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241 relations: Abarsal, Abu Salabikh, Adab (city), Afghanistan, Aga of Kish, Akkadian Empire, Akkadian language, Akshak, Al-Rawda (tell), Alloy, Altyndepe, Amarna letters, Amphictyonic League, Ancient Mesopotamian religion, Ancient Near East, Animal husbandry, Anu, Aratta, Archaeological culture, Archaeological site, Arsenic, Art of Mesopotamia, Artifact (archaeology), Asphalt, Autocracy, Awan dynasty, Bad-tibira, Badakhshan, Bahrain, Baranamtarra, Barley, Boundary stones, British Museum, Bronze, Bronze Age, Canal, Carnelian, Chagar Bazar, Chlorite, City, City-state, Clay nail, Clay tablet, Code of law, Copper, Cuneiform script, Cylinder seal, Date palm, Determinative, Dilmun, ..., Diyala River, Dumuzid, Eanna, Eannatum, Early Dynastic Period (Egypt), Ebla, Ekur, Elam, Emar, EN (cuneiform), English language, Enki, Enlil, Enmebaragesi, Enmerkar, Enshakushanna, Ensi (Sumerian), Entemena, Equality before the law, Eridu, Eshnunna, Ethnic group, Euphrates, Ex nihilo, Ex-voto, Filigree, Floruit, Free will, GAL (cuneiform), Gilgamesh, Girsu, Gold, Goldsmith, Granulation (jewellery), Grape, Great Zab, H. W. F. Saggs, Halabja, Hamazi, Hamrin Mountains, Harp, Hegemony, Henri Frankfort, Hili Archaeological Park, Hindu Kush, History of writing, Imports to Ur, Inanna, India, Indian subcontinent, Indus script, Indus Valley Civilisation, Inlay, Inshushinak, Iran, Iraq, Iron, Irrigation, Ivory, Jemdet Nasr, Jemdet Nasr period, Jewellery, Jiroft culture, Kaunakes, Khabur (Euphrates), Khafajah, Khuzestan Province, Kish (Sumer), Kish civilization, Lagash, Language isolate, Lapis lazuli, Larsa, Latifundium, Law, Leonard Woolley, Libation, Limestone, Logogram, Lord, Lorestan Province, Lost-wax casting, Lugal, Lugal-zage-si, Lugalanda, Lugalbanda, Lyre, Lyres of Ur, Magan (civilization), Marble, Mari, Syria, Max von Oppenheim, Mesilim, Mesopotamia, Metallurgy, Middle chronology, Mozambique, Mundigak, Nacre, Namazga-Tepe, Naram-Sin of Akkad, Near East, Ninhursag, Ninlil, Ninurta, Nippur, Nuzi, Oasis, Obsidian, Old World, Olive, Oman, Pastoralism, Pearl, Periodization, Persian Gulf, Plating, Polyandry, Population density, Priest, Proto-Elamite, Puabi, Qatna, Reciprocity (social and political philosophy), Recorded history, Relief, Resin, Royal Cemetery at Ur, Samuel Noah Kramer, Sargon of Akkad, Sedentism, Semitic languages, Shahr-e Sukhteh, Shara (god), Short chronology, Shuruppak, Silver, Sin (mythology), Sippar, Standard of Ur, State (polity), Statue of Ebih-Il, Stele of the Vultures, Stonemasonry, String instrument, Subartu, Subsistence agriculture, Sumer, Sumerian creation myth, Sumerian King List, Sumerian language, Susa, Syria, Tell (archaeology), Tell Agrab, Tell al-`Ubaid, Tell Asmar Hoard, Tell Beydar, Tell Brak, Tell Chuera, Tell Leilan, Tepe Hissar, Tepe Sialk, The Greatness That Was Babylon, Third Dynasty of Ur, Thorkild Jacobsen, Tigris–Euphrates river system, Time Life, Tin, Tureng Tepe, Turkmenistan, Tutelary deity, Typographic ligature, Umm el-Marra, Umma, University of Chicago Oriental Institute, University of Chicago Press, University of Liverpool, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Upper Mesopotamia, Ur, Ur-Nanshe, Urbanization, Urkesh, Uruk, Uruk period, Utu, Vase of Entemena, Vassal, World population, Zagros Mountains. Expand index (191 more) »
Abarsal
Abarsal was a city-state of Mesopotamia in the area of the Euphrates.
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Abu Salabikh
The low tells at Abu Salabikh, around northwest of the site of ancient Nippur in Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate, Iraq mark the site of a small Sumerian city of the mid third millennium BCE, with cultural connections to the cities of Kish, Mari and Ebla.
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Adab (city)
Adab or Udab (Sumerian: Adabki, spelled UD.NUNKI) was an ancient Sumerian city between Telloh and Nippur.
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Afghanistan
Afghanistan (Pashto/Dari:, Pashto: Afġānistān, Dari: Afġānestān), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia.
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Aga of Kish
Aga is listed on the Sumerian King List as the last king in the first Dynasty of Kish.
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Akkadian Empire
The Akkadian Empire was the first ancient Semitic-speaking empire of Mesopotamia, centered in the city of Akkad and its surrounding region, also called Akkad in ancient Mesopotamia in the Bible.
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Akkadian language
Akkadian (akkadû, ak-ka-du-u2; logogram: URIKI)John Huehnergard & Christopher Woods, "Akkadian and Eblaite", The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages.
