Communication

351 relations: Abbey of Saint-Evroul, Abernethy, Perth and Kinross, Acre, Israel, Adriatic Sea, Al-Andalus, Albania, Alexander I of Scotland, Alexios I Komnenos, Amalfi, Amatus of Montecassino, Anatolia, Anglo-Norman language, Anglo-Normans, Anglo-Saxon architecture, Anglo-Saxons, Anna Komnene, Antioch, Antipope Anacletus II, Apulia, Arabic, Arch, Archbishop of Canterbury, Ariano Irpino, Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, Atlantic Ocean, Aversa, Æthelred the Unready, Île-de-France, Bamberg, Bannow, Baptismal font, Bari, Barry (name), Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081), Battle of Hastings, Bayeux Tapestry, BBC, Bec-de-Mortagne, Berengaria of Navarre, Bernard de Neufmarché, Bohemond I of Antioch, Bulgars, Buthrotum, Byzantine architecture, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Greeks, Calabria, Canary Islands, Cannae, Capital (architecture), ..., Cappella Palatina, Carolingian art, Carolingian dynasty, Castilians, Catholic Church, Channel Islands, Charles the Simple, Cheshire, Christianity, Church of St. Ouen, Rouen, Clan Montgomery, Classical music, Clothing, Cluniac Reforms, Cnut the Great, Conrad of Montferrat, Corfu, Cotentin Peninsula, Count of the Tent, County of Apulia and Calabria, Coutume, Crusade of Barbastro, Crusader states, Crusades, Custom (law), Cyprus, Danelaw, Danes (Germanic tribe), David I of Scotland, Davidian Revolution, Denmark, Devoll (river), Drengot family, Drogo of Hauteville, Dublin Castle, Duchy of Amalfi, Duchy of Normandy, Duke of Normandy, Duncan II of Scotland, Durrës, Earl of Hereford, Earl of Kent, Eastern Orthodox Church, Ecclesiastical Latin, Edessa, Edgar Ætheling, Edward the Confessor, Egypt, El Hierro, Embroidery, Emma of Normandy, Encastellation, Encyclopædia Britannica, England in the High Middle Ages, English Channel, Enrique Pérez de Guzmán, 2nd Count of Niebla, Epte, Ethnic group, Euphrates, Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, Fatimid Caliphate, Fécamp, Fécamp Abbey, Fealty, Feudalism, Fief, First Crusade, FitzGerald dynasty, Fitzmaurice, France, Franks, French nobility, French Revolution, French Wars of Religion, Fuerteventura, Gadifer de la Salle, Galilee, Gallia Lugdunensis, Gallo-Roman culture, Gallo-Romance languages, Geoffrey Chaucer, George Maniakes, Georgia (country), Germany, Gilbert Buatère, Godwin, Earl of Wessex, Goffredo Malaterra, Gordon (surname), Gothic architecture, Gray (surname), Great Britain, Guaimar III of Salerno, Guaimar IV of Salerno, Guernsey, Guy of Lusignan, Harthacnut, Hauteville family, Henry I of England, Henry III of Castile, Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor, Hervé Frankopoulos, Historian, History Today, Hohenstaufen, House of Burke, House of Normandy, House of Stuart, Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester, Hundred Years' War, Iberian Peninsula, Iceland, Illuminated manuscript, Ireland, Isaac Komnenos (brother of Alexios I), Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus, Islamic architecture, Italo-Norman, Italy, Ivory, Jean de Béthencourt, Jerusalem, Jews, Joan of England, Queen of Sicily, Jumièges, Kaninë, Keep, Kent, Kingdom of Africa, Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102), Kingdom of Cyprus, Kingdom of Jerusalem, Kingdom of Scotland, Kingdom of Sicily, Kingdom of the Canary Islands, Knights Templar, Komnenian restoration, La Trinité-du-Mont, Lamezia Terme, Languages of France, Langues d'oïl, Lanzarote, Latin, Latinisation of names, Law of Jersey, Levant, Limassol, List of counts of Aversa, List of Cypriot consorts, List of dukes of Gaeta, List of monarchs of Sicily, List of Princes of Capua, List of Scottish monarchs, Lombards, London, Low Franconian languages, Malatya, Malcolm III of Scotland, Malta, Marjorie Chibnall, Matilda of Scotland, Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, Medieval Armenia, Medieval Latin, Mediterranean Sea, Melfi, Melus of Bari, Messina, Metalworking, Michael (archangel), Middle Ages, Middle English, Modern English, Mont Saint-Michel, Moors, More Irish than the Irish themselves, Muhammad al-Idrisi, Muslim, Near East, Neume, Neustria, New York City, Norman conquest of England, Norman conquest of southern Italy, Norman language, Normandy, Norse–Gaels, Norsemen, Norway, Norwegians, Odo of Bayeux, Officers of the Principality of Antioch, Old English, Old French, Old Norse, Old Norse religion, Order of Saint Benedict, Orikum, Orkney, Osprey Publishing, Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573), Oultrejordain, Oxford University Press, Pagus, Palermo, Pays de Caux, Pechenegs, Petrelë, Philaretos Brachamios, Picardy, Piety, Poitou, Pope Gregory VII, Principality, Principality of Antioch, Principality of Arbanon, Principality of Capua, Raimbaud, Rainulf Drengot, Ralph the Timid, Reconquista, Republic of Venice, Richard de Camville, Richard I of England, Richard I of Normandy, Richard II, Duke of Normandy, Robert Crispin, Robert de Grandmesnil, Robert Guiscard, Robert of Jumièges, Robert of Thornham, Robert the Bruce, Roger de Montgomery, Roger I of Sicily, Roger I of Tosny, Roger II of Sicily, Rollo, Roman Catholic Diocese of Bayeux, Roman Empire, Romance languages, Romanesque architecture, Rouen, Roumois, Roussel de Bailleul, Rus' people, Saint Margaret of Scotland, Saint-Wandrille-Rançon, Salerno, Sancho VI of Navarre, Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo, Saracen, Sason, Scotland, Scottish clan, Scriptorium, Seine, Seljuq dynasty, Sergius IV of Naples, Seville, Shropshire, Sicily, Siege of Antioch, Southern Italy, Spain, Squillace, Staff (music), Stonemasonry, Surname, Swedes, Sweyn Forkbeard, Sybilla of Normandy, Syria, Tabula Rogeriana, Tancred of Hauteville, Tancred, Prince of Galilee, Tapestry, Taron (historic Armenia), Tarsus, Mersin, Taurus Mountains, The Pale, Third Crusade, Trabzon, Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, Trim Castle, University of Leeds, Upper Normandy, Varangians, Vikings, Vlorë, Wales, Welsh language, Welsh Marches, West Francia, Western Europe, Wexford, William Iron Arm, William of Apulia, William of Montreuil, William of Volpiano, William the Conqueror, William the Lion, Winchester. 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Abbey of Saint-Evroul

The Abbey of Saint-Evroul or Saint-Evroul-sur-Ouche (Saint-Evroult-sur-Ouche, Saint-Evroul-en-Ouche, Saint-Evroult-en-Ouche, Abbaye de Saint-Evroult, Sanctus Ebrulphus Uticensis) is a former Benedictine abbey in Normandy, located in the present commune of Saint-Evroult-Notre-Dame-du-Bois, Orne, Normandy.

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Abernethy, Perth and Kinross

Abernethy (Obar Neithich) is a village in Perth and Kinross, Scotland, situated south-east of Perth.

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Acre, Israel

Acre (or, עַכּוֹ, ʻAko, most commonly spelled as Akko; عكّا, ʻAkkā) is a city in the coastal plain region of Israel's Northern District at the extremity of Haifa Bay.

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Adriatic Sea

The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula.

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Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus (الأنْدَلُس, trans.; al-Ándalus; al-Ândalus; al-Àndalus; Berber: Andalus), also known as Muslim Spain, Muslim Iberia, or Islamic Iberia, was a medieval Muslim territory and cultural domain occupying at its peak most of what are today Spain and Portugal.

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Albania

Albania (Shqipëri/Shqipëria; Shqipni/Shqipnia or Shqypni/Shqypnia), officially the Republic of Albania (Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe.

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Alexander I of Scotland

Alexander I (medieval Gaelic: Alaxandair mac Maíl Coluim; modern Gaelic: Alasdair mac Mhaol Chaluim; c. 1078 – 23 April 1124), posthumously nicknamed The Fierce, was the King of Scotland from 1107 to his death.

