Communication

381 relations: Abdominal obesity, Acid, Adaptive immune system, Adrenaline, Adverse effect, Agnatha, Alcohol abuse, Allergy, Amino acid, Anaphylaxis, Androgen, Animal, Anti-inflammatory, Antibiotic, Antibody, Antigen, Antigen presentation, Antigen processing, Antigen-antibody interaction, Antigen-presenting cell, Antigenic variation, Antimicrobial peptides, Antiseptic, Antiviral drug, Apoptosis, Asthma, Attenuator (genetics), Autoimmune disease, Autoimmunity, Autopoiesis, Azathioprine, Élie Metchnikoff, B cell, Bacteria, Bacteriophage, Basophil, Biochemical cascade, Biofilm, Bioinformatics, Biological life cycle, Biological process, Blood, Blood plasma, Blood vessel, Blood–brain barrier, Bone marrow, Breast milk, Burkholderia cenocepacia, Calcifediol, Calcitriol, ..., Calcitriol receptor, Cancer, Cancer immunotherapy, Candidiasis, Carbohydrate, Carcinogenesis, Catalysis, Cataphylaxis, Catecholamine, CD154, CD1D, CD4, CD8, Cell division, Cell growth, Cell membrane, Cell signaling, Cell-mediated immunity, Cervical cancer, Charles Janeway, Chemokine, Chemotaxis, Chemotherapy, Cholecalciferol, Choroid plexus, Chronic granulomatous disease, Ciclosporin, Circulatory system, Clonal selection, Co-receptor, Colostrum, Commensalism, Complement system, Computational immunology, Connective tissue, Contact dermatitis, Cortisol, Cough, CRISPR, Critical Reviews in Immunology, Cystic fibrosis, Cytokine, Cytotoxic T cell, Cytotoxicity, Danger model, Defensin, Dendrite, Dendritic cell, Developed country, Developing country, Diabetes mellitus, Diabetes mellitus type 1, Disease, Disease resistance in fruit and vegetables, Dog, Egg, Eggshell, Eicosanoid, Embryogenesis, Emil von Behring, Endocrine system, Enzyme, Eosinophil, Epithelium, Epitope, Eukaryote, Evolution, Exoskeleton, Fatty acid, Fetus, Fever, Foodborne illness, Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Fungus, Gamma delta T cell, Gastric acid, Gastroenteritis, Gastrointestinal tract, Gene, Genetic disorder, Genitourinary system, Germ theory of disease, Glucocorticoid, Gnathostomata, Granulysin, Growth factor, Growth hormone, Gut flora, Hagfish, Hapten, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Helminths, Hematopoietic stem cell, Histocompatibility, HIV, HIV/AIDS, Hormone, Human body, Human brain, Human nose, Human papillomavirus infection, Human skin, Humoral immunity, Hydrophile, Hydrophobe, Hyperglycemia, Hypersensitive response, Hypersensitivity, Immune complex, Immune network theory, Immune receptor, Immune tolerance, Immunity (medical), Immunization, Immunodeficiency, Immunogenicity, Immunoglobulin A, Immunoglobulin E, Immunoglobulin G, Immunoglobulin M, Immunoglobulin therapy, Immunologic adjuvant, Immunological memory, Immunology, Immunoproteomics, Immunosenescence, Immunostimulant, Immunosuppression, Immunosuppressive drug, Immunotherapy, Infant, Infection, Inflammation, Inflammatory bowel disease, Innate immune system, Innate lymphoid cell, Insect, Interferon, Interferon gamma, Interleukin, Interleukin 12, Interleukin-1 family, Intracellular, Invertebrate, Iodine, Ion, Irritation, Keratinocyte, Koch's postulates, Labile cell, Lactobacillus, Lamprey, Lck, Leaf, Leishmania, Leishmaniasis, Leukotriene, Louis Pasteur, Lung, Lupus erythematosus, Lymphatic system, Lymphocyte, Lymphokine, Lysis, Lysosome, Lysozyme, Machine learning, Macrophage, Major histocompatibility complex, Malaria, Malnutrition, Mammal, Mast cell, Medicine, Melanocyte, Melanoma, Melatonin, Menarche, Metastasis, Methotrexate, Miasma theory, Microbial symbiosis and immunity, Microorganism, Molecule, Monocyte, Mucosal immunology, Mucous membrane, Mucus, Mutation, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Natural killer cell, Natural killer T cell, Neoplasm, Nervous system, Neuroimmune system, Neuron, Neutrophil, NFIL3, Niels Kaj Jerne, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, Non-cellular life, Non-peptidic antigen, Norepinephrine, Nutrient, Obesity, Old age, Oncogene, Opsonin, Organ transplantation, Organism, Original antigenic sin, Osteoporosis, Overnutrition, Oxidative stress, Paclitaxel, Parasitism, Passive immunity, Pathogen, Pathogen-associated molecular pattern, Pathogenesis, Pattern recognition receptor, Paul Ehrlich, PDF, Peptostreptococcus, Perforin, Perioperative mortality, PH, Phagocyte, Phagocytosis, Phagolysosome, Phagosome, Phospholipase A2, Pierre Louis Maupertuis, Placenta, Plague of Athens, Plant, Plant cuticle, Plant disease resistance, Plasma cell, Plasmodium falciparum, Polly Matzinger, Polyclonal B cell response, Positive feedback, Pregnancy, Prenatal development, Primary immunodeficiency, Probiotic, Prolactin, Prostaglandin, Protease, Protein biosynthesis, Proteolysis, Proteomics, Protist, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Puberty, Radical (chemistry), Rapid eye movement sleep, Regeneration (biology), Regulatory T cell, Respiratory burst, Respiratory tract, Restriction modification system, Rheumatoid arthritis, Ribonuclease, RNA interference, Robert Koch, Saliva, Salmonella, Secretion, Semen, Severe combined immunodeficiency, Sex steroid, Sherwood Gorbach, Side-chain theory, Signal transduction, Skin, Sleep deprivation, Slow-wave sleep, Sneeze, Staphylococcus aureus, Stomach, Streptococcus, Systemic acquired resistance, Systemic lupus erythematosus, T cell, T helper cell, T-cell receptor, Tears, Testosterone, Thucydides, Thymus, Thyroid hormones, Tissue (biology), Toxicodendron radicans, Toxin, Training, test, and validation sets, Transforming growth factor beta, Transplant rejection, Trypanosoma brucei, Tumor necrosis factor alpha, Type II secretion system, Type three secretion system, Tyrosinase, Ultraviolet, Unified atomic mass unit, University of Hartford, University of South Carolina, Urinary tract infection, Urine, V(D)J recombination, Vaccination, Vaccine, Vaccine-naive, Vagina, Variable lymphocyte receptor, Vascular permeability, Vasodilation, Vertebrate, Vesicle (biology and chemistry), Viral envelope, Virtual Physiological Human, Virus, Vitamin D, Walter Reed, White blood cell, World Health Organization, Yellow fever, Yogurt, Zinc, 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase. 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Abdominal obesity

Abdominal obesity, also known as central obesity, occurs when excessive abdominal fat around the stomach and abdomen has built up to the extent that it is likely to have a negative impact on health.

