nerve (a somatic efferent nerve) that innervates only a single muscle: the superior oblique muscle of the eye, which operates through the pulley-like trochlea.

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Ultradian rhythm

In chronobiology, an ultradian rhythm is a recurrent period or cycle repeated throughout a 24-hour day.

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Ultrasound

Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing.

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Upper motor neuron

Upper motor neurons (UMNs) are the main source of voluntary movement.

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Vagus nerve

The vagus nerve, historically cited as the pneumogastric nerve, is the tenth cranial nerve or CN X, and interfaces with parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract.

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Valvular heart disease

Valvular heart disease is any disease process involving one or more of the four valves of the heart (the aortic and bicuspid valves on the left side of heart and the pulmonary and tricuspid valves on the right side of heart. These conditions occur largely as a consequence of aging,Burden of valvular heart diseases: a population-based study. Nkomo VT, Gardin JM, Skelton TN, Gottdiener JS, Scott CG, Enriquez-Sarano. Lancet. 2006 Sep;368(9540):1005-11. but may also be the result of congenital (inborn) abnormalities or specific disease or physiologic processes including rheumatic heart disease and pregnancy. Anatomically, the valves are part of the dense connective tissue of the heart known as the cardiac skeleton and are responsible for the regulation of blood flow through the heart and great vessels. Valve failure or dysfunction can result in diminished heart functionality, though the particular consequences are dependent on the type and severity of valvular disease. Treatment of damaged valves may involve medication alone, but often involves surgical valve repair (valvuloplasty) or replacement (insertion of an artificial heart valve).

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Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD) is a type of brain disease within the transmissible spongiform encephalopathy family.

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Vascular dementia

Vascular dementia, also known as multi-infarct dementia (MID) and vascular cognitive impairment (VCI), is dementia caused by problems in the supply of blood to the brain, typically a series of minor strokes, leading to worsening cognitive decline that occurs step by step.

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Vasomotor center

The vasomotor center (VMC) is a portion of the medulla oblongata that, together with the cardiovascular center and respiratory center, regulates blood pressure and other homeostatic processes.

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Vasopressin

Vasopressin, also named antidiuretic hormone (ADH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) or argipressin, is a hormone synthesized as a peptide prohormone in neurons in the hypothalamus, and is converted to AVP.

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Vein

Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart.

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Venous plexus

A venous plexus is a congregation of multiple veins.

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Ventral pallidum

The ventral pallidum (VP) is a structure within the basal ganglia of the brain.

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Ventral tegmental area

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) (tegmentum is Latin for covering), also known as the ventral tegmental area of Tsai, or simply ventral tegmentum, is a group of neurons located close to the midline on the floor of the midbrain.

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Ventricular system

The ventricular system is a set of four interconnected cavities (ventricles) in the brain, where the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced.

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Ventrobasal complex

The ventrobasal complex ("'VB"') is a relay nucleus of the thalamus for nociceptive stimuli received from nociceptive nerves.

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Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus

The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO), also known as the intermediate nucleus of the preoptic area (IPA), is a small cluster of neurons situated in the anterior hypothalamus, sitting just above and to the side of the optic chiasm in the brain of humans and other animals.

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Vertebral artery

The vertebral arteries are major (main) arteries of the neck.

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Vertebral column

The vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton.

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Vertebrate

Vertebrates comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata (chordates with backbones).

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Vertigo

Vertigo is a symptom where a person feels as if they or the objects around them are moving when they are not.

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Vesicle (embryology)

In vertebrate organisms, brain vesicles are transient, bulge-like features of the early neural tube during embryonic brain development.

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Vestibulo–ocular reflex

The vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) is a reflex, where activation of the vestibular system causes eye movement.

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Vestibulocochlear nerve

The vestibulocochlear nerve (auditory vestibular nerve), known as the eighth cranial nerve, transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the brain.

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Vibration

Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point.

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Video game

A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device such as a TV screen or computer monitor.

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Virus

A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms.

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Visual cortex

The visual cortex of the brain is a part of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information.

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Visual memory

Visual memory describes the relationship between perceptual processing and the encoding, storage and retrieval of the resulting neural representations.

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Visual perception

Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the environment.

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Visual phototransduction

Visual phototransduction is the sensory transduction of the visual system.

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Walter Dandy

Walter Edward Dandy (April 6, 1886 – April 19, 1946) was an American neurosurgeon and scientist.

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Walter Reed Army Institute of Research

The Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR) is the largest biomedical research facility administered by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).

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Wernicke's area

Wernicke's area, also called Wernicke's speech area, is one of the two parts of the cerebral cortex that are linked to speech (the other is Broca's area).

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White blood cell

White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.

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White matter

White matter refers to areas of the central nervous system (CNS) that are mainly made up of myelinated axons, also called tracts.

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Wilson's disease

Wilson's disease is a genetic disorder in which copper builds up in the body.

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Work accident

A work accident, workplace accident, occupational accident, or accident at work is a "discrete occurrence in the course of work" leading to physical or mental occupational injury.

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Working memory

Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that is responsible for temporarily holding information available for processing.

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3D modeling

In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling (or three-dimensional modeling) is the process of developing a mathematical representation of any surface of an object (either inanimate or living) in three dimensions via specialized software.

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References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain

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