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Alexios I Komnenos

Alexios I Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Αʹ Κομνηνός., c. 1048 – 15 August 1118) was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118.

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Amalfi

Amalfi is a town and comune in the province of Salerno, in the region of Campania, Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno.

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Amatus of Montecassino

Amatus of Montecassino (Amatus Casinensis), (11th century) was a Benedictine monk of the Abbey of Montecassino who is best known for his historical chronicles of his era.

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Anatolia

Anatolia (Modern Greek: Ανατολία Anatolía, from Ἀνατολή Anatolḗ,; "east" or "rise"), also known as Asia Minor (Medieval and Modern Greek: Μικρά Ἀσία Mikrá Asía, "small Asia"), Asian Turkey, the Anatolian peninsula, or the Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey.

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Anglo-Norman language

Anglo-Norman, also known as Anglo-Norman French, is a variety of the Norman language that was used in England and, to a lesser extent, elsewhere in the British Isles during the Anglo-Norman period.

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Anglo-Normans

The Anglo-Normans were the medieval ruling class in England, composed mainly of a combination of ethnic Anglo-Saxons, Normans and French, following the Norman conquest.

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Anglo-Saxon architecture

Anglo-Saxon architecture was a period in the history of architecture in England, and parts of Wales, from the mid-5th century until the Norman Conquest of 1066.

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Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxons were a people who inhabited Great Britain from the 5th century.

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Anna Komnene

Anna Komnene (Ἄννα Κομνηνή, Ánna Komnēnḗ; 1 December 1083 – 1153), commonly latinized as Anna Comnena, was a Byzantine princess, scholar, physician, hospital administrator, and historian.

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Antioch

Antioch on the Orontes (Antiókheia je epi Oróntou; also Syrian Antioch)Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ, "Antioch on Daphne"; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη, "Antioch the Great"; Antiochia ad Orontem; Անտիոք Antiok; ܐܢܛܝܘܟܝܐ Anṭiokya; Hebrew: אנטיוכיה, Antiyokhya; Arabic: انطاكية, Anṭākiya; انطاکیه; Antakya.

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Antipope Anacletus II

Anacletus II (died January 25, 1138), born Pietro Pierleoni, was an Antipope who ruled from 1130 to his death in opposition to Pope Innocent II.

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Apulia

Apulia (Puglia; Pùglia; Pulia; translit) is a region of Italy in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea to the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto to the south.

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Arabic

Arabic (العَرَبِيَّة) or (عَرَبِيّ) or) is a Central Semitic language that first emerged in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living from Mesopotamia in the east to the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, in northwestern Arabia, and in the Sinai peninsula. Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage comprising 30 modern varieties, including its standard form, Modern Standard Arabic, which is derived from Classical Arabic. As the modern written language, Modern Standard Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic (fuṣḥā), which is the official language of 26 states and the liturgical language of Islam. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties, and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-classical era, especially in modern times. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also borrowed many words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages, mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese, Valencian and Catalan, owing to both the proximity of Christian European and Muslim Arab civilizations and 800 years of Arabic culture and language in the Iberian Peninsula, referred to in Arabic as al-Andalus. Sicilian has about 500 Arabic words as result of Sicily being progressively conquered by Arabs from North Africa, from the mid 9th to mid 10th centuries. Many of these words relate to agriculture and related activities (Hull and Ruffino). Balkan languages, including Greek and Bulgarian, have also acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. Some of the most influenced languages are Persian, Turkish, Spanish, Urdu, Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Hindi, Malay, Maldivian, Indonesian, Pashto, Punjabi, Tagalog, Sindhi, and Hausa, and some languages in parts of Africa. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed words from other languages, including Greek and Persian in medieval times, and contemporary European languages such as English and French in modern times. Classical Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.8 billion Muslims and Modern Standard Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script and is written from right to left, although the spoken varieties are sometimes written in ASCII Latin from left to right with no standardized orthography.

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Arch

An arch is a vertical curved structure that spans an elevated space and may or may not support the weight above it, or in case of a horizontal arch like an arch dam, the hydrostatic pressure against it.

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Archbishop of Canterbury

The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury.

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Ariano Irpino

Ariano Irpino (formerly Ariano di Puglia or simply Ariano) is an Italian town and municipality in the province of Avellino, in the Campania region.

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Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia

The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (Middle Armenian: Կիլիկիոյ Հայոց Թագաւորութիւն), also known as the Cilician Armenia (Կիլիկյան Հայաստան), Lesser Armenia, or New Armenia, was an independent principality formed during the High Middle Ages by Armenian refugees fleeing the Seljuq invasion of Armenia.

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Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's oceans with a total area of about.

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Aversa

Aversa is a city and comune in the Province of Caserta in Campania, southern Italy, about north of Naples.

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Æthelred the Unready

Æthelred II (Old English: Æþelræd,;Different spellings of this king’s name most commonly found in modern texts are "Ethelred" and "Æthelred" (or "Aethelred"), the latter being closer to the original Old English form Æþelræd. 966 – 23 April 1016), known as the Unready, was King of the English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 until his death.

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Île-de-France

Île-de-France ("Island of France"), also known as the région parisienne ("Parisian Region"), is one of the 18 regions of France and includes the city of Paris.

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Bamberg

Bamberg is a town in Upper Franconia, Germany, on the river Regnitz close to its confluence with the river Main.

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Bannow

Bannow (Yola: Baannough) is a civil parish lying east of Bannow Bay on the south-west coast of County Wexford, Ireland.

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Baptismal font

A baptismal font is an article of church furniture used for baptism.

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Bari

Bari (Barese: Bare; Barium; translit) is the capital city of the Metropolitan City of Bari and of the Apulia region, on the Adriatic Sea, in southern Italy.

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Barry (name)

Barry is both a given name and a surname.

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Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)

The Battle of Dyrrhachium (near present-day Durrës in Albania) took place on October 18, 1081 between the Byzantine Empire, led by the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118), and the Normans of southern Italy under Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia and Calabria.

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Battle of Hastings

The Battle of Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson, beginning the Norman conquest of England.

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Bayeux Tapestry

The Bayeux Tapestry (Tapisserie de Bayeux or La telle du conquest; Tapete Baiocense) is an embroidered cloth nearly long and tall, which depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England concerning William, Duke of Normandy, and Harold, Earl of Wessex, later King of England, and culminating in the Battle of Hastings.

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BBC

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster.

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Bec-de-Mortagne

Bec-de-Mortagne is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region in northern France.

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Berengaria of Navarre

Berengaria of Navarre (Berengela, Berenguela, Bérengère; 1165–1170 – 23 December 1230) was Queen of England as the wife of Richard I of England.

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Bernard de Neufmarché

Bernard of Neufmarché was "the first of the original conquerors of Wales." He was a minor Norman lord who rose to power in the Welsh Marches before successfully undertaking the invasion and conquest of the Kingdom of Brycheiniog between 1088 and 1095.

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Bohemond I of Antioch

Bohemond I (3 March 1111) was the Prince of Taranto from 1089 to 1111 and the Prince of Antioch from 1098 to 1111.

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Bulgars

The Bulgars (also Bulghars, Bulgari, Bolgars, Bolghars, Bolgari, Proto-Bulgarians) were Turkic semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the Pontic-Caspian steppe and the Volga region during the 7th century.

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Buthrotum

Butrint (Buthrōtum; from Bouthrōtón) was an ancient Greek and later Roman city and bishopric in Epirus.

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Byzantine architecture

Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Later Roman or Eastern Roman Empire.

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Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire and Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, which had been founded as Byzantium).

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Byzantine Greeks

The Byzantine Greeks (or Byzantines) were the Greek or Hellenized people of the Byzantine Empire (or Eastern Roman Empire) during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages who spoke medieval Greek and were Orthodox Christians.

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Calabria

Calabria (Calàbbria in Calabrian; Calavría in Calabrian Greek; Καλαβρία in Greek; Kalavrì in Arbëresh/Albanian), known in antiquity as Bruttium, is a region in Southern Italy.

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Canary Islands

The Canary Islands (Islas Canarias) is a Spanish archipelago and autonomous community of Spain located in the Atlantic Ocean, west of Morocco at the closest point.

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Cannae

Cannae (now Canne della Battaglia) is an ancient village of the Apulia region of south east Italy.