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Acid

An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid).

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Adaptive immune system

The adaptive immune system, also known as the acquired immune system or, more rarely, as the specific immune system, is a subsystem of the overall immune system that is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate pathogens or prevent their growth.

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Adrenaline

Adrenaline, also known as adrenalin or epinephrine, is a hormone, neurotransmitter, and medication.

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Adverse effect

In medicine, an adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as surgery.

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Agnatha

Agnatha (Greek, "no jaws") is a superclass of jawless fish in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, consisting of both present (cyclostomes) and extinct (conodonts and ostracoderms) species.

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Alcohol abuse

Alcohol abuse is a previous psychiatric diagnosis in which there is recurring harmful use of alcohol despite its negative consequences.

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Allergy

Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment.

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Amino acid

Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.

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Anaphylaxis

Anaphylaxis is a serious allergic reaction that is rapid in onset and may cause death.

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Androgen

An androgen (from Greek andr-, the stem of the word meaning "man") is any natural or synthetic steroid hormone which regulates the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors.

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Animal

Animals are multicellular eukaryotic organisms that form the biological kingdom Animalia.

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Anti-inflammatory

Anti-inflammatory, or antiinflammatory, refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation or swelling.

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Antibiotic

An antibiotic (from ancient Greek αντιβιοτικά, antibiotiká), also called an antibacterial, is a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections.

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Antibody

An antibody (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses.

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Antigen

In immunology, an antigen is a molecule capable of inducing an immune response (to produce an antibody) in the host organism.

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Antigen presentation

Antigen presentation describes a vital immune process which is essential for T cell immune response triggering.

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Antigen processing

Antigen processing is an immunological process that prepares antigens for presentation to special cells of the immune system called T lymphocytes.

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Antigen-antibody interaction

Antigen-antibody interaction, or antigen-antibody reaction, is a specific chemical interaction between antibodies produced by B cells of the white blood cells and antigens during immune reaction.

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Antigen-presenting cell

An antigen-presenting cell (APC) or accessory cell is a cell that displays antigen complexed with major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs) on their surfaces; this process is known as antigen presentation.

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Antigenic variation

Antigenic variation refers to the mechanism by which an infectious agent such as a protozoan, bacterium or virus alters its surface proteins in order to evade a host immune response.

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Antimicrobial peptides

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), also called host defense peptides (HDPs) are part of the innate immune response found among all classes of life.

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Antiseptic

Antiseptics (from Greek ἀντί anti, "against" and σηπτικός sēptikos, "putrefactive") are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction.

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Antiviral drug

Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used specifically for treating viral infections rather than bacterial ones.

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Apoptosis

Apoptosis (from Ancient Greek ἀπόπτωσις "falling off") is a process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms.

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Asthma

Asthma is a common long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs.

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Attenuator (genetics)

Attenuation (in genetics) is a proposed mechanism of control in some bacterial operons which results in premature termination of transcription and is based on the fact that, in bacteria, transcription and translation proceed simultaneously.

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Autoimmune disease

An autoimmune disease is a condition arising from an abnormal immune response to a normal body part.

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Autoimmunity

Autoimmunity is the system of immune responses of an organism against its own healthy cells and tissues.

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Autopoiesis

The term autopoiesis refers to a system capable of reproducing and maintaining itself.

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Azathioprine

Azathioprine (AZA), sold under the brand name Imuran among others, is an immunosuppressive medication.

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Élie Metchnikoff

Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (Илья́ Ильи́ч Ме́чников, also written as Élie Metchnikoff; 15 July 1916) was a Russian zoologist best known for his pioneering research in immunology.

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B cell

B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype.

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Bacteria

Bacteria (common noun bacteria, singular bacterium) is a type of biological cell.

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Bacteriophage

A bacteriophage, also known informally as a phage, is a virus that infects and replicates within Bacteria and Archaea.

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Basophil

Basophils are a type of white blood cells.

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Biochemical cascade

A biochemical cascade, also known as a signaling cascade or signaling pathway, is a series of chemical reactions which are initiated by a stimulus (first messenger) acting on a receptor that is transduced to the cell interior through second messengers (which amplify the initial signal) and ultimately to effector molecules, resulting in a cell response to the initial stimulus.

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Biofilm

A biofilm comprises any group of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other and often also to a surface.

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Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data.

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Biological life cycle

In biology, a biological life cycle (or just life cycle when the biological context is clear) is a series of changes in form that an organism undergoes, returning to the starting state.

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Biological process

Biological processes are the processes vital for a living organism to live.

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Blood

Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.

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Blood plasma

Blood plasma is a yellowish coloured liquid component of blood that normally holds the blood cells in whole blood in suspension; this makes plasma the extracellular matrix of blood cells.

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Blood vessel

The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system, and microcirculation, that transports blood throughout the human body.

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Blood–brain barrier

The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable membrane barrier that separates the circulating blood from the brain and extracellular fluid in the central nervous system (CNS).

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Bone marrow

Bone marrow is a semi-solid tissue which may be found within the spongy or cancellous portions of bones.

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Breast milk

Breast milk is the milk produced by the breasts (or mammary glands) of a human female to feed a child.

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Burkholderia cenocepacia

Burkholderia cenocepacia, also known as Helycobacter, is a species of Gram-negative bacteria that is common in the environment, can form a biofilm with itself, is resistant to many antibiotics and may cause disease in plants.

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Calcifediol

Calcifediol (INN), also known as calcidiol, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, or 25-hydroxyvitamin D (abbreviated 25(OH)D), is a prehormone that is produced in the liver by hydroxylation of vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) by the enzyme cholecalciferol 25-hydroxylase which was isolated by Michael F. Holick.

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Calcitriol

Calcitriol (INN), also called 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, or 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and other variants, is the hormonally active metabolite of vitamin D which has three hydroxyl groups.

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Calcitriol receptor

The calcitriol receptor, more commonly known as the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and also known as NR1I1 (nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group I, member 1), is a member of the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors.

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Cancer

Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.

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Cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy (sometimes called immuno-oncology, abbreviated IO) is the use of the immune system to treat cancer.

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Candidiasis

Candidiasis is a fungal infection due to any type of Candida (a type of yeast).

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Carbohydrate

A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (where m may be different from n).

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Carcinogenesis

Carcinogenesis, also called oncogenesis or tumorigenesis, is the formation of a cancer, whereby normal cells are transformed into cancer cells.

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Catalysis

Catalysis is the increase in the rate of a chemical reaction due to the participation of an additional substance called a catalysthttp://goldbook.iupac.org/C00876.html, which is not consumed in the catalyzed reaction and can continue to act repeatedly.

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Cataphylaxis

Cataphylaxis is the deterioration of the natural defense system of the body due to an infection.

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Catecholamine

A catecholamine (CA) is a monoamine, an organic compound that has a catechol (benzene with two hydroxyl side groups at carbons 1 and 2) and a side-chain amine.