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Akshak
Akshak(Sumerian:, akšak) was a city of ancient Sumer, situated on the northern boundary of Akkad, sometimes identified with Babylonian Upi (Greek Opis).
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Al-Rawda (tell)
Al-Rawda (الروضة) is a tell, or archaeological settlement mound, in the Syrian steppe, east of Hama.
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Alloy
An alloy is a combination of metals or of a metal and another element.
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Altyndepe
Altyndepe (Алтын-Депе, the Turkmen for "Golden Hill") is a Bronze Age (BMAC) site in Turkmenistan, near Aşgabat, inhabited in the 3rd to 2nd millennia BC, abandoned around 1600 BC.
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Amarna letters
The Amarna letters (sometimes referred to as the Amarna correspondence or Amarna tablets, and cited with the abbreviation EA) are an archive, written on clay tablets, primarily consisting of diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian administration and its representatives in Canaan and Amurru during the New Kingdom.
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Amphictyonic League
In the Archaic period of Greek history, an amphictyony (ἀμφικτυονία), a "league of neighbors", or Amphictyonic League was an ancient religious association of Greek tribes formed in the dim past, before the rise of the Greek polis.
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Ancient Mesopotamian religion
Mesopotamian religion refers to the religious beliefs and practices of the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia, particularly Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia between circa 3500 BC and 400 AD, after which they largely gave way to Syriac Christianity.
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Ancient Near East
The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq, southeast Turkey, southwest Iran, northeastern Syria and Kuwait), ancient Egypt, ancient Iran (Elam, Media, Parthia and Persia), Anatolia/Asia Minor and Armenian Highlands (Turkey's Eastern Anatolia Region, Armenia, northwestern Iran, southern Georgia, and western Azerbaijan), the Levant (modern Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, and Jordan), Cyprus and the Arabian Peninsula.
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Animal husbandry
Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, eggs, or other products.
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Anu
Anu (𒀭𒀭, Anu‹m› or Ilu) or An (𒀭, from 𒀭 an "Sky, Heaven") is the divine personification of the sky, supreme God, and ancestor of all the deities in ancient Mesopotamian religion.
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Aratta
Aratta is a land that appears in Sumerian myths surrounding Enmerkar and Lugalbanda, two early and possibly mythical kings of Uruk also mentioned on the Sumerian king list.
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Archaeological culture
An archaeological culture is a recurring assemblage of artifacts from a specific time and place that may constitute the material culture remains of a particular past human society.
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Archaeological site
An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or historic or contemporary), and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record.
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Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element with symbol As and atomic number 33.
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Art of Mesopotamia
The art of Mesopotamia has survived in the archaeological record from early hunter-gatherer societies (10th millennium BC) on to the Bronze Age cultures of the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires.
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Artifact (archaeology)
An artifact, or artefact (see American and British English spelling differences), is something made or given shape by humans, such as a tool or a work of art, especially an object of archaeological interest.
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Asphalt
Asphalt, also known as bitumen, is a sticky, black, and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum.
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Autocracy
An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme power (social and political) is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of a coup d'état or mass insurrection).
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Awan dynasty
The Awan Dynasty(Sumerian:, awan) was the first dynasty of Elam of which anything is known today, appearing at the dawn of historical record.
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Bad-tibira
Bad-tibira(Sumerian:, bad3-tibiraki), "Wall of the Copper Worker(s)", or "Fortress of the Smiths", identified as modern Tell al-Madineh, between Ash Shatrah and Tell as-Senkereh (ancient Larsa) in southern Iraq, was an ancient Sumerian city, which appears among antediluvian cities in the Sumerian King List.
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Badakhshan
Badakhshan (Pashto/بدخشان, Badaxšân; Бадахшон, Badaxşon;;, Dungan: Бадахәшон, Xiao'erjing: بَا دَا کْ شًا, Ming dynasty era Chinese name- 巴丹沙) is a historic region comprising parts of what is now northeastern Afghanistan and southeastern Tajikistan.
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Bahrain
Bahrain (البحرين), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain (مملكة البحرين), is an Arab constitutional monarchy in the Persian Gulf.
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Baranamtarra
Baranamtarra was the Queen of Lagash during the 24th century BCE.
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Barley
Barley (Hordeum vulgare), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally.
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Boundary stones
"Boundary stones' - an archaeological site in Ukraine since the late Neolithic.
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British Museum
The British Museum, located in the Bloomsbury area of London, United Kingdom, is a public institution dedicated to human history, art and culture.
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Bronze
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12% tin and often with the addition of other metals (such as aluminium, manganese, nickel or zinc) and sometimes non-metals or metalloids such as arsenic, phosphorus or silicon.
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Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, and in some areas proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization.
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Canal
Canals, or navigations, are human-made channels, or artificial waterways, for water conveyance, or to service water transport vehicles.
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Carnelian
Carnelian (also spelled cornelian) is a brownish-red mineral commonly used as a semi-precious gemstone.
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Chagar Bazar
Chagar Bazar (Šagir Bazar, Arabic: تل شاغربازار) is a tell, or settlement mound, in northern Syria.
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Chlorite
The chlorite ion, or chlorine dioxide anion, is.
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City
A city is a large human settlement.
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City-state
A city-state is a sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories.