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Capital (architecture)

In architecture the capital (from the Latin caput, or "head") or chapiter forms the topmost member of a column (or a pilaster).

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Cappella Palatina

The Palatine Chapel (Cappella Palatina), is the royal chapel of the Norman kings of Sicily situated on the first floor at the center of the Palazzo Reale in Palermo, southern Italy.

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Carolingian art

Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire in the period of roughly 120 years from about 780 to 900—during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs—popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance.

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Carolingian dynasty

The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family founded by Charles Martel with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD.

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Castilians

Castilians (Spanish: castellanos) are certain inhabitants in regions of central Spain including at least the eastern part of Castile and León, Castile-La Mancha excluding Albacete, and the Community of Madrid, who are the source of the Spanish language (Castilian) among other aspects of cultural identity.

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Catholic Church

The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.299 billion members worldwide.

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Channel Islands

The Channel Islands (Norman: Îles d'la Manche; French: Îles Anglo-Normandes or Îles de la Manche) are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy.

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Charles the Simple

Charles III (17 September 879 – 7 October 929), called the Simple or the Straightforward (from the Latin Carolus Simplex), was the King of West Francia from 898 until 922 and the King of Lotharingia from 911 until 919–23.

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Cheshire

Cheshire (archaically the County Palatine of Chester) is a county in North West England, bordering Merseyside and Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south and Flintshire, Wales and Wrexham county borough to the west.

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Christianity

ChristianityFrom Ancient Greek Χριστός Khristós (Latinized as Christus), translating Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, Māšîăḥ, meaning "the anointed one", with the Latin suffixes -ian and -itas.

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Church of St. Ouen, Rouen

Saint-Ouen Abbey Church, also referred in English as Saint-Owen Abbey Church (Abbatiale Saint-Ouen), is a large Gothic Roman Catholic church in Rouen, Normandy, France.

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Clan Montgomery

Clan Montgomery (also Montgomerie) is a Lowland Scottish clan.

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Classical music

Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western culture, including both liturgical (religious) and secular music.

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Clothing

Clothing (also known as clothes and attire) is a collective term for garments, items worn on the body.

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Cluniac Reforms

The Cluniac Reforms (also called the Benedictine Reform) were a series of changes within medieval monasticism of the Western Church focused on restoring the traditional monastic life, encouraging art, and caring for the poor.

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Cnut the Great

Cnut the GreatBolton, The Empire of Cnut the Great: Conquest and the Consolidation of Power in Northern Europe in the Early Eleventh Century (Leiden, 2009) (Cnut se Micela, Knútr inn ríki. Retrieved 21 January 2016. – 12 November 1035), also known as Canute—whose father was Sweyn Forkbeard (which gave him the patronym Sweynsson, Sveinsson)—was King of Denmark, England and Norway; together often referred to as the North Sea Empire.

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Conrad of Montferrat

Conrad of Montferrat (Italian: Corrado del Monferrato; Piedmontese: Conrà ëd Monfrà) (died 28 April 1192) was a north Italian nobleman, one of the major participants in the Third Crusade.

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Corfu

Corfu or Kerkyra (translit,; translit,; Corcyra; Corfù) is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea.

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Cotentin Peninsula

The Cotentin Peninsula, also known as the Cherbourg Peninsula, is a peninsula in Normandy that forms part of the northwest coast of France.

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Count of the Tent

The Count of the Tent (κόμης της κόρτης, komēs tēs kortēs) was a Byzantine military-administrative office attested from the 8th to the early 12th centuries.

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County of Apulia and Calabria

The County of Apulia and Calabria, later the Duchy of Apulia and Calabria, was a Norman country founded by William of Hauteville in 1042 in the territories of Gargano, Capitanata, Apulia, Campania, and Vulture.

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Coutume

Coutumes were the customary laws of France.

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Crusade of Barbastro

The Crusade of Barbastro (also known as the Siege of Barbastro or War of Barbastro) was an international expedition, sanctioned by Pope Alexander II, to take the Spanish city of Barbastro, then part of the Hudid Emirate of Lārida.

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Crusader states

The Crusader states, also known as Outremer, were a number of mostly 12th- and 13th-century feudal Christian states created by Western European crusaders in Asia Minor, Greece and the Holy Land, and during the Northern Crusades in the eastern Baltic area.

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Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period.

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Custom (law)

Custom in law is the established pattern of behavior that can be objectively verified within a particular social setting.

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Cyprus

Cyprus (Κύπρος; Kıbrıs), officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία; Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti), is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean and the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean.

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Danelaw

The Danelaw (also known as the Danelagh; Dena lagu; Danelagen), as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, is a historical name given to the part of England in which the laws of the Danes held sway and dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons.

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Danes (Germanic tribe)

The Danes were a North Germanic tribe inhabiting southern Scandinavia, including the area now comprising Denmark proper, during the Nordic Iron Age and the Viking Age.

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David I of Scotland

David I or Dauíd mac Maíl Choluim (Modern: Daibhidh I mac Chaluim; – 24 May 1153) was a 12th-century ruler who was Prince of the Cumbrians from 1113 to 1124 and later King of the Scots from 1124 to 1153.

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Davidian Revolution

The Davidian Revolution is a term given by many scholars to the changes which took place in the Kingdom of Scotland during the reign of David I (1124–1153).

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Denmark

Denmark (Danmark), officially the Kingdom of Denmark,Kongeriget Danmark,.

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Devoll (river)

Devoll (Devoll, Devolli; Eordaïcus; Eordaikos) is a river in southern Albania.

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Drengot family

The Drengots were a Norman family of mercenaries, one of the first to head to the Mezzogiorno of Italy to fight in the service of the Lombards.

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Drogo of Hauteville

Drogo of Hauteville (c. 1010 – 10 August 1051) was the second Count of Apulia and Calabria (1046–51) in southern Italy.

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Dublin Castle

Dublin Castle (Caisleán Bhaile Átha Cliath) off Dame Street, Dublin, Ireland, is a major Irish government complex, conference centre, and tourist attraction.

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Duchy of Amalfi

The Duchy of Amalfi (Ducato di Amalfi) or the Republic of Amalfi (Repubblica di Amalfi) was a de facto independent state centered on the Southern Italian city of Amalfi during the 10th and 11th centuries.

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Duchy of Normandy

The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between King Charles III of West Francia and Rollo, leader of the Vikings.

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Duke of Normandy

In the Middle Ages, the Duke of Normandy was the ruler of the Duchy of Normandy in north-western France.

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Duncan II of Scotland

Donnchad mac Máel Coluim (Modern Gaelic: Donnchadh mac Mhaoil Chaluim;Donnchad mac Maíl Coluim is the Mediaeval Gaelic form. anglicised as Duncan II; c. 1060 – 12 November 1094) was king of Scots.

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Durrës

Durrës (Durazzo,, historically known as Epidamnos and Dyrrachium, is the second most populous city of the Republic of Albania. The city is the capital of the surrounding Durrës County, one of 12 constituent counties of the country. By air, it is northwest of Sarandë, west of Tirana, south of Shkodër and east of Rome. Located on the Adriatic Sea, it is the country's most ancient and economic and historic center. Founded by Greek colonists from Corinth and Corfu under the name of Epidamnos (Επίδαμνος) around the 7th century BC, the city essentially developed to become significant as it became an integral part of the Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire. The Via Egnatia, the continuation of the Via Appia, started in the city and led across the interior of the Balkan Peninsula to Constantinople in the east. In the Middle Ages, it was contested between Bulgarian, Venetian and Ottoman dominions. Following the declaration of independence of Albania, the city served as the capital of the Principality of Albania for a short period of time. Subsequently, it was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy and Nazi Germany in the interwar period. Moreover, the city experienced a strong expansion in its demography and economic activity during the Communism in Albania. Durrës is served by the Port of Durrës, one of the largest on the Adriatic Sea, which connects the city to Italy and other neighbouring countries. Its most considerable attraction is the Amphitheatre of Durrës that is included on the tentative list of Albania for designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Once having a capacity for 20,000 people, it is the largest amphitheatre in the Balkan Peninsula.

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Earl of Hereford

The title of Earl of Hereford was created six times in the Peerage of England.

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Earl of Kent

The peerage title Earl of Kent has been created eight times in the Peerage of England and once in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.