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CD154

CD154, also called CD40 ligand or CD40L, is a protein that is primarily expressed on activated T cells and is a member of the TNF superfamily of molecules.

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CD1D

CD1D is the human gene that encodes the protein CD1d, a member of the CD1 (cluster of differentiation 1) family of glycoproteins expressed on the surface of various human antigen-presenting cells.

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CD4

In molecular biology, CD4 (cluster of differentiation 4) is a glycoprotein found on the surface of immune cells such as T helper cells, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells.

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CD8

CD8 (cluster of differentiation 8) is a transmembrane glycoprotein that serves as a co-receptor for the T cell receptor (TCR).

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Cell division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.

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Cell growth

The term cell growth is used in the contexts of biological cell development and cell division (reproduction).

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Cell membrane

The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the extracellular space).

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Cell signaling

Cell signaling (cell signalling in British English) is part of any communication process that governs basic activities of cells and coordinates all cell actions.

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Cell-mediated immunity

Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies, but rather involves the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen.

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Cervical cancer

Cervical cancer is a cancer arising from the cervix.

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Charles Janeway

Charles Alderson Janeway, Jr. (1943–2003) was a noted immunologist.

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Chemokine

Chemokines (Greek -kinos, movement) are a family of small cytokines, or signaling proteins secreted by cells.

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Chemotaxis

Chemotaxis (from chemo- + taxis) is the movement of an organism in response to a chemical stimulus.

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Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen.

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Cholecalciferol

Cholecalciferol, also known as vitamin D3 and colecalciferol, is a type of vitamin D which is made by the skin, found in some foods, and taken as a dietary supplement.

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Choroid plexus

The choroid plexus is a plexus of cells that produces the cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain.

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Chronic granulomatous disease

Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) (also known as Bridges–Good syndrome, chronic granulomatous disorder, and Quie syndrome) is a diverse group of hereditary diseases in which certain cells of the immune system have difficulty forming the reactive oxygen compounds (most importantly the superoxide radical due to defective phagocyte NADPH oxidase) used to kill certain ingested pathogens.

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Ciclosporin

Ciclosporin, also spelled cyclosporine and cyclosporin, is an immunosuppressant medication and natural product.

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Circulatory system

The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis.

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Clonal selection

Clonal selection theory is a scientific theory in immunology that explains the functions of cells (lymphocytes) of the immune system in response to specific antigens invading the body.

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Co-receptor

A co-receptor is a cell surface receptor that binds a signalling molecule in addition to a primary receptor in order to facilitate ligand recognition and initiate biological processes, such as entry of a pathogen into a host cell.

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Colostrum

Colostrum (known colloquially as beestings, bisnings or first milk) is the first form of milk produced by the mammary glands of mammals (including many humans) immediately following delivery of the newborn.

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Commensalism

Commensalism is a long term biological interaction (symbiosis) in which members of one species gain benefits while those of the other species are neither benefited nor harmed.

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Complement system

The complement system is a part of the immune system that enhances (complements) the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promotes inflammation, and attacks the pathogen's cell membrane.

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Computational immunology

In academia, computational immunology is a field of science that encompasses high-throughput genomic and bioinformatics approaches to immunology.

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Connective tissue

Connective tissue (CT) is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.

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Contact dermatitis

Contact dermatitis is a type of inflammation of the skin.

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Cortisol

Cortisol is a steroid hormone, in the glucocorticoid class of hormones.

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Cough

A cough is a sudden and often repetitively occurring, protective reflex, which helps to clear the large breathing passages from fluids, irritants, foreign particles and microbes.

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CRISPR

CRISPR is a family of DNA sequences in bacteria and archaea.

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Critical Reviews in Immunology

Critical Reviews in Immunology is a bimonthly scientific journal published by Begell House covering the field of immunology.

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Cystic fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder that affects mostly the lungs, but also the pancreas, liver, kidneys, and intestine.

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Cytokine

Cytokines are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–20 kDa) that are important in cell signaling.

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Cytotoxic T cell

A cytotoxic T cell (also known as TC, cytotoxic T lymphocyte, CTL, T-killer cell, cytolytic T cell, CD8+ T-cell or killer T cell) is a T lymphocyte (a type of white blood cell) that kills cancer cells, cells that are infected (particularly with viruses), or cells that are damaged in other ways.

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Cytotoxicity

Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells.

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Danger model

The Danger model is a theory of how the immune system works.

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Defensin

Defensins are small cysteine-rich cationic proteins found in both vertebrates and invertebrates.

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Dendrite

Dendrites (from Greek δένδρον déndron, "tree"), also dendrons, are branched protoplasmic extensions of a nerve cell that propagate the electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project.

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Dendritic cell

Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells (also known as accessory cells) of the mammalian immune system.

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Developed country

A developed country, industrialized country, more developed country, or "more economically developed country" (MEDC), is a sovereign state that has a highly developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations.

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Developing country

A developing country (or a low and middle income country (LMIC), less developed country, less economically developed country (LEDC), underdeveloped country) is a country with a less developed industrial base and a low Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries.

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Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM), commonly referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period.

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Diabetes mellitus type 1

Diabetes mellitus type 1, also known as type 1 diabetes, is a form of diabetes mellitus in which not enough insulin is produced.

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Disease

A disease is any condition which results in the disorder of a structure or function in an organism that is not due to any external injury.

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Disease resistance in fruit and vegetables

There are a number of lines of defence against pests (that, those animals that cause damage to the plants we grow) and diseases in the orchard, principal among these being the practice of good husbandry, creating healthy soil and ensuring high standards of garden hygiene.

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Dog

The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris when considered a subspecies of the gray wolf or Canis familiaris when considered a distinct species) is a member of the genus Canis (canines), which forms part of the wolf-like canids, and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore.

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Egg

An egg is the organic vessel containing the zygote in which an animal embryo develops until it can survive on its own; at which point the animal hatches.

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Eggshell

An eggshell is the outer covering of a hard-shelled egg and of some forms of eggs with soft outer coats.

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Eicosanoid

Eicosanoids are signaling molecules made by the enzymatic or non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid or other polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that are, similar to arachidonic acid, 20 carbon units in length.

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Embryogenesis

Embryogenesis is the process by which the embryo forms and develops.

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Emil von Behring

Emil von Behring (Emil Adolf von Behring), born as Emil Adolf Behring (15 March 1854 – 31 March 1917), was a German physiologist who received the 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the first one awarded, for his discovery of a diphtheria antitoxin.

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Endocrine system

The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system consisting of hormones, the group of glands of an organism that carry those hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs, and the feedback loops of homeostasis that the hormones drive.

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Enzyme

Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts.

