Communication

698 relations: A Short History of Nearly Everything, Abiogenesis, Abundance of the chemical elements, Acetic acid, Acetonitrile, Acetyl-CoA, Acid, Actinide, Active site, Adenine, Adenosine triphosphate, Advances in Space Research, Aerobic organism, Age of the Earth, Age of the universe, Agence France-Presse, Akilia, Alabandite, Alanine, Alexander Butlerov, Alexander Oparin, Alexander Rich, Alexander Ross (writer), Aliphatic compound, Aluminium-26, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Astronomical Society, American Chemical Society, American Geophysical Union, American Institute of Physics, American Physiological Society, American Scientist, American Society for Microbiology, Ames Research Center, Amino acid, Ammonia, Ammonium cyanide, Amphiphile, Anaerobic organism, Ancient Greek philosophy, Angewandte Chemie, Annual Review of Physical Chemistry, Annual Reviews (publisher), Antarctica, Anthropic principle, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Apatite, Aphid, Archaea, Archean, ..., Archibald Macallum, Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Aristotle, Aromaticity, Artificial cell, Artificial life, Artificial Life (journal), Asexual reproduction, Associated Press, Asteroid, Astrobiology, Astrobiology (journal), Astrobiology Magazine, Astrochemistry, Atmosphere, Atmosphere of Earth, ATP synthase, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Autocatalysis, Autocatalytic set, Autotroph, Bacteria, Bantam Books, BBC News, Belite, Bicarbonate, Big Bang, Biochemistry, Biochimie, Biogenesis, Bioinformatics, Biological immortality, Biological pigment, Biology, Biology Direct, BioMed Central, BioSystems, Bolide, Boron, Brill Publishers, British Science Association, Brucite, Buckminsterfullerene, Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, Calcium, Calcium phosphate, Calcium silicate hydrate, Cambrian explosion, Cambridge University Press, Carbohydrate, Carbon, Carbon dioxide, Carbon fixation, Carbon Mineral Challenge, Carbon monoxide, Carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, Carbonate, Carbon–hydrogen bond, Catalysis, Cavitation, Cell growth, Cell membrane, Cellular respiration, Chalcopyrite, Charles Darwin, Charles Scribner's Sons, ChemBioChem, Chemical element, Chemical evolution, Chemical reaction, Chemiosmosis, Chemistry, Chemistry World, Chemistry: A European Journal, Chemosynthesis, Chemotroph, ChemPubSoc Europe, Chirality, Chirality (journal), Chloroflexi (phylum), Christian de Duve, Cinder cone, Circular polarization, Circumstellar envelope, Citric acid cycle, Clay, Cleanroom, Clostridium, CO-methylating acetyl-CoA synthase, Coacervate, Coenzyme A, Cofactor (biochemistry), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Colin Pittendrigh, Comet, Common descent, Computer simulation, Conical intersection, Continental crust, Convection, Cool early Earth, Cornell University Press, Corrin, Cosmic dust, Cosmic ray, Covalent bond, Craig Venter, Crust (geology), Curiosity (rover), Current Opinion (Elsevier), Cyanamide, Cyanide, Cyanoacetylene, Cyanobacteria, Cysteine, Cytosine, D. Appleton & Company, David W. Deamer, Degasification, Dicarboxylic acid, Diffusion, DigiBarn Computer Museum, Dipeptide, Discover (magazine), Discovery, Inc., Dissipation, Dissipative system, DNA, DNA replication, Domain (biology), Dover Publications, E. O. Wilson, Earliest known life forms, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Egypt, Electrochemical gradient, Electroweak interaction, Elements (journal), Elsevier, Emergence, Enantiomer, Enantiomeric excess, Energy, Entropy, Entropy and life, Entropy production, Enzyme, Eoarchean, Erwin Schrödinger, Eternal inflation, Ethology, Eugene Koonin, Eukaryote, European Molecular Biology Organization, Eutectic system, Evolution, Excite, Excited state, Exoplanet, Exothermic reaction, Extinction, Extremophile, Faraday Discussions, Feedback, Fermentation, Ferredoxin, Flavin mononucleotide, Fly, Formamide, Formamide-based prebiotic chemistry, Formic acid, Formose reaction, Francesco Redi, Freeman