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Eastern Orthodox Church

The Eastern Orthodox Church, also known as the Orthodox Church, or officially as the Orthodox Catholic Church, is the second-largest Christian Church, with over 250 million members.

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Ecclesiastical Latin

Ecclesiastical Latin, also called Liturgical Latin or Church Latin, is the form of Latin that is used in the Roman and the other Latin rites of the Catholic Church, as well as in the Anglican Churches, Lutheran Churches, Methodist Churches, and the Western Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church, for liturgical purposes.

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Edessa

Edessa (Ἔδεσσα; الرها ar-Ruhā; Şanlıurfa; Riha) was a city in Upper Mesopotamia, founded on an earlier site by Seleucus I Nicator ca.

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Edgar Ætheling

Edgar Ætheling (also spelt Æþeling, Aetheling, Atheling or Etheling) or Edgar II (c. 1051 – c. 1126) was the last male member of the royal house of Cerdic of Wessex (see House of Wessex family tree).

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Edward the Confessor

Edward the Confessor (Ēadƿeard Andettere, Eduardus Confessor; 1003 – 5 January 1066), also known as Saint Edward the Confessor, was among the last Anglo-Saxon kings of England.

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Egypt

Egypt (مِصر, مَصر, Khēmi), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula.

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El Hierro

El Hierro, nicknamed Isla del Meridiano (the "Meridian Island"), is the smallest and farthest south and west of the Canary Islands (an Autonomous Community of Spain), in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa, with a population of 10,162 (2003).

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Embroidery

Embroidery is the craft of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to apply thread or yarn.

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Emma of Normandy

Emma of Normandy (c. 985 – 6 March 1052) was a queen consort of England, Denmark and Norway. She was the daughter of Richard I, Duke of Normandy, and his second wife, Gunnora. Through her marriages to Æthelred the Unready (1002–1016) and Cnut the Great (1017–1035), she became the Queen Consort of England, Denmark, and Norway. She was the mother of three sons, King Edward the Confessor, Alfred Ætheling, and King Harthacnut, as well as two daughters, Goda of England, and Gunhilda of Denmark. Even after her husbands' deaths Emma remained in the public eye, and continued to participate actively in politics. She is the central figure within the Encomium Emmae Reginae, a critical source for the history of early 11th-century English politics. As Catherine Karkov notes, Emma is one of the most visually represented early medieval queens.

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Encastellation

Encastellation (sometimes castellation, which can also mean crenellation) is the process whereby the feudal kingdoms of Europe became dotted with castles, from which local lords could dominate the countryside of their fiefs and their neighbours', and from which kings could command even the far-off corners of their realms.

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Encyclopædia Britannica

The Encyclopædia Britannica (Latin for "British Encyclopaedia"), published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia.

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England in the High Middle Ages

England in the High Middle Ages includes the history of England between the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the death of King John, considered by some to be the last of the Angevin kings of England, in 1216.

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English Channel

The English Channel (la Manche, "The Sleeve"; Ärmelkanal, "Sleeve Channel"; Mor Breizh, "Sea of Brittany"; Mor Bretannek, "Sea of Brittany"), also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean.

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Enrique Pérez de Guzmán, 2nd Count of Niebla

Don Enrique Pérez de Guzmán y de Castilla, 2nd Count of Niebla (in full, Don Enrique Pérez de Guzmán y de Castilla, segundo Conde de Niebla, Señor de Sanlúcar de Barrameda) (20 February 1371 – 31 October 1436) was a Spanish nobleman and military figure of the Reconquista.

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Epte

The Epte is a river in Seine-Maritime and Eure, in Normandy, France.

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Ethnic group

An ethnic group, or an ethnicity, is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities such as common ancestry, language, history, society, culture or nation.

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Euphrates

The Euphrates (Sumerian: Buranuna; 𒌓𒄒𒉣 Purattu; الفرات al-Furāt; ̇ܦܪܬ Pǝrāt; Եփրատ: Yeprat; פרת Perat; Fırat; Firat) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia.

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Eustace II, Count of Boulogne

Eustace II, (&ndash), also known as Eustace aux Gernons (with moustaches) Heather J. Tanner, ‘Eustace (II), count of Boulogne (d. c.1087)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004.

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Fatimid Caliphate

The Fatimid Caliphate was an Islamic caliphate that spanned a large area of North Africa, from the Red Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west.

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Fécamp

Fécamp is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region in northern France.

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Fécamp Abbey

Fécamp Abbey (Abbaye de la Trinité de Fécamp) is a Benedictine abbey in Fécamp, Seine-Maritime, Upper Normandy, France.

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Fealty

An oath of fealty, from the Latin fidelitas (faithfulness), is a pledge of allegiance of one person to another.

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Feudalism

Feudalism was a combination of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries.

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Fief

A fief (feudum) was the central element of feudalism and consisted of heritable property or rights granted by an overlord to a vassal who held it in fealty (or "in fee") in return for a form of feudal allegiance and service, usually given by the personal ceremonies of homage and fealty.

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First Crusade

The First Crusade (1095–1099) was the first of a number of crusades that attempted to recapture the Holy Land, called for by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont in 1095.

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FitzGerald dynasty

The FitzGerald dynasty (Ríshliocht Mhic Gearailt or Clann Gearailt) is an Irish Hiberno-Norman or Cambro-Norman royal dynasty.

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Fitzmaurice

Fitzmaurice is an Anglo-Norman/Cambro-Norman/Hiberno-Norman surname.

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France

France, officially the French Republic (République française), is a sovereign state whose territory consists of metropolitan France in Western Europe, as well as several overseas regions and territories.

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Franks

The Franks (Franci or gens Francorum) were a collection of Germanic peoples, whose name was first mentioned in 3rd century Roman sources, associated with tribes on the Lower and Middle Rhine in the 3rd century AD, on the edge of the Roman Empire.

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French nobility

The French nobility (la noblesse) was a privileged social class in France during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period to the revolution in 1790.

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French Revolution

The French Revolution (Révolution française) was a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France and its colonies that lasted from 1789 until 1799.

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French Wars of Religion

The French Wars of Religion refers to a prolonged period of war and popular unrest between Roman Catholics and Huguenots (Reformed/Calvinist Protestants) in the Kingdom of France between 1562 and 1598.

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Fuerteventura

Fuerteventura (literally meaning "strong fortune" but translated by some as "Strong Winds" or a corruption of the French term for "Great Adventure") is one of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean and is part of the North Africa region, politically part of Spain.

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Gadifer de la Salle

Gadifer de La Salle (Sainte-Radegonde, 1340 –1415) was a French knight and crusader of Poitevine origin who, with Jean de Béthencourt, conquered and explored the Canary Islands for the Kingdom of Castile.

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Galilee

Galilee (הגליל, transliteration HaGalil); (الجليل, translit. al-Jalīl) is a region in northern Israel.

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Gallia Lugdunensis

Gallia Lugdunensis (French: Gaule Lyonnaise) was a province of the Roman Empire in what is now the modern country of France, part of the Celtic territory of Gaul formerly known as Celtica.

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Gallo-Roman culture

The term "Gallo-Roman" describes the Romanized culture of Gaul under the rule of the Roman Empire.

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Gallo-Romance languages

The Gallo-Romance branch of the Romance languages includes sensu stricto the French language, the Occitan language, and the Franco-Provençal language (Arpitan).

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Geoffrey Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343 – 25 October 1400), known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages.

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George Maniakes

George Maniakes (transliterated as Georgios Maniaces, Maniakis, or Maniaches,; died 1043) was a prominent Eastern Roman general during the 11th century, he was the catepan of Italy in 1042.

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Georgia (country)

Georgia (tr) is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia.

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Germany

Germany (Deutschland), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland), is a sovereign state in central-western Europe.

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Gilbert Buatère

Gilbert Buatère (c. 985 – 1 October 1018) was one of the first Norman adventurers in the Mezzogiorno.

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Godwin, Earl of Wessex

Godwin of Wessex (Godƿin; 100115 April 1053) was one of the most powerful earls in England under the Danish king Cnut the Great and his successors.

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Goffredo Malaterra

Gaufredo (or Geoffrey, or Goffredo) Malaterra was an eleventh-century Benedictine monk and historian, possibly of Norman origin.

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Gordon (surname)

Gordon is a surname with numerous origins.

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Gothic architecture

Gothic architecture is an architectural style that flourished in Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages.