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Eosinophil

Eosinophils sometimes called eosinophiles or, less commonly, acidophils, are a variety of white blood cells and one of the immune system components responsible for combating multicellular parasites and certain infections in vertebrates. Along with mast cells and basophils, they also control mechanisms associated with allergy and asthma. They are granulocytes that develop during hematopoiesis in the bone marrow before migrating into blood, after which they are terminally differentiated and do not multiply. These cells are eosinophilic or "acid-loving" due to their large acidophilic cytoplasmic granules, which show their affinity for acids by their affinity to coal tar dyes: Normally transparent, it is this affinity that causes them to appear brick-red after staining with eosin, a red dye, using the Romanowsky method. The staining is concentrated in small granules within the cellular cytoplasm, which contain many chemical mediators, such as eosinophil peroxidase, ribonuclease (RNase), deoxyribonucleases (DNase), lipase, plasminogen, and major basic protein. These mediators are released by a process called degranulation following activation of the eosinophil, and are toxic to both parasite and host tissues. In normal individuals, eosinophils make up about 1–3% of white blood cells, and are about 12–17 micrometres in size with bilobed nuclei. While they are released into the bloodstream as neutrophils are, eosinophils reside in tissue They are found in the medulla and the junction between the cortex and medulla of the thymus, and, in the lower gastrointestinal tract, ovary, uterus, spleen, and lymph nodes, but not in the lung, skin, esophagus, or some other internal organs under normal conditions. The presence of eosinophils in these latter organs is associated with disease. For instance, patients with eosinophilic asthma have high levels of eosinophils that lead to inflammation and tissue damage, making it more difficult for patients to breathe. Eosinophils persist in the circulation for 8–12 hours, and can survive in tissue for an additional 8–12 days in the absence of stimulation. Pioneering work in the 1980s elucidated that eosinophils were unique granulocytes, having the capacity to survive for extended periods of time after their maturation as demonstrated by ex-vivo culture experiments.

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Epithelium

Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue.

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Epitope

An epitope, also known as antigenic determinant, is the part of an antigen that is recognized by the immune system, specifically by antibodies, B cells, or T cells.

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Eukaryote

Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes, unlike Prokaryotes (Bacteria and other Archaea).

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Evolution

Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.

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Exoskeleton

An exoskeleton (from Greek έξω, éxō "outer" and σκελετός, skeletós "skeleton") is the external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body, in contrast to the internal skeleton (endoskeleton) of, for example, a human.

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Fatty acid

In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated.

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Fetus

A fetus is a stage in the prenatal development of viviparous organisms.

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Fever

Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set-point.

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Foodborne illness

Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and colloquially referred to as food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the food spoilage of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food, as well as toxins such as poisonous mushrooms and various species of beans that have not been boiled for at least 10 minutes.

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Frank Macfarlane Burnet

Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, (3 September 1899 – 31 August 1985), usually known as Macfarlane or Mac Burnet, was an Australian virologist best known for his contributions to immunology.

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Fungus

A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms.

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Gamma delta T cell

Gamma delta T cells (γδ T cells) are T cells that have a distinctive T-cell receptor (TCR) on their surface.

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Gastric acid

Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed in the stomach and is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl).

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Gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea, is inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract -- the stomach and small intestine.

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Gastrointestinal tract

The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as feces.

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Gene

In biology, a gene is a sequence of DNA or RNA that codes for a molecule that has a function.

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Genetic disorder

A genetic disorder is a genetic problem caused by one or more abnormalities in the genome.

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Genitourinary system

The genitourinary system or urogenital system is the organ system of the reproductive organs and the urinary system.

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Germ theory of disease

The germ theory of disease is the currently accepted scientific theory of disease.

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Glucocorticoid

Glucocorticoids are a class of corticosteroids, which are a class of steroid hormones.

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Gnathostomata

Gnathostomata are the jawed vertebrates.

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Granulysin

Granulysin is a substance released by cytotoxic T cells (CD8) and natural killer cells (NK cell) when they are attached to infected body cells.

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Growth factor

A growth factor is a naturally occurring substance capable of stimulating cellular growth, proliferation, healing, and cellular differentiation.

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Growth hormone

Growth hormone (GH), also known as somatotropin (or as human growth hormone in its human form), is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans and other animals.

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Gut flora

Gut flora, or gut microbiota, or gastrointestinal microbiota, is the complex community of microorganisms that live in the digestive tracts of humans and other animals, including insects.

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Hagfish

Hagfish, the class '''Myxini''' (also known as Hyperotreti), are eel-shaped, slime-producing marine fish (occasionally called slime eels).

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Hapten

Haptens are minute molecules that elicit an immune response only when attached to a large carrier such as a protein; the carrier may be one that also does not elicit an immune response by itself.

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Hashimoto's thyroiditis

Hashimoto's thyroiditis, also known as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis and Hashimoto's disease, is an autoimmune disease in which the thyroid gland is gradually destroyed.

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Helminths

Helminths, also commonly known as parasitic worms, are large multicellular parasites, which can generally be seen with the naked eye when they are mature.

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Hematopoietic stem cell

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are the stem cells that give rise to other blood cells.

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Histocompatibility

Histocompatibility, or tissue compatibility, is the property of having the same, or sufficiently similar, alleles of a set of genes called human leukocyte antigens (HLA), the human version of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC).

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HIV

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that causes HIV infection and over time acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

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HIV/AIDS

Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

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Hormone

A hormone (from the Greek participle “ὁρμῶ”, "to set in motion, urge on") is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour.

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Human body

The human body is the entire structure of a human being.

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Human brain

The human brain is the central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system.

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Human nose

The human nose is the protruding part of the face that bears the nostrils.

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Human papillomavirus infection

Human papillomavirus infection is an infection by human papillomavirus (HPV).

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Human skin

The human skin is the outer covering of the body.

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Humoral immunity

Humoral immunity or humoural immunity is the aspect of immunity that is mediated by macromolecules found in extracellular fluids such as secreted antibodies, complement proteins, and certain antimicrobial peptides.

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Hydrophile

A hydrophile is a molecule or other molecular entity that is attracted to water molecules and tends to be dissolved by water.

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Hydrophobe

In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule (known as a hydrophobe) that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water.

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Hyperglycemia

Hyperglycemia, or high blood sugar (also spelled hyperglycaemia or hyperglycæmia) is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma.

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Hypersensitive response

The hypersensitive response (HR) is a mechanism, used by plants, to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens.

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Hypersensitivity

Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction or intolerance) refers to undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system, including allergies and autoimmunity.

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Immune complex

An immune complex, sometimes called an antigen-antibody complex, is a molecule formed from the integral binding of an antibody to a soluble antigen.

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Immune network theory

The immune network theory is a theory of how the adaptive immune system works, that has been developed since 1974 mainly by Niels Jerne and Geoffrey W. Hoffmann.

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Immune receptor

An immune receptor (or immunologic receptor) is a receptor, usually on a cell membrane, which binds to a substance (for example, a cytokine) and causes a response in the immune system.

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Immune tolerance

Immune tolerance, or immunological tolerance, or immunotolerance, is a state of unresponsiveness of the immune system to substances or tissue that have the capacity to elicit an immune response in given organism.It is induced by prior exposure to that specific antigen.