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Clay nail
Used by Sumerians and other Mesopotamian cultures beginning in the third millennium BC, clay nails, also referred to as dedication or foundation pegs, cones, or nails, were cone-shaped nails made of clay, inscribed with cuneiform, baked, and stuck into the mud-brick walls to serve as evidence that the temple or building was the divine property of the god to whom it was dedicated.
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Clay tablet
In the Ancient Near East, clay tablets (Akkadian ṭuppu(m) 𒁾) were used as a writing medium, especially for writing in cuneiform, throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age.
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Code of law
A code of law, also called a law code or legal code, is a type of legislation that purports to exhaustively cover a complete system of laws or a particular area of law as it existed at the time the code was enacted, by a process of codification.
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Copper
Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu (from cuprum) and atomic number 29.
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Cuneiform script
Cuneiform script, one of the earliest systems of writing, was invented by the Sumerians.
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Cylinder seal
A cylinder seal is a small round cylinder, typically about one inch in length, engraved with written characters or figurative scenes or both, used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface, generally wet clay.
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Date palm
Phoenix dactylifera, commonly known as date or date palm, is a flowering plant species in the palm family, Arecaceae, cultivated for its edible sweet fruit.
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Determinative
A determinative, also known as a taxogram or semagram, is an ideogram used to mark semantic categories of words in logographic scripts which helps to disambiguate interpretation.
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Dilmun
Dilmun, or Telmun, (Arabic: دلمون, Sumerian: 𒆠, ni.tukki.
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Diyala River
The Diyala River, is a river and tributary of the Tigris.
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Dumuzid
Dumuzid, later known by the alternate form Tammuz, was the ancient Mesopotamian god of shepherds, who was also the primary consort of the goddess Inanna (later known as Ishtar).
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Eanna
E-anna (𒂍𒀭𒈾, house of heavens) was an ancient Sumerian temple in Uruk.
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Eannatum
Eannatum (𒂍𒀭𒈾𒁺) was a Sumerian king of Lagash; he established one of the first verifiable empires in history.
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Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)
The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of Egypt is the era immediately following the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt c. 3100 BC.
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Ebla
Ebla (إبلا., modern: تل مرديخ, Tell Mardikh) was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria.
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Ekur
Ekur is a Sumerian term meaning "mountain house".
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Elam
Elam (Elamite: haltamti, Sumerian: NIM.MAki) was an ancient Pre-Iranian civilization centered in the far west and southwest of what is now modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq.
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Emar
Emar (modern Tell Meskene) is an archaeological site in Aleppo Governorate, northern Syria.
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EN (cuneiform)
EN (Borger 2003 nr. 164; U+12097 𒂗, see also ENSI) is the Sumerian cuneiform for "lord" or "priest".
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English language
English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua franca.
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Enki
Enki (Sumerian: dEN.KI(G)) is the Sumerian god of water, knowledge (gestú), mischief, crafts (gašam), and creation (nudimmud).
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Enlil
Enlil, later known as Elil, was the ancient Mesopotamian god of wind, air, earth, and storms.
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Enmebaragesi
Enmebaragesi (cuneiform: EN.ME.BARAG.GE.SI, fl. c. 2500 BC) was a king of Kish, according to the Sumerian king list.
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Enmerkar
Enmerkar (𒂗𒈨𒅕𒃸) is a legendary king listed as the builder of the Sumerian city of Uruk.
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Enshakushanna
Enshakushanna (or En-shag-kush-ana, Enukduanna, En-Shakansha-Ana) was a king of Uruk in the later 3rd millennium BC who is named on the Sumerian king list, which states his reign to have been 60 years.
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Ensi (Sumerian)
Ensi (cuneiform:, "lord of the plowland"; Emesal dialect: umunsik; italic) was a Sumerian title designating the ruler or prince of a city-state.
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Entemena
Entemena (flourished 2400 BC) was a son of En-anna-tum I, and he reestablished Lagash as a power in Sumer.
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Equality before the law
Equality before the law, also known as: equality under the law, equality in the eyes of the law, or legal equality, is the principle that each independent being must be treated equally by the law (principle of isonomy) and that all are subject to the same laws of justice (due process).
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Eridu
Eridu (Sumerian:, NUN.KI/eridugki; Akkadian: irîtu; modern Arabic: Tell Abu Shahrain) is an archaeological site in southern Mesopotamia (modern Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq).
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Eshnunna
Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar in Diyala Province, Iraq) was an ancient Sumerian (and later Akkadian) city and city-state in central Mesopotamia.
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Ethnic group
An ethnic group, or an ethnicity, is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities such as common ancestry, language, history, society, culture or nation.
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Euphrates
The Euphrates (Sumerian: Buranuna; 𒌓𒄒𒉣 Purattu; الفرات al-Furāt; ̇ܦܪܬ Pǝrāt; Եփրատ: Yeprat; פרת Perat; Fırat; Firat) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia.
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Ex nihilo
Ex nihilo is a Latin phrase meaning "out of nothing".
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Ex-voto
An ex-voto is a votive offering to a saint or to a divinity; the term is usually restricted to Christian examples.
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Filigree
Filigree (also less commonly spelled filagree, and formerly written filigrann or filigrene) is a delicate kind of jewellery metalwork, usually of gold and silver, made with tiny beads or twisted threads, or both in combination, soldered together or to the surface of an object of the same metal and arranged in artistic motifs.