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Gray (surname)

Gray is a surname of that can come from a variety of origins but is typically found in Scotland, Ireland and England.

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Great Britain

Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe.

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Guaimar III of Salerno

Guaimar III (also Waimar, Gaimar, Guaimaro, or Guaimario and sometimes numbered Guaimar IV) (c. 983 – 1027×31) was the Lombard prince of Salerno from around 994 to his death.

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Guaimar IV of Salerno

Guaimar IV (c. 1013 – 2, 3 or 4 June 1052) was Prince of Salerno (1027–1052), Duke of Amalfi (1039–1052), Duke of Gaeta (1040–1041), and Prince of Capua (1038–1047) in Southern Italy over the period from 1027 to 1052.

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Guernsey

Guernsey is an island in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy.

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Guy of Lusignan

Guy of Lusignan (c. 1150 – 18 July 1194) was a French Poitevin knight, son of Hugh VIII of the Lusignan dynasty.

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Harthacnut

Harthacnut (Hardeknud; "Tough-knot";Lawson, Harthacnut c. 1018 – 8 June 1042), sometimes referred to as Canute III, was King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 and King of England from 1040 to 1042.

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Hauteville family

The Hauteville family, also called the Hauteville dynasty or House of Hauteville (French: Maison de Hauteville, Italian: Casa d'Altavilla), was a Norman family originally of seigneurial rank from the Cotentin.

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Henry I of England

Henry I (c. 1068 – 1 December 1135), also known as Henry Beauclerc, was King of England from 1100 to his death.

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Henry III of Castile

Henry III of Castile (4 October 1379 – 25 December 1406), called the Mourner, was the son of John I and Eleanor of Aragon.

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Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

Henry III (28 October 1016 – 5 October 1056), called the Black or the Pious, was a member of the Salian Dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors.

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Hervé Frankopoulos

Hervé (Ἑρβέβιος, Ervevios, Erveo), called Frankopoulos or Phrangopoulos (Φραγγόπουλος, "Son of the Frank"), was a Norman mercenary general in Byzantine service during the 1050s.

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Historian

A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past, and is regarded as an authority on it.

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History Today

History Today is an illustrated history magazine.

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Hohenstaufen

The Staufer, also known as the House of Staufen, or of Hohenstaufen, were a dynasty of German kings (1138–1254) during the Middle Ages.

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House of Burke

The House of Burke (de Búrca; Latinised to de Burca or de Burgo) is the Irish branch of the Anglo-Norman noble family known as de Burgh.

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House of Normandy

The House of Normandy is the usual designation for the family that were the Counts of Rouen, Dukes of Normandy and Kings of England which immediately followed the Norman conquest of England and lasted until the House of Plantagenet came to power in 1154.

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House of Stuart

The House of Stuart, originally Stewart, was a European royal house that originated in Scotland.

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Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester

Hugh d'Avranches (– 27 July 1101), also known as (Hugues le Gros) or (Hugo Lupus), was the second Norman earl of Chester (2nd creation) and one of the great magnates of early Norman England.

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Hundred Years' War

The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the House of Valois, over the right to rule the Kingdom of France.

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Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula, also known as Iberia, is located in the southwest corner of Europe.

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Iceland

Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic, with a population of and an area of, making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe.

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Illuminated manuscript

An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations.

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Ireland

Ireland (Éire; Ulster-Scots: Airlann) is an island in the North Atlantic.

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Isaac Komnenos (brother of Alexios I)

Isaac Komnenos or Comnenus (Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός, Isaakios Komnēnos; – 1102/1104) was a notable Byzantine aristocrat and military commander in the 1070s.

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Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus

Isaac Komnenos or Comnenus (Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός, Isaakios Komnēnos; c. 1155 – 1195/1196), ruled Cyprus from 1184 to 1191, before Richard the Lionheart, King of England conquered the island during the Third Crusade.

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Islamic architecture

Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day.

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Italo-Norman

The Italo-Normans, or Siculo-Normans when referring to Sicily and Southern Italy, are the Italian-born descendants of the first Norman conquerors to travel to southern Italy in the first half of the eleventh century.

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Italy

Italy (Italia), officially the Italian Republic (Repubblica Italiana), is a sovereign state in Europe.

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Ivory

Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally elephants') and teeth of animals, that can be used in art or manufacturing.

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Jean de Béthencourt

Jean de Béthencourt (1362–1425) was a French explorer who in 1402 led an expedition to the Canary Islands, landing first on the north side of Lanzarote.

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Jerusalem

Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם; القُدس) is a city in the Middle East, located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea.

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Jews

Jews (יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3, Israeli pronunciation) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and a nation, originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history" and Hebrews of the Ancient Near East.

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Joan of England, Queen of Sicily

Joan of England (October 1165 – 4 September 1199) was a queen consort of Sicily and countess consort of Toulouse.

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Jumièges

Jumièges is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region in north-western France.

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Kaninë

Kaninë is a settlement in the Vlorë County, southwestern Albania.

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Keep

A keep (from the Middle English kype) is a type of fortified tower built within castles during the Middle Ages by European nobility.

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Kent

Kent is a county in South East England and one of the home counties.

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Kingdom of Africa

The Kingdom of Africa was an extension of the frontier zone of the Siculo-Norman state in the former Roman province of Africa (Ifrīqiya in Tunisian Arabic), corresponding to Tunisia and parts of Algeria and Libya today.

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Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)

The Kingdom of Croatia (Regnum Croatiae; Kraljevina Hrvatska, Hrvatsko Kraljevstvo) was a medieval kingdom in Central Europe comprising most of what is today Croatia (without western Istria and some Dalmatian coastal cities), as well as most of the modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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Kingdom of Cyprus

The Kingdom of Cyprus was a Crusader state that existed between 1192 and 1489.

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Kingdom of Jerusalem

The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem was a crusader state established in the Southern Levant by Godfrey of Bouillon in 1099 after the First Crusade.

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Kingdom of Scotland

The Kingdom of Scotland (Rìoghachd na h-Alba; Kinrick o Scotland) was a sovereign state in northwest Europe traditionally said to have been founded in 843.

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Kingdom of Sicily

The Kingdom of Sicily (Regnum Siciliae, Regno di Sicilia, Regnu di Sicilia, Regne de Sicília, Reino de Sicilia) was a state that existed in the south of the Italian peninsula and for a time Africa from its founding by Roger II in 1130 until 1816.

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Kingdom of the Canary Islands

The Kingdom of the Canary Islands was founded in 1404, although it had always recognized another country as their overlord.

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Knights Templar

The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Salomonici), also known as the Order of Solomon's Temple, the Knights Templar or simply as Templars, were a Catholic military order recognised in 1139 by papal bull Omne Datum Optimum of the Holy See.

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Komnenian restoration

The Komnenian restoration is the term used by historians to describe the military, financial, and territorial recovery of the Byzantine Empire under the Komnenian dynasty, from the accession of Alexios I Komnenos in 1081 to the death of Andronikos I Komnenos in 1185.

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La Trinité-du-Mont

La Trinité-du-Mont is a commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region in northern France.

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Lamezia Terme

Lamezia Terme, commonly called Lamezia, is an Italian city and comune of 70,452 inhabitants (2013) in the province of Catanzaro in the Calabria region.

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Languages of France

Of the languages of France, the national language, French, is the only official language according to the second article of the French Constitution, and its standardized variant is by far the most widely spoken.

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Langues d'oïl

The langues d'oïl (French) or oïl languages (also in langues d'oui) are a dialect continuum that includes standard French and its closest autochthonous relatives historically spoken in the northern half of France, southern Belgium, and the Channel Islands.

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Lanzarote

Lanzarote is a Spanish island, the northernmost and easternmost of the autonomous Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.

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Latin

Latin (Latin: lingua latīna) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages.

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Latinisation of names

Latinisation or Latinization is the practice of rendering a non-Latin name (or word) in a Latin style.

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Law of Jersey

The Law of Jersey has been influenced by several different legal traditions, in particular Norman customary law, English common law and modern French civil law.

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Levant

The Levant is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean.

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Limassol

Limassol (Λεμεσός; Limasol or Leymosun) is a city on the southern coast of Cyprus and capital of the eponymous district.

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List of counts of Aversa

In 1030, the first Norman foothold in the Mezzogiorno was created when Sergius IV of Naples gave the town and vicinity of Aversa as a county to Ranulf.