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Immunity (medical)

In biology, immunity is the balanced state of multicellular organisms having adequate biological defenses to fight infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion, while having adequate tolerance to avoid allergy, and autoimmune diseases.

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Immunization

Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an agent (known as the immunogen).

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Immunodeficiency

Immunodeficiency (or immune deficiency) is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious disease and cancer is compromised or entirely absent.

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Immunogenicity

Immunogenicity is the ability of a particular substance, such as an antigen or epitope, to provoke an immune response in the body of a human and other animal.

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Immunoglobulin A

Immunoglobulin A (IgA, also referred to as sIgA in its secretory form) is an antibody that plays a crucial role in the immune function of mucous membranes.

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Immunoglobulin E

Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a type of antibody (or immunoglobulin (Ig) "isotype") that has only been found in mammals.

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Immunoglobulin G

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody.

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Immunoglobulin M

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is one of several forms of antibody that are produced by vertebrates.

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Immunoglobulin therapy

Immunoglobulin therapy, also known as normal human immunoglobulin (NHIG), is the use of a mixture of antibodies (immunoglobulins) to treat a number of health conditions.

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Immunologic adjuvant

In immunology, an adjuvant is a component that potentiates the immune responses to an antigen and/or modulates it towards the desired immune responses.

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Immunological memory

Immunological memory is the ability of the immune system to quickly and specifically recognize an antigen that the body has previously encountered and initiate a corresponding immune response.

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Immunology

Immunology is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms.

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Immunoproteomics

Immunoproteomics is the study of large sets of proteins (proteomics) involved in the immune response.

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Immunosenescence

Immunosenescence refers to the gradual deterioration of the immune system brought on by natural age advancement.

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Immunostimulant

Immunostimulants, also known as immunostimulators, are substances (drugs and nutrients) that stimulate the immune system by inducing activation or increasing activity of any of its components.

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Immunosuppression

Immunosuppression is a reduction of the activation or efficacy of the immune system.

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Immunosuppressive drug

Immunosuppressive drugs or immunosuppressive agents or antirejection medications are drugs that inhibit or prevent activity of the immune system.

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Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is the "treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response".

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Infant

An infant (from the Latin word infans, meaning "unable to speak" or "speechless") is the more formal or specialised synonym for "baby", the very young offspring of a human.

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Infection

Infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they produce.

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Inflammation

Inflammation (from inflammatio) is part of the complex biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants, and is a protective response involving immune cells, blood vessels, and molecular mediators.

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Inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of inflammatory conditions of the colon and small intestine.

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Innate immune system

The innate immune system, also known as the non-specific immune system or in-born immunity system, is an important subsystem of the overall immune system that comprises the cells and mechanisms involved in the defense of the host from infection by other organisms.

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Innate lymphoid cell

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a group of innate immune cells that are derived from common lymphoid progenitor (CLP) and belong to the lymphoid lineage.

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Insect

Insects or Insecta (from Latin insectum) are hexapod invertebrates and the largest group within the arthropod phylum.

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Interferon

Interferons (IFNs) are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, and also tumor cells.

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Interferon gamma

Interferon gamma (IFNγ) is a dimerized soluble cytokine that is the only member of the type II class of interferons.

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Interleukin

Interleukins (ILs) are a group of cytokines (secreted proteins and signal molecules) that were first seen to be expressed by white blood cells (leukocytes).

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Interleukin 12

Interleukin 12 (IL-12) is an interleukin that is naturally produced by dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and human B-lymphoblastoid cells (NC-37) in response to antigenic stimulation.

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Interleukin-1 family

The Interleukin-1 family (IL-1 family) is a group of 11 cytokines that plays a central role in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses to infections or sterile insults.

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Intracellular

In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell".

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Invertebrate

Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a backbone or spine), derived from the notochord.

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Iodine

Iodine is a chemical element with symbol I and atomic number 53.

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Ion

An ion is an atom or molecule that has a non-zero net electrical charge (its total number of electrons is not equal to its total number of protons).

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Irritation

Irritation, in biology and physiology, is a state of inflammation or painful reaction to allergy or cell-lining damage.

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Keratinocyte

A keratinocyte is the predominant cell type in the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin, constituting 90% of the cells found there.

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Koch's postulates

Koch's postulates are four criteria designed to establish a causative relationship between a microbe and a disease.

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Labile cell

In cellular biology, labile cells are cells that multiply constantly throughout life.

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Lactobacillus

Lactobacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic or microaerophilic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria.

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Lamprey

Lampreys (sometimes also called, inaccurately, lamprey eels) are an ancient lineage of jawless fish of the order Petromyzontiformes, placed in the superclass Cyclostomata.

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Lck

Lck (or lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase) is a 56 kDa protein that is found inside specialized cells of the immune system called lymphocytes.

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Leaf

A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant and is the principal lateral appendage of the stem.

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Leishmania

Leishmania is a genus of trypanosomes that are responsible for the disease leishmaniasis.

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Leishmaniasis

Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by parasites of the Leishmania type.

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Leukotriene

Leukotrienes are a family of eicosanoid inflammatory mediators produced in leukocytes by the oxidation of arachidonic acid (AA) and the essential fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) by the enzyme arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase.

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Louis Pasteur

Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization.

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Lung

The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and many other animals including a few fish and some snails.

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Lupus erythematosus

Lupus erythematosus is a collection of autoimmune diseases in which the human immune system becomes hyperactive and attacks healthy tissues.

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Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is part of the vascular system and an important part of the immune system, comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph (from Latin, lympha meaning "water") directionally towards the heart.

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Lymphocyte

A lymphocyte is one of the subtypes of white blood cell in a vertebrate's immune system.

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Lymphokine

Lymphokines are a subset of cytokines that are produced by a type of immune cell known as a lymphocyte.

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Lysis

Lysis (Greek λύσις lýsis, "a loosing" from λύειν lýein, "to unbind") refers to the breaking down of the membrane of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic (that is, "lytic") mechanisms that compromise its integrity.

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Lysosome

A lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle found in nearly all animal cells.

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Lysozyme

Lysozyme, also known as muramidase or N-acetylmuramide glycanhydrolase is an antimicrobial enzyme produced by animals that forms part of the innate immune system.

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Machine learning

Machine learning is a subset of artificial intelligence in the field of computer science that often uses statistical techniques to give computers the ability to "learn" (i.e., progressively improve performance on a specific task) with data, without being explicitly programmed.

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Macrophage

Macrophages (big eaters, from Greek μακρός (makrós).

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Major histocompatibility complex

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a set of cell surface proteins essential for the acquired immune system to recognize foreign molecules in vertebrates, which in turn determines histocompatibility.

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Malaria

Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease affecting humans and other animals caused by parasitic protozoans (a group of single-celled microorganisms) belonging to the Plasmodium type.

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Malnutrition

Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems.

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Mammal

Mammals are the vertebrates within the class Mammalia (from Latin mamma "breast"), a clade of endothermic amniotes distinguished from reptiles (including birds) by the possession of a neocortex (a region of the brain), hair, three middle ear bones, and mammary glands.