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Floruit
Floruit, abbreviated fl. (or occasionally, flor.), Latin for "he/she flourished", denotes a date or period during which a person was known to have been alive or active.
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Free will
Free will is the ability to choose between different possible courses of action unimpeded.
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GAL (cuneiform)
GAL (Borger 2003 nr. 553; U+120F2 𒃲) is the Sumerian cuneiform for "great".
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Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh was a historical king of the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, a major hero in ancient Mesopotamian mythology, and the protagonist of the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem written in Akkadian during the late second millennium BC.
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Girsu
Girsu (Sumerian Ĝirsu; cuneiform 𒄈𒋢𒆠) was a city of ancient Sumer, situated some northwest of Lagash, at the site of modern Tell Telloh, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq.
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Gold
Gold is a chemical element with symbol Au (from aurum) and atomic number 79, making it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally.
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Goldsmith
A goldsmith is a metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals.
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Granulation (jewellery)
Granulation is a jewellery manufacturing technique whereby a surface is covered in spherules or granules of precious metal.
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Grape
A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus Vitis.
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Great Zab
The Great Zab or Upper Zab ((al-Zāb al-Kabīr),,, (zāba ʻalya)) is an approximately long river flowing through Turkey and Iraq.
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H. W. F. Saggs
Henry William Frederick Saggs (2 December 1920 – 31 August 2005) was an English classicist and orientalist.
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Halabja
Halabja (Kurdish: Hełebce) is a city in Iraqi Kurdistan and the capital of Halabja Governorate, located about northeast of Baghdad and from the Iranian border.
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Hamazi
Hamazi or Khamazi (Sumerian: Ḫa-ma-zi2ki) was an ancient kingdom or city-state of some importance that reached its peak c. 2500–2400 BC.
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Hamrin Mountains
The Hamrin Mountains (Arabic: جبل حمرين, Kurdish:چیای حەمرین Çiyayê Hemrîn or Çiyayên Hemrîn) are a small mountain ridge in northeast Iraq.
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Harp
The harp is a stringed musical instrument that has a number of individual strings running at an angle to its soundboard; the strings are plucked with the fingers.
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Hegemony
Hegemony (or) is the political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others.
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Henri Frankfort
Henri "Hans" Frankfort (24 February 1897 – 16 July 1954) was a Dutch Egyptologist, archaeologist and orientalist.
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Hili Archaeological Park
Hili Archaeological Park is the location of a Bronze Age site in Al Ain, Emirate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
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Hindu Kush
The Hindu Kush, also known in Ancient Greek as the Caucasus Indicus (Καύκασος Ινδικός) or Paropamisadae (Παροπαμισάδαι), in Pashto and Persian as, Hindu Kush is an mountain range that stretches near the Afghan-Pakistan border,, Quote: "The Hindu Kush mountains run along the Afghan border with the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan".
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History of writing
The history of writing traces the development of expressing language by letters or other marks and also the studies and descriptions of these developments.
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Imports to Ur
Imports to Ur reflect the cultural and trade connections of the Sumerian city of Ur.
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Inanna
Inanna was the ancient Sumerian goddess of love, beauty, sex, desire, fertility, war, combat, justice, and political power.
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India
India (IAST), also called the Republic of India (IAST), is a country in South Asia.
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Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a southern region and peninsula of Asia, mostly situated on the Indian Plate and projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas.
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Indus script
The Indus script (also known as the Harappan script) is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus Valley Civilisation during the Kot Diji and Mature Harappan periods between 3500 and 1900 BCE.
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Indus Valley Civilisation
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation (5500–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
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Inlay
Inlay covers a range of techniques in sculpture and the decorative arts for inserting pieces of contrasting, often coloured materials into depressions in a base object to form ornament or pictures that normally are flush with the matrix.
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Inshushinak
Inshushinak was one of the major gods of the Elamites and the protector deity of Susa.
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Iran
Iran (ایران), also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ایران), is a sovereign state in Western Asia. With over 81 million inhabitants, Iran is the world's 18th-most-populous country. Comprising a land area of, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East and the 17th-largest in the world. Iran is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. The country's central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, give it geostrategic importance. Tehran is the country's capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BCE. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BCE, reaching its greatest territorial size in the sixth century BCE, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley, becoming one of the largest empires in history. The Iranian realm fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion culminated in the establishment of the Parthian Empire, which was succeeded in the third century CE by the Sasanian Empire, a leading world power for the next four centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century CE, displacing the indigenous faiths of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism with Islam. Iran made major contributions to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential figures in art and science. After two centuries, a period of various native Muslim dynasties began, which were later conquered by the Turks and the Mongols. The rise of the Safavids in the 15th century led to the reestablishment of a unified Iranian state and national identity, with the country's conversion to Shia Islam marking a turning point in Iranian and Muslim history. Under Nader Shah, Iran was one of the most powerful states in the 18th century, though by the 19th century, a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to significant territorial losses. Popular unrest led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the country's first legislature. A 1953 coup instigated by the United Kingdom and the United States resulted in greater autocracy and growing anti-Western resentment. Subsequent unrest against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution and the establishment of an Islamic republic, a political system that includes elements of a parliamentary democracy vetted and supervised by a theocracy governed by an autocratic "Supreme Leader". During the 1980s, the country was engaged in a war with Iraq, which lasted for almost nine years and resulted in a high number of casualties and economic losses for both sides. According to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic, and has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader. Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate, and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world. Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, an agreement reached between Iran and the P5+1, was created on 14 July 2015, aimed to loosen the nuclear sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium. Iran is a founding member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC, and OPEC. It is a major regional and middle power, and its large reserves of fossil fuels – which include the world's largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves – exert considerable influence in international energy security and the world economy. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and eleventh-largest in the world. Iran is a multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, the largest being Persians (61%), Azeris (16%), Kurds (10%), and Lurs (6%).