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List of Cypriot consorts

No description.

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List of dukes of Gaeta

This is a list of the hypati, patricians, consuls, and dukes of Gaeta.

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List of monarchs of Sicily

The monarchs of Sicily ruled from the establishment of the County of Sicily in 1071 until the "perfect fusion" in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1816.

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List of Princes of Capua

This is a list of the rulers of the Principality of Capua.

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List of Scottish monarchs

The monarch of Scotland was the head of state of the Kingdom of Scotland.

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Lombards

The Lombards or Longobards (Langobardi, Longobardi, Longobard (Western)) were a Germanic people who ruled most of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774.

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London

London is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom.

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Low Franconian languages

Low Franconian, Low Frankish (Nederfrankisch, Niederfränkisch, Bas Francique) are a group of several West Germanic languages spoken in the Netherlands, northern Belgium (Flanders), in the Nord department of France, in western Germany (Lower Rhine), as well as in Suriname, South Africa and Namibia that originally descended from the Frankish language.

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Malatya

Malatya (Մալաթիա Malat'ya; Meletî; ܡܠܝܛܝܢܐ Malīṭīná; مالاتيا) is a large city in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey and the capital of Malatya Province.

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Malcolm III of Scotland

Malcolm III (Gaelic: Máel Coluim mac Donnchada; c. 26 March 1031 – 13 November 1093) was King of Scots from 1058 to 1093.

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Malta

Malta, officially known as the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European island country consisting of an archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea.

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Marjorie Chibnall

Marjorie Morgan McCallum Chibnall (27 September 1915 – 23 June 2012) was an English historian, medievalist and Latin translator.

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Matilda of Scotland

Matilda of Scotland (c. 1080 – 1 May 1118), originally christened Edith, was Queen of England as the first wife of King Henry I. She acted as regent of England in the absence of her spouse on several occasions.

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Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair

Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair (fl. 1124–1134) was an illegitimate son of Alexander I of Scotland was an unsuccessful pretender to the Scottish throne.

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Medieval Armenia

Western Armenia had been under Byzantine control since the partition of the Kingdom of Armenia in AD 387, while Eastern Armenia had been under the occupation of the Sassanid Empire starting 428.

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Medieval Latin

Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange, as the liturgical language of Chalcedonian Christianity and the Roman Catholic Church, and as a language of science, literature, law, and administration.

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Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa and on the east by the Levant.

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Melfi

Melfi (Lucano: Mèlfe) is a town and comune in the Vulture area of the province of Potenza, in the Southern Italian region of Basilicata.

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Melus of Bari

Melus (also Milus or Meles, Melo in Italian) (died 1020) was a Lombard nobleman from the Apulian town of Bari, whose ambition to carve for himself an autonomous territory from the Byzantine catapanate of Italy in the early eleventh century inadvertently sparked the Norman presence in Southern Italy.

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Messina

Messina (Sicilian: Missina; Messana, Μεσσήνη) is the capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina.

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Metalworking

Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts, assemblies, or large-scale structures.

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Michael (archangel)

Michael (translit; translit; Michahel;ⲙⲓⲭⲁⲏⲗ, translit) is an archangel in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

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Middle Ages

In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages (or Medieval Period) lasted from the 5th to the 15th century.

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Middle English

Middle English (ME) is collectively the varieties of the English language spoken after the Norman Conquest (1066) until the late 15th century; scholarly opinion varies but the Oxford English Dictionary specifies the period of 1150 to 1500.

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Modern English

Modern English (sometimes New English or NE as opposed to Middle English and Old English) is the form of the English language spoken since the Great Vowel Shift in England, which began in the late 14th century and was completed in roughly 1550.

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Mont Saint-Michel

Mont-Saint-Michel (Norman: Mont Saint Miché) is an island commune in Normandy, France.

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Moors

The term "Moors" refers primarily to the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Malta during the Middle Ages.

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More Irish than the Irish themselves

"More Irish than the Irish themselves" (Níos Gaelaí ná na Gaeil féin, Hiberniores Hibernis ipsis) is a phrase used in Irish historiography to describe a phenomenon of cultural assimilation in late medieval Norman Ireland.

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Muhammad al-Idrisi

Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani as-Sabti, or simply al-Idrisi (أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي القرطبي الحسني السبتي; Dreses; 1100 – 1165), was an Arab Muslim geographer, cartographer and Egyptologist who lived in Palermo, Sicily at the court of King Roger II.

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Muslim

A Muslim (مُسلِم) is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion.

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Near East

The Near East is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia.

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Neume

A neume (sometimes spelled neum) is the basic element of Western and Eastern systems of musical notation prior to the invention of five-line staff notation.

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Neustria

Neustria, or Neustrasia, (meaning "western land") was the western part of the Kingdom of the Franks.

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New York City

The City of New York, often called New York City (NYC) or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States.

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Norman conquest of England

The Norman conquest of England (in Britain, often called the Norman Conquest or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Norman, Breton, Flemish and French soldiers led by Duke William II of Normandy, later styled William the Conqueror.

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Norman conquest of southern Italy

The Norman conquest of southern Italy lasted from 999 to 1139, involving many battles and independent conquerors.

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Norman language

No description.

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Normandy

Normandy (Normandie,, Norman: Normaundie, from Old French Normanz, plural of Normant, originally from the word for "northman" in several Scandinavian languages) is one of the 18 regions of France, roughly referring to the historical Duchy of Normandy.

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Norse–Gaels

The Norse–Gaels (Gall-Goídil; Irish: Gall-Ghaeil; Gall-Ghàidheil, 'foreigner-Gaels') were a people of mixed Gaelic and Norse ancestry and culture.

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Norsemen

Norsemen are a group of Germanic people who inhabited Scandinavia and spoke what is now called the Old Norse language between 800 AD and c. 1300 AD.

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Norway

Norway (Norwegian: (Bokmål) or (Nynorsk); Norga), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a unitary sovereign state whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula plus the remote island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard.

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Norwegians

Norwegians (nordmenn) are a Germanic ethnic group native to Norway.

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Odo of Bayeux

Odo of Bayeux (died 1097), Earl of Kent and Bishop of Bayeux, was the half-brother of William the Conqueror, and was, for a time, second in power after the King of England.

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Officers of the Principality of Antioch

The Principality of Antioch mirrored the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in its selection of great offices: constable, marshal, seneschal, admiral, Chamberlain, butler, chancellor and at certain times also bailiff.

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Old English

Old English (Ænglisc, Anglisc, Englisc), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages.

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Old French

Old French (franceis, françois, romanz; Modern French: ancien français) was the language spoken in Northern France from the 8th century to the 14th century.

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Old Norse

Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements from about the 9th to the 13th century.

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Old Norse religion

Old Norse religion developed from early Germanic religion during the Proto-Norse period, when the North Germanic people separated into a distinct branch of the Germanic peoples.

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Order of Saint Benedict

The Order of Saint Benedict (OSB; Latin: Ordo Sancti Benedicti), also known as the Black Monksin reference to the colour of its members' habitsis a Catholic religious order of independent monastic communities that observe the Rule of Saint Benedict.

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Orikum

Orikum is a town and a former municipality in the Vlorë County, southwestern Albania.

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Orkney

Orkney (Orkneyjar), also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, situated off the north coast of Great Britain.

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Osprey Publishing

Osprey Publishing is an Oxford-based publishing company specializing in military history.

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Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)

The Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War, also known as the War of Cyprus (Guerra di Cipro) was fought between 1570 and 1573.

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Oultrejordain

The Lordship of Oultrejordain or Oultrejourdain (Old French for "beyond the Jordan", also called Lordship of Montreal) was the name used during the Crusades for an extensive and partly undefined region to the east of the Jordan River, an area known in ancient times as Edom and Moab.

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Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press (OUP) is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press.

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Pagus

In the later Western Roman Empire, following the reorganization of Diocletian, a pagus (compare French pays, Spanish pago, "a region, terroir") became the smallest administrative district of a province.

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Palermo

Palermo (Sicilian: Palermu, Panormus, from Πάνορμος, Panormos) is a city of Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo.

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Pays de Caux

The Pays de Caux is an area in Normandy occupying the greater part of the French département of Seine Maritime in Normandy.