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Mast cell

A mast cell (also known as a mastocyte or a labrocyte) is a type of white blood cell.

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Medicine

Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.

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Melanocyte

Melanocytes are melanin-producing neural crest-derived cells located in the bottom layer (the stratum basale) of the skin's epidermis, the middle layer of the eye (the uvea), the inner ear, vaginal epithelium, meninges, bones, and heart.

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Melanoma

Melanoma, also known as malignant melanoma, is a type of cancer that develops from the pigment-containing cells known as melanocytes.

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Melatonin

Melatonin, also known as N-acetyl-5-methoxy tryptamine, is a hormone that is produced by the pineal gland in animals and regulates sleep and wakefulness.

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Menarche

Menarche (Greek: μήν mēn "month" + ἀρχή arkhē "beginning") is the first menstrual cycle, or first menstrual bleeding, in female humans.

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Metastasis

Metastasis is a pathogenic agent's spread from an initial or primary site to a different or secondary site within the host's body; it is typically spoken of as such spread by a cancerous tumor.

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Methotrexate

Methotrexate (MTX), formerly known as amethopterin, is a chemotherapy agent and immune system suppressant.

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Miasma theory

The miasma theory (also called the miasmatic theory) is an obsolete medical theory that held that diseases—such as cholera, chlamydia, or the Black Death—were caused by a miasma (μίασμα, ancient Greek: "pollution"), a noxious form of "bad air", also known as night air.

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Microbial symbiosis and immunity

There are close and often long-term relationships between symbiotic microbes and their host's immune system.

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Microorganism

A microorganism, or microbe, is a microscopic organism, which may exist in its single-celled form or in a colony of cells. The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from ancient times, such as in Jain scriptures from 6th century BC India and the 1st century BC book On Agriculture by Marcus Terentius Varro. Microbiology, the scientific study of microorganisms, began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In the 1880s Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax. Microorganisms include all unicellular organisms and so are extremely diverse. Of the three domains of life identified by Carl Woese, all of the Archaea and Bacteria are microorganisms. These were previously grouped together in the two domain system as Prokaryotes, the other being the eukaryotes. The third domain Eukaryota includes all multicellular organisms and many unicellular protists and protozoans. Some protists are related to animals and some to green plants. Many of the multicellular organisms are microscopic, namely micro-animals, some fungi and some algae, but these are not discussed here. They live in almost every habitat from the poles to the equator, deserts, geysers, rocks and the deep sea. Some are adapted to extremes such as very hot or very cold conditions, others to high pressure and a few such as Deinococcus radiodurans to high radiation environments. Microorganisms also make up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms. A December 2017 report stated that 3.45 billion year old Australian rocks once contained microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on Earth. Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment foods, treat sewage, produce fuel, enzymes and other bioactive compounds. They are essential tools in biology as model organisms and have been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism. They are a vital component of fertile soils. In the human body microorganisms make up the human microbiota including the essential gut flora. They are the pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases and as such are the target of hygiene measures.

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Molecule

A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

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Monocyte

Monocytes are a type of leukocyte, or white blood cell.

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Mucosal immunology

Mucosal immunology is the study of immune system responses that occur at mucosal membranes of the intestines, the urogenital tract and the respiratory system, i.e., surfaces that are in contact with the external environment.

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Mucous membrane

A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs.

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Mucus

Mucus is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes.

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Mutation

In biology, a mutation is the permanent alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA or other genetic elements.

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Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a species of pathogenic bacteria in the family Mycobacteriaceae and the causative agent of tuberculosis.

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Natural killer cell

Natural killer cells or NK cells are a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte critical to the innate immune system.

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Natural killer T cell

Natural killer T (NKT) cells are a heterogeneous group of T cells that share properties of both T cells and natural killer cells.

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Neoplasm

Neoplasia is a type of abnormal and excessive growth of tissue.

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Nervous system

The nervous system is the part of an animal that coordinates its actions by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.

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Neuroimmune system

The neuroimmune system is a system of structures and processes involving the biochemical and electrophysiological interactions between the nervous system and immune system which protect neurons from pathogens.

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Neuron

A neuron, also known as a neurone (British spelling) and nerve cell, is an electrically excitable cell that receives, processes, and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.

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Neutrophil

Neutrophils (also known as neutrocytes) are the most abundant type of granulocytes and the most abundant (40% to 70%) type of white blood cells in most mammals.

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NFIL3

Nuclear factor, interleukin 3 regulated, also known as NFIL3 or E4BP4 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the NFIL3 gene.

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Niels Kaj Jerne

Niels Kaj Jerne, FRS (23 December 1911 – 7 October 1994) was a Danish immunologist.

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Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin), administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine.

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Non-cellular life

Non-cellular life is life that exists without a cellular structure for at least part of its life cycle.

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Non-peptidic antigen

Non-peptidic antigens are low-molecular-weight compounds that stimulate human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells.

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Norepinephrine

Norepinephrine (NE), also called noradrenaline (NA) or noradrenalin, is an organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and body as a hormone and neurotransmitter.

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Nutrient

A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce.

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Obesity

Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have a negative effect on health.

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Old age

Old age refers to ages nearing or surpassing the life expectancy of human beings, and is thus the end of the human life cycle.

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Oncogene

An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer.

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Opsonin

An opsonin (from the Greek opsōneîn, to prepare for eating) is any molecule that enhances phagocytosis by marking an antigen for an immune response or marking dead cells for recycling (i.e., causes the phagocyte to "relish" the marked cell).

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Organ transplantation

Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient, to replace a damaged or missing organ.

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Organism

In biology, an organism (from Greek: ὀργανισμός, organismos) is any individual entity that exhibits the properties of life.

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Original antigenic sin

Original antigenic sin, also known as the Hoskins effect, refers to the propensity of the body's immune system to preferentially utilize immunological memory based on a previous infection when a second slightly different version of that foreign entity (e.g. a virus or bacterium) is encountered.

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Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a disease where increased bone weakness increases the risk of a broken bone.

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Overnutrition

Overnutrition or hyperalimentation is a form of malnutrition in which the intake of nutrients is oversupplied.

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Oxidative stress

Oxidative stress reflects an imbalance between the systemic manifestation of reactive oxygen species and a biological system's ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or to repair the resulting damage.

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Paclitaxel

Paclitaxel (PTX), sold under the brand name Taxol among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of types of cancer.

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Parasitism

In evolutionary biology, parasitism is a relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life.

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Passive immunity

Passive immunity is the transfer of active humoral immunity in the form of ready-made antibodies.

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Pathogen

In biology, a pathogen (πάθος pathos "suffering, passion" and -γενής -genēs "producer of") or a '''germ''' in the oldest and broadest sense is anything that can produce disease; the term came into use in the 1880s.

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Pathogen-associated molecular pattern

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, or PAMPs, are molecules associated with groups of pathogens, that are recognized by cells of the innate immune system.