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Iraq
Iraq (or; العراق; عێراق), officially known as the Republic of Iraq (جُمُهورية العِراق; کۆماری عێراق), is a country in Western Asia, bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest and Syria to the west.
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Iron
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from ferrum) and atomic number 26.
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Irrigation
Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals.
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Ivory
Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally elephants') and teeth of animals, that can be used in art or manufacturing.
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Jemdet Nasr
Jemdet Nasr (جمدة نصر) is a tell or settlement mound in Babil Governorate (Iraq) that is best known as the eponymous type site for the Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BC).
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Jemdet Nasr period
The Jemdet Nasr Period is an archaeological culture in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq).
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Jewellery
Jewellery (British English) or jewelry (American English)see American and British spelling differences consists of small decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks.
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Jiroft culture
A "Jiroft culture" has been postulated as an early Bronze Age (late 3rd millennium BC) archaeological culture, located in the territory of present-day Balochistan and Kermān Provinces of Iran.
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Kaunakes
A kaunakes (καυνάκης or γαυνάκης; 𒌆𒄖𒅘𒆪 TÚGGU-NAK-KU) or persis was a woolen mantle associated with ancient Mesopotamia and Persia.
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Khabur (Euphrates)
The Khabur River is the largest perennial tributary to the Euphrates in Syrian territory.
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Khafajah
Khafajah or Khafaje (ancient Tutub) is an archaeological site in Diyala Province (Iraq).
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Khuzestan Province
Khuzestan Province (استان خوزستان Ostān-e Khūzestān, محافظة خوزستان Muḥāfaẓa Khūzistān) is one of the 31 provinces of Iran.
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Kish (Sumer)
Kish (Sumerian: Kiš; transliteration: Kiški; cuneiform:; Akkadian: kiššatu) was an ancient tell (hill city) of Sumer in Mesopotamia, considered to have been located near the modern Tell al-Uhaymir in the Babil Governorate of Iraq, east of Babylon and 80 km south of Baghdad.
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Kish civilization
The Kish civilization or Kish tradition is a time period corresponding to the early East Semitic era in Mesopotamia and the Levant.
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Lagash
Lagash (cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian: Lagaš) is an ancient city located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Ash Shatrah, Iraq.
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Language isolate
A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical (or "genetic") relationship with other languages, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common with any other language.
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Lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli, or lapis for short, is a deep blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color.
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Larsa
Larsa (Sumerian logogram: UD.UNUGKI, read Larsamki) was an important city of ancient Sumer, the center of the cult of the sun god Utu.
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Latifundium
A latifundium is a very extensive parcel of privately owned land.
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Law
Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior.
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Leonard Woolley
Sir Charles Leonard Woolley (17 April 1880 – 20 February 1960) was a British archaeologist best known for his excavations at Ur in Mesopotamia.
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Libation
A libation is a ritual pouring of a liquid (ex: milk or other fluids such as corn flour mixed with water), or grains such as rice, as an offering to a god or spirit, or in memory of those who have "passed on".
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Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs.
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Logogram
In written language, a logogram or logograph is a written character that represents a word or phrase.
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Lord
Lord is an appellation for a person or deity who has authority, control, or power over others acting like a master, a chief, or a ruler.
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Lorestan Province
Lorestan Province (استان لرستان, also written Luristan, Lurestan, or Loristan), is a province of western Iran in the Zagros Mountains.
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Lost-wax casting
Lost-wax casting (also called "investment casting", "precision casting", or cire perdue in French) is the process by which a duplicate metal sculpture (often silver, gold, brass or bronze) is cast from an original sculpture.
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Lugal
Lugal is the Sumerian term for "king, ruler".
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Lugal-zage-si
Lugal-Zage-Si (lugal-zag-ge4-si.
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Lugalanda
Lugalanda (also Lugal-anda) was a Sumerian king of Lagash during the 24th century BC.
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Lugalbanda
Lugalbanda (𒈗𒌉𒁕, young/fierce king) is a character found in Sumerian mythology and literature.
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Lyre
The lyre (λύρα, lýra) is a string instrument known for its use in Greek classical antiquity and later periods.
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Lyres of Ur
The Lyres of Ur or Harps of Ur are considered to be the world's oldest surviving stringed instruments.
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Magan (civilization)
Magan (also Makkan) was an ancient region which was referred to in Sumerian cuneiform texts of around 2300 BC and existed to 550 BC as a source of copper and diorite for Mesopotamia.
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Marble
Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite.
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Mari, Syria
Mari (modern Tell Hariri, تل حريري) was an ancient Semitic city in modern-day Syria.
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Max von Oppenheim
Max (Freiherr) von Oppenheim (15 July 1860 in Cologne – 17 November 1946 in Landshut) was a German lawyer, diplomat, ancient historian, and archaeologist.
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Mesilim
Mesilim, also spelled Mesalim (c. 2500 BC), was lugal (king) of the Sumerian city-state of Kish.