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Pechenegs

The Pechenegs or Patzinaks were a semi-nomadic Turkic people from Central Asia speaking the Pecheneg language which belonged to the Oghuz branch of Turkic language family.

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Petrelë

Petrelë is a village and a former municipality 15 km south of Tirana, in central Albania.

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Philaretos Brachamios

Philaretos Brachamios (Φιλάρετος Βραχάμιος; Armenian: Փիլարտոս Վարաժնունի, Pilartos Varajnuni; Philaretus Brachamius) was a distinguished Byzantine general and warlord of Armenian heritage, and for a time was a usurper against emperor Michael VII.

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Picardy

Picardy (Picardie) is a historical territory and a former administrative region of France.

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Piety

In spiritual terminology, piety is a virtue that may include religious devotion, spirituality, or a mixture of both.

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Poitou

Poitou, in Poitevin: Poetou, was a province of west-central France whose capital city was Poitiers.

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Pope Gregory VII

Gregory VII (Gregorius VII; 1015 – 25 May 1085), born Hildebrand of Sovana (Ildebrando da Soana), was Pope from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085.

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Principality

A principality (or princedom) can either be a monarchical feudatory or a sovereign state, ruled or reigned over by a monarch with the title of prince or by a monarch with another title within the generic use of the term prince.

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Principality of Antioch

The Principality of Antioch was one of the crusader states created during the First Crusade which included parts of modern-day Turkey and Syria.

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Principality of Arbanon

Arbanon (Arbër or Arbëria; Ἄρβανον, Árbanon; Arbanum) or Albanon (Ἄλβανον, Álbanon), was an autonomous principality, the first Albanian entity during the Middle Ages, initially part of the Byzantine Empire and later of the Despotate of Epirus.

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Principality of Capua

The Principality of Capua (Principatus Capuae or Capue, Principato di Capua) was a Lombard state centred on Capua in Southern Italy, usually de facto independent, but under the varying suzerainty of Western and Eastern Roman Empires.

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Raimbaud

Raimbaud was an Italo-Norman chief who served under Philaretus Brachamius from 1073 to 1074.

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Rainulf Drengot

Rainulf Drengot (also Ranulph, Ranulf, or Rannulf; died June 1045) was a Norman adventurer and mercenary in southern Italy.

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Ralph the Timid

Ralph the Timid, also known as Ralf of Mantes (died 1057), was Earl of Hereford between 1051 and 1055 or 1057.

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Reconquista

The Reconquista (Spanish and Portuguese for the "reconquest") is a name used to describe the period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula of about 780 years between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada to the expanding Christian kingdoms in 1492.

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Republic of Venice

The Republic of Venice (Repubblica di Venezia, later: Repubblica Veneta; Repùblica de Venèsia, later: Repùblica Vèneta), traditionally known as La Serenissima (Most Serene Republic of Venice) (Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia; Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta), was a sovereign state and maritime republic in northeastern Italy, which existed for a millennium between the 8th century and the 18th century.

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Richard de Camville

Richard de Camville (died 1191) was an English crusader knight, and one of Richard the Lionheart's senior commanders during the Third Crusade.

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Richard I of England

Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was King of England from 1189 until his death.

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Richard I of Normandy

Richard I (28 August 932 – 20 November 996), also known as Richard the Fearless (French: Richard Sans-Peur; Old Norse: Jarl Richart), was the Count of Rouen or Jarl of Rouen from 942 to 996.

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Richard II, Duke of Normandy

Richard II (unknown – 28 August 1026), called the Good (French: Le Bon), was the eldest son and heir of Richard I the Fearless and Gunnora.

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Robert Crispin

Robert Crispin (Crépin, died 1071), called Frankopoulos, was a Norman mercenary and the leader of a corps of his countrymen stationed at Edessa under the command of the Byzantine general Isaac Komnenos, in the 1060s.

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Robert de Grandmesnil

Robert de Grantmesnil (de Grandmesnil) also known as Robert II, was a Norman nobleman; a member of a prominent Norman family.

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Robert Guiscard

Robert Guiscard (– 17 July 1085) was a Norman adventurer remembered for the conquest of southern Italy and Sicily.

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Robert of Jumièges

Robert of Jumièges (died between 1052 and 1055) was the first Norman Archbishop of Canterbury.

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Robert of Thornham

Robert of Thornham (or Robert de Turnham) (died 1211) was an English soldier and administrator.

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Robert the Bruce

Robert I (11 July 1274 – 7 June 1329), popularly known as Robert the Bruce (Medieval Gaelic: Roibert a Briuis; modern Scottish Gaelic: Raibeart Bruis; Norman French: Robert de Brus or Robert de Bruys; Early Scots: Robert Brus; Robertus Brussius), was King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329.

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Roger de Montgomery

Roger de Montgomery (died 1094), also known as Roger the Great de Montgomery, was the first Earl of Shrewsbury, and Earl of Arundel, Sussex.

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Roger I of Sicily

Roger I (– 22 June 1101), nicknamed Roger Bosso and The Great Count, was a Norman nobleman who became the first Count of Sicily from 1071 to 1101.

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Roger I of Tosny

Roger I of Tosny or Roger of Hispania (d. ca. 1040) was a Norman nobleman of the House of Tosny who took part in the Reconquista of Iberia.

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Roger II of Sicily

Roger II (22 December 1095Houben, p. 30. – 26 February 1154) was King of Sicily, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon.

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Rollo

Rollo or Gaange Rolf (Norman: Rou; Old Norse: Hrólfr; Rollon; 846 – 930 AD) was a Viking who became the first ruler of Normandy, a region of France.

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Roman Catholic Diocese of Bayeux

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Bayeux and Lisieux (Latin: Dioecesis Baiocensis et Lexoviensis; French: Diocèse de Bayeux et Lisieux) is a diocese of the Roman Catholic Church in France.

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Roman Empire

The Roman Empire (Imperium Rōmānum,; Koine and Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, tr.) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa and Asia.

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Romance languages

The Romance languages (also called Romanic languages or Neo-Latin languages) are the modern languages that began evolving from Vulgar Latin between the sixth and ninth centuries and that form a branch of the Italic languages within the Indo-European language family.

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Romanesque architecture

Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches.

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Rouen

Rouen (Frankish: Rodomo; Rotomagus, Rothomagus) is a city on the River Seine in the north of France.

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Roumois

The Roumois is a region in the northwestern part of the Eure département in Normandy, France.

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Roussel de Bailleul

Roussel de Bailleul (died 1077), also known as Phrangopoulos (literally "son-of-a-Frank"), was a Norman adventurer (or exile) who travelled to Byzantium and there received employ as a soldier and leader of men from the Emperor Romanus IV (ruled 1068–71).

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Rus' people

The Rus (Русь, Ῥῶς) were an early medieval group, who lived in a large area of what is now Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and other countries, and are the ancestors of modern East Slavic peoples.

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Saint Margaret of Scotland

Saint Margaret of Scotland (Scots: Saunt Magret, c. 1045 – 16 November 1093), also known as Margaret of Wessex, was an English princess and a Scottish queen.

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Saint-Wandrille-Rançon

Saint-Wandrille-Rançon is a former commune in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region in north west France.

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Salerno

Salerno (Salernitano: Salierne) is a city and comune in Campania (southwestern Italy) and is the capital of the province of the same name.

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Sancho VI of Navarre

Sancho Garcés VI (Antso VI.a; 21 April 1132 - 27 June 1194), called the Wise (Jakituna, el Sabio) was King of Navarre from 1150 until his death in 1194.

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Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo

The Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano, sometimes called simply Monte Gargano, is a Catholic sanctuary on Mount Gargano, Italy, part of the commune of Monte Sant'Angelo, in the province of Foggia, northern Apulia.

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Saracen

Saracen was a term widely used among Christian writers in Europe during the Middle Ages.

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Sason

Sason (Սասուն Sasun; Qabilcewz from قبل جوز; formerly known as Sasun or Sassoun) is a district in the Batman Province of Turkey.

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Scotland

Scotland (Alba) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain.

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Scottish clan

A Scottish clan (from Gaelic clann, "children") is a kinship group among the Scottish people.

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Scriptorium

Scriptorium, literally "a place for writing", is commonly used to refer to a room in medieval European monasteries devoted to the writing, copying and illuminating of manuscripts by monastic scribes.

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Seine

The Seine (La Seine) is a river and an important commercial waterway within the Paris Basin in the north of France.