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Pathogenesis

The pathogenesis of a disease is the biological mechanism (or mechanisms) that leads to the diseased state.

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Pattern recognition receptor

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) play a crucial role in the proper function of the innate immune system.

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Paul Ehrlich

Paul Ehrlich (14 March 1854 – 20 August 1915) was a German Jewish physician and scientist who worked in the fields of hematology, immunology, and antimicrobial chemotherapy.

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PDF

The Portable Document Format (PDF) is a file format developed in the 1990s to present documents, including text formatting and images, in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems.

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Peptostreptococcus

Peptostreptococcus is a genus of anaerobic, Gram-positive, non-spore forming bacteria.

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Perforin

Perforin-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRF1 gene and the Prf1 gene in mice.

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Perioperative mortality

Perioperative mortality has been defined as any death, regardless of cause, occurring within 30 days after surgery in or out of the hospital.

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PH

In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.

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Phagocyte

Phagocytes are cells that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells.

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Phagocytosis

In cell biology, phagocytosis is the process by which a cell—often a phagocyte or a protist—engulfs a solid particle to form an internal compartment known as a phagosome.

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Phagolysosome

In biology, a phagolysosome, or endolysosome, is a cytoplasmic body formed by the fusion of a phagosome with a lysosome in a process that occurs during phagocytosis. Formation of phagolysosomes is essential for the intracellular destruction of microorganisms and pathogens.

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Phagosome

In cell biology, a phagosome is a vesicle formed around a particle engulfed by a phagocyte via phagocytosis.

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Phospholipase A2

Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) are enzymes that release fatty acids from the second carbon group of glycerol.

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Pierre Louis Maupertuis

Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698 – 27 July 1759) was a French mathematician, philosopher and man of letters.

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Placenta

The placenta is an organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, thermo-regulation, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply; to fight against internal infection; and to produce hormones which support pregnancy.

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Plague of Athens

The Plague of Athens (Λοιμός των Αθηνών) was an epidemic that devastated the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 BC) when an Athenian victory still seemed within reach.

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Plant

Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae.

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Plant cuticle

A plant cuticle is a protecting film covering the epidermis of leaves, young shoots and other aerial plant organs without periderm.

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Plant disease resistance

Plant disease resistance protects plants from pathogens in two ways: by pre-formed structures and chemicals, and by infection-induced responses of the immune system.

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Plasma cell

Plasma cells, also called plasma B cells, plasmocytes, plasmacytes, or effector B cells, are white blood cells that secrete large volumes of antibodies.

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Plasmodium falciparum

Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of Plasmodium that cause malaria in humans.

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Polly Matzinger

Polly Celine Eveline Matzinger (born July 21, 1947 in La Seyne, France) is an immunologist who proposed the danger model theory of how the immune system works.

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Polyclonal B cell response

Polyclonal B cell response is a natural mode of immune response exhibited by the adaptive immune system of mammals.

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Positive feedback

Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation.

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Pregnancy

Pregnancy, also known as gestation, is the time during which one or more offspring develops inside a woman.

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Prenatal development

Prenatal development is the process in which an embryo and later fetus develops during gestation.

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Primary immunodeficiency

Primary immunodeficiencies are disorders in which part of the body's immune system is missing or does not function normally.

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Probiotic

Probiotics are microorganisms that are claimed to provide health benefits when consumed.

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Prolactin

Prolactin (PRL), also known as luteotropic hormone or luteotropin, is a protein that is best known for its role in enabling mammals, usually females, to produce milk.

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Prostaglandin

The prostaglandins (PG) are a group of physiologically active lipid compounds having diverse hormone-like effects in animals.

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Protease

A protease (also called a peptidase or proteinase) is an enzyme that performs proteolysis: protein catabolism by hydrolysis of peptide bonds.

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Protein biosynthesis

Protein synthesis is the process whereby biological cells generate new proteins; it is balanced by the loss of cellular proteins via degradation or export.

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Proteolysis

Proteolysis is the breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids.

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Proteomics

Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins.

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Protist

A protist is any eukaryotic organism that has cells with nuclei and is not an animal, plant or fungus.

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Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that can cause disease in plants and animals, including humans.

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Puberty

Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction.

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Radical (chemistry)

In chemistry, a radical (more precisely, a free radical) is an atom, molecule, or ion that has an unpaired valence electron.

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Rapid eye movement sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep, REMS) is a unique phase of sleep in mammals and birds, distinguishable by random/rapid movement of the eyes, accompanied with low muscle tone throughout the body, and the propensity of the sleeper to dream vividly.

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Regeneration (biology)

In biology, regeneration is the process of renewal, restoration, and growth that makes genomes, cells, organisms, and ecosystems resilient to natural fluctuations or events that cause disturbance or damage.

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Regulatory T cell

The regulatory T cells (Tregs), formerly known as suppressor T cells, are a subpopulation of T cells that modulate the immune system, maintain tolerance to self-antigens, and prevent autoimmune disease.

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Respiratory burst

Respiratory burst (sometimes called oxidative burst) is the rapid release of reactive oxygen species (superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide) from different types of cells.

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Respiratory tract

In humans, the respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration.

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Restriction modification system

The restriction modification system (RM system) is found in bacteria and other prokaryotic organisms, and provides a defense against foreign DNA, such as that borne by bacteriophages.

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Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects joints.

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Ribonuclease

Ribonuclease (commonly abbreviated RNase) is a type of nuclease that catalyzes the degradation of RNA into smaller components.

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RNA interference

RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation, by neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules.

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Robert Koch

Robert Heinrich Hermann Koch (11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910) was a German physician and microbiologist.

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Saliva

Saliva is a watery substance formed in the mouths of animals, secreted by the salivary glands.

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Salmonella

Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped (bacillus) Gram-negative bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae.

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Secretion

Secretion is the movement of material from one point to another, e.g. secreted chemical substance from a cell or gland.

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Semen

Semen, also known as seminal fluid, is an organic fluid that may contain spermatozoa.

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Severe combined immunodeficiency

Severe combined immunodeficiency, SCID, also known as alymphocytosis, Glanzmann–Riniker syndrome, severe mixed immunodeficiency syndrome, and thymic alymphoplasia, is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the disturbed development of functional T cells and B cells caused by numerous genetic mutations that result in heterogeneous clinical presentations.

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Sex steroid

Sex steroids, also known as gonadocorticoids and gonadal steroids, are steroid hormones that interact with vertebrate androgen or estrogen receptors.

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Sherwood Gorbach

Sherwood Leslie Gorbach (born 1934) is an Emeritus Professor at Tufts University School of Medicine.

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Side-chain theory

The side-chain theory (German, Seitenkettentheorie) is a theory proposed by Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915) to explain the immune response in living cells.

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Signal transduction

Signal transduction is the process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events, most commonly protein phosphorylation catalyzed by protein kinases, which ultimately results in a cellular response.

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Skin

Skin is the soft outer tissue covering vertebrates.