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Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a historical region in West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq, Kuwait, parts of Northern Saudi Arabia, the eastern parts of Syria, Southeastern Turkey, and regions along the Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders.
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Metallurgy
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys.
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Middle chronology
The middle chronology is one chronology of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1792–1750 BCE and the sack of Babylon to 1595 BCE.
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Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique) is a country in Southeast Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west, and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest.
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Mundigak
Mundigak (مونډي ګاګ), in Kandahar, Afghanistan, is an archaeological site in Kandahar province in Afghanistan.
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Nacre
Nacre (also), also known as mother of pearl, is an organic-inorganic composite material produced by some molluscs as an inner shell layer; it also makes up the outer coating of pearls.
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Namazga-Tepe
Namazga-Tepe or Namazga-depe, is a Bronze Age (BMAC) archaeological site in Turkmenistan, some 100 km from Aşgabat, near the border to Iran.
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Naram-Sin of Akkad
Naram-Sin (also transcribed Narām-Sîn or Naram-Suen, meaning "Beloved of Sin"; reigned c. 2254–2218 BC) was a ruler of the Akkadian Empire, the third successor and grandson of King Sargon of Akkad.
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Near East
The Near East is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia.
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Ninhursag
Ninḫursaĝ, also known as Damgalnuna or Ninmah, was the ancient Sumerian mother goddess of the mountains, and one of the seven great deities of Sumer.
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Ninlil
In Sumerian religion, Ninlil (𒀭𒊩𒌆𒆤 DNIN.LÍL"lady of the open field" or "Lady of the Wind"), also called Sud, in Assyrian called Mulliltu, is the consort goddess of Enlil.
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Ninurta
Ninurta, also known as Ningirsu, was a Mesopotamian god of farming, healing, hunting, law, scribes, and war who was first worshipped in early Sumer.
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Nippur
Nippur (Sumerian: Nibru, often logographically recorded as, EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;": Vol. 1, Part 1. Accessed 15 Dec 2010. Akkadian: Nibbur) was among the most ancient of Sumerian cities.
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Nuzi
Nuzi (or Nuzu; Akkadian Gasur; modern Yorghan Tepe, Iraq) was an ancient Assyrian Mesopotamian city southwest of the major Assyrian city of Arrapha (Karka modern Kirkuk in modern Al Ta'amim Governorate of Iraq), located near the Tigris river.
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Oasis
In geography, an oasis (plural: oases) is an isolated area in a desert, typically surrounding a spring or similar water source, such as a pond or small lake.
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Obsidian
Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock.
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Old World
The term "Old World" is used in the West to refer to Africa, Asia and Europe (Afro-Eurasia or the World Island), regarded collectively as the part of the world known to its population before contact with the Americas and Oceania (the "New World").
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Olive
The olive, known by the botanical name Olea europaea, meaning "European olive", is a species of small tree in the family Oleaceae, found in the Mediterranean Basin from Portugal to the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and southern Asia as far east as China, as well as the Canary Islands and Réunion.
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Oman
Oman (عمان), officially the Sultanate of Oman (سلطنة عُمان), is an Arab country on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia.
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Pastoralism
Pastoralism is the branch of agriculture concerned with the raising of livestock.
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Pearl
A pearl is a hard glistening object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk or another animal, such as a conulariid.
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Periodization
Periodization is the process or study of categorizing the past into discrete, quantified named blocks of timeAdam Rabinowitz.
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Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf (lit), (الخليج الفارسي) is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia.
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Plating
Plating is a surface covering in which a metal is deposited on a conductive surface.
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Polyandry
Polyandry (from πολυ- poly-, "many" and ἀνήρ anēr, "man") is a form of polygamy in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time.
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Population density
Population density (in agriculture: standing stock and standing crop) is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume; it is a quantity of type number density.
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Priest
A priest or priestess (feminine) is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities.
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Proto-Elamite
The Proto-Elamite period is the time from ca.
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Puabi
Puabi (Akkadian: "Word of my father"), also called Shubad due to a misinterpretation by Sir Charles Leonard Woolley, was an important person in the Sumerian city of Ur, during the First Dynasty of Ur (c. 2600 BC).
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Qatna
Qatna (modern: تل المشرفة, Tell al-Mishrifeh) is an ancient city located in Homs Governorate, Syria.
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Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)
The social norm of reciprocity is the expectation that people will respond to each other in similar ways—responding to gifts and kindnesses from others with similar benevolence of their own, and responding to harmful, hurtful acts from others with either indifference or some form of retaliation.
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Recorded history
Recorded history or written history is a historical narrative based on a written record or other documented communication.
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Relief
Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material.
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Resin
In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a "solid or highly viscous substance" of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers.
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Royal Cemetery at Ur
The Royal Cemetery at Ur is an archaeological site in modern-day Dhi Qar Governorate in southern Iraq.
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Samuel Noah Kramer
Samuel Noah Kramer (September 28, 1897 – November 26, 1990) was one of the world's leading Assyriologists and a world-renowned expert in Sumerian history and Sumerian language.
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Sargon of Akkad
Sargon of Akkad (Akkadian Šarru-ukīn or Šarru-kēn, also known as Sargon the Great) was the first ruler of the Semitic-speaking Akkadian Empire, known for his conquests of the Sumerian city-states in the 24th to 23rd centuries BC.