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Seljuq dynasty

The Seljuq dynasty, or Seljuqs (آل سلجوق Al-e Saljuq), was an Oghuz Turk Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually became a Persianate society and contributed to the Turco-Persian tradition in the medieval West and Central Asia.

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Sergius IV of Naples

Sergius IV (died after 1036) was Duke of Naples from 1002 to 1036.

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Seville

Seville (Sevilla) is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville, Spain.

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Shropshire

Shropshire (alternatively Salop; abbreviated, in print only, Shrops; demonym Salopian) is a county in the West Midlands of England, bordering Wales to the west, Cheshire to the north, Staffordshire to the east, and Worcestershire and Herefordshire to the south.

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Sicily

Sicily (Sicilia; Sicìlia) is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.

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Siege of Antioch

The Siege of Antioch took place during the First Crusade in 1097 and 1098.

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Southern Italy

Southern Italy or Mezzogiorno (literally "midday") is a macroregion of Italy traditionally encompassing the territories of the former Kingdom of the two Sicilies (all the southern section of the Italian Peninsula and Sicily), with the frequent addition of the island of Sardinia.

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Spain

Spain (España), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España), is a sovereign state mostly located on the Iberian Peninsula in Europe.

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Squillace

Squillace (Σκυλλήτιον Skylletion; Σκυλάκιον Skylakion) is an ancient seaside town and comune, in the Province of Catanzaro, part of Calabria, southern Italy, facing the Gulf of Squillace.

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Staff (music)

In Western musical notation, the staff (US) or stave (UK) (plural for either: '''staves''') is a set of five horizontal lines and four spaces that each represent a different musical pitch or, in the case of a percussion staff, different percussion instruments.

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Stonemasonry

The craft of stonemasonry (or stonecraft) involves creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone from the earth, and is one of the oldest trades in human history.

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Surname

A surname, family name, or last name is the portion of a personal name that indicates a person's family (or tribe or community, depending on the culture).

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Swedes

Swedes (svenskar) are a Germanic ethnic group native to Sweden.

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Sweyn Forkbeard

Sweyn Forkbeard (Old Norse: Sveinn Haraldsson tjúguskegg; Danish: Svend Tveskæg; 960 – 3 February 1014) was king of Denmark during 986–1014.

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Sybilla of Normandy

Sybilla of Normandy (1092 – 12 or 13 July 1122) was Queen consort of Scotland, wife to Alexander I. Sybilla was the first child of Henry I of England and his mistress, Lady Sybilla Corbet of Alcester (b. 1077 in Alcester, Warwickshire, d. after 1157).

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Syria

Syria (سوريا), officially known as the Syrian Arab Republic (الجمهورية العربية السورية), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.

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Tabula Rogeriana

The Nuzhat al-mushtāq fi'khtirāq al-āfāq (نزهة المشتاق في اختراق الآفاق, lit. "the book of pleasant journeys into faraway lands"), most often known as the Tabula Rogeriana (lit. "The Book of Roger" in Latin), is a description of the world and world map created by the Arab geographer, Muhammad al-Idrisi, in 1154.

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Tancred of Hauteville

Tancred of Hauteville (980 – 1041) was an 11th-century Norman petty lord about whom little is known.

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Tancred, Prince of Galilee

Tancred (1075 – December 5 or December 12, 1112) was an Italo-Norman leader of the First Crusade who later became Prince of Galilee and regent of the Principality of Antioch.

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Tapestry

Tapestry is a form of textile art, traditionally woven on a vertical loom.

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Taron (historic Armenia)

Taron (Տարոն; Western Armenian pronunciation: Daron; Ταρών, Tarōn; Taraunitis) was a canton of the Turuberan province of Greater Armenia, roughly corresponding to the Muş Province of modern Turkey.

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Tarsus, Mersin

Tarsus (Hittite: Tarsa; Greek: Ταρσός Tarsós; Armenian: Տարսոն Tarson; תרשיש Ṭarśīś; طَرَسُوس Ṭarsūs) is a historic city in south-central Turkey, 20 km inland from the Mediterranean.

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Taurus Mountains

The Taurus Mountains (Turkish: Toros Dağları, Armenian: Թորոս լեռներ, Ancient Greek: Ὄρη Ταύρου) are a mountain complex in southern Turkey, separating the Mediterranean coastal region of southern Turkey from the central Anatolian Plateau.

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The Pale

The Pale (An Pháil in Irish) or the English Pale (An Pháil Shasanach or An Ghalltacht) was the part of Ireland that was directly under the control of the English government in the late Middle Ages.

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Third Crusade

The Third Crusade (1189–1192), was an attempt by European Christian leaders to reconquer the Holy Land following the capture of Jerusalem by the Ayyubid sultan, Saladin, in 1187.

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Trabzon

Trabzon, historically known as Trebizond, is a city on the Black Sea coast of northeastern Turkey and the capital of Trabzon Province.

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Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte

The Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, between Charles the Simple (King Charles III of France) and Rollo, the leader of the Vikings, was signed in autumn 911.

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Trim Castle

Trim Castle (Caisleán Bhaile Atha Troim) is a Norman castle on the south bank of the River Boyne in Trim, County Meath, Ireland.

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University of Leeds

The University of Leeds is a Russell Group university in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England.

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Upper Normandy

Upper Normandy (Haute-Normandie,; Ĥâote-Normaundie) is a former administrative region of France.

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Varangians

The Varangians (Væringjar; Greek: Βάραγγοι, Várangoi, Βαριάγοι, Variágoi) was the name given by Greeks, Rus' people and Ruthenians to Vikings,"," Online Etymology Dictionary who between the 9th and 11th centuries, ruled the medieval state of Kievan Rus', settled among many territories of modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, and formed the Byzantine Varangian Guard.

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Vikings

Vikings (Old English: wicing—"pirate", Danish and vikinger; Swedish and vikingar; víkingar, from Old Norse) were Norse seafarers, mainly speaking the Old Norse language, who raided and traded from their Northern European homelands across wide areas of northern, central, eastern and western Europe, during the late 8th to late 11th centuries.

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Vlorë

Vlorë is the third most populous city of the Republic of Albania.

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Wales

Wales (Cymru) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain.

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Welsh language

Welsh (Cymraeg or y Gymraeg) is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages.

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Welsh Marches

The Welsh Marches (Y Mers) is an imprecisely defined area along and around the border between England and Wales in the United Kingdom.

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West Francia

In medieval historiography, West Francia (Latin: Francia occidentalis) or the Kingdom of the West Franks (regnum Francorum occidentalium) was the western part of Charlemagne's Empire, inhabited and ruled by the Germanic Franks that forms the earliest stage of the Kingdom of France, lasting from about 840 until 987.

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Western Europe

Western Europe is the region comprising the western part of Europe.

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Wexford

Wexford (Yola: Weiseforth) is the county town of County Wexford, Ireland.

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William Iron Arm

William I of Hauteville (before 1010 – 1046), known as William Iron Arm, was a Norman adventurer who was the founder of the fortunes of the Hauteville family.

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William of Apulia

William of Apulia (Guillelmus Apuliensis) was a chronicler of the Normans, writing in the 1090s.

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William of Montreuil

William of Montreuil (Guillaume de Montreuil) († aft. 1068), was an Italo-Norman freebooter of the mid-eleventh century who was briefly Duke of Gaeta.

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William of Volpiano

Saint William of Volpiano (Italian: Guglielmo da Volpiano; French: Guillaume de Volpiano; English: William of Dijon, William of Saint Benignus) (June/July 962 – January 1, 1031) was an Italian monastic reformer and architect.

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William the Conqueror

William I (c. 1028Bates William the Conqueror p. 33 – 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087.

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William the Lion

William the Lion (Mediaeval Gaelic: Uilliam mac Eanric (i.e. William, son of Henry); Modern Gaelic: Uilleam mac Eanraig), sometimes styled William I, also known by the nickname Garbh, "the Rough",Uilleam Garbh; e.g. Annals of Ulster, s.a. 1214.6; Annals of Loch Cé, s.a. 1213.10.

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Winchester

Winchester is a city and the county town of Hampshire, England.

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Redirects here:

Ancient Norman, King of Normandy, Norman Kings, Norman history, Norman people, Norman swordsman, Normands, Nortmanni, The normans.

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans

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