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Sleep deprivation

Sleep deprivation is the condition of not having enough sleep; it can be either chronic or acute.

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Slow-wave sleep

Slow-wave sleep (SWS), often referred to as deep sleep, consists of stage three (combined stages 3 and 4) of non-rapid eye movement sleep.

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Sneeze

A sneeze, or sternutation, is a semi-autonomous, convulsive expulsion of air from the lungs through the nose and mouth, usually caused by foreign particles irritating the nasal mucosa.

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Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive, round-shaped bacterium that is a member of the Firmicutes, and it is a member of the normal flora of the body, frequently found in the nose, respiratory tract, and on the skin.

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Stomach

The stomach (from ancient Greek στόμαχος, stomachos, stoma means mouth) is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates.

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Streptococcus

Streptococcus (term coined by Viennese surgeon Albert Theodor Billroth (1829-1894) from strepto- "twisted" + Modern Latin coccus "spherical bacterium," from Greek kokkos meaning "berry") is a genus of coccus (spherical) Gram-positive bacteria belonging to the phylum Firmicutes and the order Lactobacillales (lactic acid bacteria).

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Systemic acquired resistance

The systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a "whole-plant" resistance response that occurs following an earlier localized exposure to a pathogen.

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Systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), also known simply as lupus, is an autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in many parts of the body.

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T cell

A T cell, or T lymphocyte, is a type of lymphocyte (a subtype of white blood cell) that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity.

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T helper cell

The T helper cells (Th cells) are a type of T cell that play an important role in the immune system, particularly in the adaptive immune system.

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T-cell receptor

The T-cell receptor, or TCR, is a molecule found on the surface of T cells, or T lymphocytes, that is responsible for recognizing fragments of antigen as peptides bound to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules.

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Tears

Tearing, lacrimation, or lachrymation is the secretion of tears, which often serves to clean and lubricate the eyes in response to an irritation of the eyes.

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Testosterone

Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid.

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Thucydides

Thucydides (Θουκυδίδης,, Ancient Attic:; BC) was an Athenian historian and general.

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Thymus

The thymus is a specialized primary lymphoid organ of the immune system.

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Thyroid hormones

Thyroid hormones are two hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, namely triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).

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Tissue (biology)

In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ.

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Toxicodendron radicans

Toxicodendron radicans, commonly known as eastern poison ivy or poison ivy, is a poisonous Asian and Eastern North American flowering plant that is well-known for causing urushiol-induced contact dermatitis, an itchy, irritating, and sometimes painful rash, in most people who touch it.

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Toxin

A toxin (from toxikon) is a poisonous substance produced within living cells or organisms; synthetic toxicants created by artificial processes are thus excluded.

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Training, test, and validation sets

In machine learning, the study and construction of algorithms that can learn from and make predictions on data is a common task.

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Transforming growth factor beta

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine belonging to the transforming growth factor superfamily that includes four different isoforms (TGF-β 1 to 4, HGNC symbols TGFB1, TGFB2, TGFB3, TGFB4) and many other signaling proteins produced by all white blood cell lineages.

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Transplant rejection

Transplant rejection occurs when transplanted tissue is rejected by the recipient's immune system, which destroys the transplanted tissue.

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Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei is a species of parasitic kinetoplastid belonging to the genus Trypanosoma.

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Tumor necrosis factor alpha

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF, tumor necrosis factor alpha, TNFα, cachexin, or cachectin) is a cell signaling protein (cytokine) involved in systemic inflammation and is one of the cytokines that make up the acute phase reaction.

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Type II secretion system

The type 2 secretion system (often referred to as the type II secretion system or the T2SS) is protein secretion machinery found in various species of Gram-negative bacteria, including various human pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Vibrio cholerae.

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Type three secretion system

Type three secretion system (often written Type III secretion system and abbreviated TTSS or T3SS, also called Injectisome) is a protein appendage found in several Gram-negative bacteria.

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Tyrosinase

Tyrosinase is an oxidase that is the rate-limiting enzyme for controlling the production of melanin.

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Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet (UV) is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays.

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Unified atomic mass unit

The unified atomic mass unit or dalton (symbol: u, or Da) is a standard unit of mass that quantifies mass on an atomic or molecular scale (atomic mass).

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University of Hartford

The University of Hartford (UHart) is a private, independent, nonsectarian, coeducational university located mostly in West Hartford, Connecticut.

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University of South Carolina

The University of South Carolina (also referred to as UofSC, USC, SC, South Carolina, or simply Carolina) is a public, co-educational research university in Columbia, South Carolina, United States, with seven satellite campuses.

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Urinary tract infection

A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection that affects part of the urinary tract.

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Urine

Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many animals.

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V(D)J recombination

V(D)J recombination is the unique mechanism of genetic recombination that occurs only in developing lymphocytes during the early stages of T and B cell maturation.

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Vaccination

Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate an individual's immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen.

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Vaccine

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease.

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Vaccine-naive

Vaccine-naïve is a lack of immunity, or immunologic memory, to a disease because the person has not been vaccinated.

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Vagina

In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract.

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Variable lymphocyte receptor

Variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) belong to the Leucine-rich repeat (LRR) family and mediate adaptive immune responses in the jawless vertebrates, lampreys and hagfish.

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Vascular permeability

Vascular permeability, often in the form of capillary permeability or microvascular permeability, characterizes the capacity of a blood vessel wall to allow for the flow of small molecules (drugs, nutrients, water, ions) or even whole cells (lymphocytes on their way to the site of inflammation) in and out of the vessel.

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Vasodilation

Vasodilation is the widening of blood vessels.

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Vertebrate

Vertebrates comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata (chordates with backbones).

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Vesicle (biology and chemistry)

In cell biology, a vesicle is a small structure within a cell, or extracellular, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer.

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Viral envelope

Some viruses (e.g. HIV and many animal viruses) have viral envelopes covering their protective protein capsids.

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Virtual Physiological Human

The Virtual Physiological Human (VPH) is a European initiative that focuses on a methodological and technological framework that, once established, will enable collaborative investigation of the human body as a single complex system.

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Virus

A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms.

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Vitamin D

Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble secosteroids responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, and multiple other biological effects.

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Walter Reed

Major Walter Reed, M.D., U.S. Army, (September 13, 1851 – November 22, 1902) was a U.S. Army physician who in 1901 led the team that postulated and confirmed the theory that yellow fever is transmitted by a particular mosquito species, rather than by direct contact.

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White blood cell

White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.

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World Health Organization

The World Health Organization (WHO; French: Organisation mondiale de la santé) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health.

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Yellow fever

Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration.

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Yogurt

Yogurt, yoghurt, or yoghourt (or; from yoğurt; other spellings listed below) is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk.

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Zinc

Zinc is a chemical element with symbol Zn and atomic number 30.

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25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase

25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase (VD3 1A hydroxylase) also known as cytochrome p450 27B1 (CYP27B1) or simply 1-alpha-hydroxylase is a cytochrome P450 enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CYP27B1 gene.

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References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system

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