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Sedentism
In cultural anthropology, sedentism (sometimes called sedentariness; compare sedentarism) is the practice of living in one place for a long time.
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Semitic languages
The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family originating in the Middle East.
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Shahr-e Sukhteh
Shahr-e Sūkhté (شهرِ سوخته, meaning " Burnt City"), also spelled as Shahr-e Sukhteh and Shahr-i Shōkhta, is an archaeological site of a sizable Bronze Age urban settlement, associated with the Jiroft culture.
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Shara (god)
In Sumerian mythology Shara, Šara (Sumerian: 𒀭𒁈, dšara2, dšara) is a minor god of war, mainly identified with the city of Umma, north-east of Unug (Uruk).
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Short chronology
The short chronology is one of the chronologies of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1728–1686 BC and the sack of Babylon to 1531 BC.
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Shuruppak
Shuruppak (𒋢𒆳𒊒𒆠, "the healing place"), modern Tell Fara, was an ancient Sumerian city situated about 55 kilometres (35 mi) south of Nippur on the banks of the Euphrates in Iraq's Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate.
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Silver
Silver is a chemical element with symbol Ag (from the Latin argentum, derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47.
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Sin (mythology)
Sin (Akkadian: 𒂗𒍪 Su'en, Sîn) or Nanna (Sumerian: 𒀭𒋀𒆠 DŠEŠ.KI, DNANNA) was the god of the moon in the Mesopotamian mythology of Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia.
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Sippar
Sippar (Sumerian:,Zimbir) was an ancient Near Eastern Sumerian and later Babylonian tell (hill city) on the east bank of the Euphrates river, located at the site of modern Tell Abu Habbah in Iraq's Babil Governorate, some 60 km north of Babylon and 30 km southwest of Baghdad.
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Standard of Ur
The Standard of Ur is an artifact, a hollow wooden box measuring 21.59 centimetres (8.50 in) wide by 49.53 centimetres (19.50 in) long, inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli.
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State (polity)
A state is a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical territory.
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Statue of Ebih-Il
The Statue of Ebih-Il is a 25th-century BC statue of the praying figure of Ebih-Il, superintendent of the ancient city-state of Mari in eastern Syria.
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Stele of the Vultures
The Stele of the Vultures is a monument from the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BC) in Mesopotamia celebrating a victory of the city-state of Lagash over its neighbour Umma.
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Stonemasonry
The craft of stonemasonry (or stonecraft) involves creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone from the earth, and is one of the oldest trades in human history.
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String instrument
String instruments, stringed instruments, or chordophones are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when the performer plays or sounds the strings in some manner.
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Subartu
The land of Subartu (Akkadian Šubartum/Subartum/ina Šú-ba-ri, Assyrian mât Šubarri) or Subar (Sumerian Su-bir4/Subar/Šubur) is mentioned in Bronze Age literature.
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Subsistence agriculture
Subsistence agriculture is a self-sufficiency farming system in which the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed themselves and their entire families.
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Sumer
SumerThe name is from Akkadian Šumeru; Sumerian en-ĝir15, approximately "land of the civilized kings" or "native land".
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Sumerian creation myth
The earliest record of a Sumerian creation myth, called The Eridu Genesis by historian Thorkild Jacobsen, is found on a single fragmentary tablet excavated in Nippur.
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Sumerian King List
The Sumerian King List is an ancient stone tablet originally recorded in the Sumerian language, listing kings of Sumer (ancient southern Iraq) from Sumerian and neighboring dynasties, their supposed reign lengths, and the locations of the kingship.
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Sumerian language
Sumerian (𒅴𒂠 "native tongue") is the language of ancient Sumer and a language isolate that was spoken in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq).
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Susa
Susa (fa Šuš;; שׁוּשָׁן Šušān; Greek: Σοῦσα; ܫܘܫ Šuš; Old Persian Çūšā) was an ancient city of the Proto-Elamite, Elamite, First Persian Empire, Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian empires of Iran, and one of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East.
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Syria
Syria (سوريا), officially known as the Syrian Arab Republic (الجمهورية العربية السورية), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
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Tell (archaeology)
In archaeology, a tell, or tel (derived from تَل,, 'hill' or 'mound'), is an artificial mound formed from the accumulated refuse of people living on the same site for hundreds or thousands of years.
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Tell Agrab
Tell Agrab (or Aqrab) is a tell or settlement mound southeast of Eshnunna in the Diyala region.
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Tell al-`Ubaid
Tell al-'Ubaid (العبيد) is a low, relatively small tell (settlement mound) west of nearby Ur in southern Iraq's Dhi Qar Governorate.
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Tell Asmar Hoard
The Tell Asmar Hoard (Early Dynastic I-II, ca. 2900–2550 BC) are a collection of twelve statues unearthed in 1933 at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar) in the Diyala Governorate of Iraq.
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Tell Beydar
Tell Beydar is a village and ancient site in the modern Al-Hasakah Governorate, Syria.
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Tell Brak
Tell Brak (Nagar, Nawar) was an ancient city in Syria; its remains constitute a tell located in the Upper Khabur region, near the modern village of Tell Brak, 50 kilometers north-east of Al-Hasaka city, Al-Hasakah Governorate.
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Tell Chuera
Tell Chuera is an ancient Near Eastern tell site in Raqqa Governorate, northern Syria.
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Tell Leilan
Tell Leilan is an archaeological site situated near the Wadi Jarrah in the Khabur River basin in Al-Hasakah Governorate, northeastern Syria, a region formerly a part of ancient Assyria.
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Tepe Hissar
Tepe Hissar is a prehistoric site located just south of Damghan in north-eastern Iran.
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Tepe Sialk
Tepe Sialk (تپه سیلک) is a large ancient archeological site (a tepe, "hill" or "mound") in a suburb of the city of Kashan, Isfahan Province, in central Iran, close to Fin Garden.
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The Greatness That Was Babylon
The Greatness That Was Babylon (1968) is a book by Assyriologist H. W. F. Saggs.
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Third Dynasty of Ur
The terms "Third Dynasty of Ur" and "Neo-Sumerian Empire" refer to both a 22nd to 21st century BC (middle chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur and a short-lived territorial-political state which some historians consider to have been a nascent empire.
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Thorkild Jacobsen
Thorkild Jacobsen (7 June 1904 – 2 May 1993) was a renowned historian specializing in Assyriology and Sumerian literature.
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Tigris–Euphrates river system
The Tigris and Euphrates, with their tributaries, form a major river system in Western Asia.
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Time Life
Direct Holdings Global LLC, through its subsidiaries StarVista Live, Lifestyle Products Group and Time Life, is a creator and direct marketer that is known for selling books, music, video/DVD, and multimedia products.
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Tin
Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (from stannum) and atomic number 50.
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Tureng Tepe
Tureng Tepe (تورنگ تپه, "Hill of the Pheasants") (alternatively spelled in English as Turang Tappe/Tape/Tappa/Tappeh) is a Neolithic and Chalcolithic archaeological site in northeastern Iran, in the Gorgan plain, approximately 17 km northeast of the town of Gorgan.
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Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan (or; Türkmenistan), (formerly known as Turkmenia) is a sovereign state in Central Asia, bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north and east, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest, and the Caspian Sea to the west.
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Tutelary deity
A tutelary (also tutelar) is a deity or spirit who is a guardian, patron, or protector of a particular place, geographic feature, person, lineage, nation, culture, or occupation.
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Typographic ligature
In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined as a single glyph.
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Umm el-Marra
Umm el-Marra, أم المرى, east of modern Aleppo in the Jabbul Plain of northern Syria, was one of the ancient Near East's oldest cities, located on a crossroads of two trade routes northwest of Ebla, in a landscape that was much more fertile than it is today.
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Umma
Umma (𒄑𒆵𒆠; modern Umm al-Aqarib, Dhi Qar Province in Iraq) was an ancient city in Sumer.
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University of Chicago Oriental Institute
The Oriental Institute (OI), established in 1919, is the University of Chicago's interdisciplinary research center for ancient Near Eastern ("Orient") studies, and archaeology museum.
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University of Chicago Press
The University of Chicago Press is the largest and one of the oldest university presses in the United States.
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University of Liverpool
The University of Liverpool is a public university based in the city of Liverpool, England.
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University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology
The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology—commonly called the Penn Museum—is an archaeology and anthropology museum that is part of the University of Pennsylvania.
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Upper Mesopotamia
Upper Mesopotamia is the name used for the uplands and great outwash plain of northwestern Iraq, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, in the northern Middle East.
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Ur
Ur (Sumerian: Urim; Sumerian Cuneiform: KI or URIM5KI; Akkadian: Uru; أور; אור) was an important Sumerian city-state in ancient Mesopotamia, located at the site of modern Tell el-Muqayyar (تل المقير) in south Iraq's Dhi Qar Governorate.
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Ur-Nanshe
Ur-Nanshe (or Ur-Nina) was the first king of the First Dynasty of Lagash (approx. 2500 BCE) in the Sumerian Early Dynastic Period III.
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Urbanization
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change.
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Urkesh
Urkesh or Urkish (modern Tell Mozan; تل موزان) is a tell, or settlement mound, located in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains in Al-Hasakah Governorate, northeastern Syria.
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Uruk
Uruk (Cuneiform: URUUNUG; Sumerian: Unug; Akkadian: Uruk; وركاء,; Aramaic/Hebrew:; Orḥoē, Ὀρέχ Oreḥ, Ὠρύγεια Ōrugeia) was an ancient city of Sumer (and later of Babylonia), situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates river, on the dried-up, ancient channel of the Euphrates, some 30 km east of modern Samawah, Al-Muthannā, Iraq.
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Uruk period
The Uruk period (ca. 4000 to 3100 BC) existed from the protohistoric Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age period in the history of Mesopotamia, following the Ubaid period and succeeded by the Jemdet Nasr period.
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Utu
Utu later worshipped by East Semitic peoples as Shamash, was the ancient Mesopotamian god of the sun, justice, morality, and truth, and the twin brother of the goddess Inanna, the Queen of Heaven.
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Vase of Entemena
The Vase of Enmetena is a tripod type silver vase and was named after Enmetena, the ruler of Lagash.
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Vassal
A vassal is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe.
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World population
In demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living, and was estimated to have reached 7.6 billion people as of May 2018.
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Zagros Mountains
The Zagros Mountains (کوههای زاگرس; چیاکانی زاگرۆس) form the largest mountain range in Iran, Iraq and southeastern Turkey.
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Redirects here:
Early Dynastic I, Early Dynastic II, Early Dynastic III, Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia, Early Dynastic Period of Sumer, Fara period.
References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)