Dyson, Fullerene, Gabon, GADV-protein world hypothesis, Galaxy, Galena, Gard model, Garnet, Günter Wächtershäuser, Gene, Genes (journal), Genetic code, Genome, Geochemistry, Geoffrey W. Hoffmann, Geologic time scale, Geological Society of London, Geophysics, Geothermal energy, Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker, Geyser, Geyserite, Giant planet, Glenn Research Center, Glutamic acid, Glyceraldehyde, Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, Glycine, Glycol nucleic acid, Glycolaldehyde, Glycolysis, Goddard Space Flight Center, Graham Cairns-Smith, Gravity, Great Oxygenation Event, Greenwood Publishing Group, Guanine, Hadean, Half-life, Harcourt (publisher), Harold Urey, Harvard University, Harvard University Press, Hawaii, Heat, Helium, Helvetica Chimica Acta, Henri Bergson, Henry Charlton Bastian, Heritability, History of Earth, Holtzbrinck Publishing Group, Homochirality, Homocysteine, Hot spring, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Hydrocarbon, Hydrogen, Hydrogen cyanide, Hydrogen sulfide, Hydrogenation, Hydrosphere, Hydrothermal vent, Hydroxylation, Hypercycle (chemistry), Hyperthermophile, Hypothesis, Hypothetical types of biochemistry, Icarus (journal), Ilya Prigogine, Imaginova, Impact event, Indian Academy of Sciences, Indian National Science Academy, Information, Information theory, Inorganic compound, International Journal of Astrobiology, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, International Microbiology, International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interplanetary contamination, Interstellar cloud, Interstellar ice, Interstellar medium, Ion, Ionizing radiation, IOP Publishing, IRAS 16293-2422, Iron, Iron–sulfur world hypothesis, Irradiation, Isotope, Isua Greenstone Belt, J. B. S. Haldane, J. Craig Venter Institute, Jack Hills, Jack W. Szostak, Jeewanu, Jeremy England, Joan Oró, John Desmond Bernal, John Murray (publisher), John Sutherland (chemist), John Tyndall, John Wiley & Sons, Joseph Dalton Hooker, Joseph Henry Press, Journal of Biosciences, Journal of Chemical Physics, Journal of Geophysical Research, Journal of Molecular Biology, Journal of Molecular Evolution, Journal of Physical Chemistry A, Journal of the American Chemical Society, Journal of Theoretical Biology, Julius Rebek, Kalmbach Publishing, Karl Popper, Lacustrine plain, Lake, Lars Onsager, Last universal common ancestor, Late Heavy Bombardment, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Lazzaro Spallanzani, Leiden University, Leslie Orgel, Life, Light-year, Lightning, Lineage (evolution), Lipid, Lipid bilayer, List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules, List of microorganisms tested in outer space, Longman, Louis Pasteur, Ludwig Boltzmann, Luleå University of Technology, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Mackinawite, Macmillan Publishers, Macmillan Publishers (United States), Macromolecule, Mafic, Maggot, Manfred Eigen, Mantle (geology), Mantle convection, Mars, Mars rover, Martian meteorite, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, McGraw-Hill Education, MDPI, Mediocrity principle, Melvin Calvin, Mercury (planet), Metabolism, Meteorite, Meteoroid, Methane, Methanogen, Methanol, Methylation, Methylidyne radical, Micelle, Micro-encapsulation, Microbial mat, Microbiological Research, Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, Microorganism, Miller–Urey experiment, Mindspark Interactive Network, Mineralogical Society of America, MIT Press, Mitosis, Molecular biology, Molecular cloud, Molecular Systems Biology, Molecule, Molybdenum, Molybdopterin, Monazite, Monomer, Montana State University, Montmorillonite, Moon, Multiverse, Murchison meteorite, Mycoplasma laboratorium, Narryer Gneiss Terrane, NASA, NASA Astrobiology Institute, National Academy of Sciences, National Geographic Society, National Science Foundation, Natural abundance, Natural nuclear fission reactor, Natural selection, Nature (journal), Nature Chemistry, Nature Communications, Nature Geoscience, Nature Publishing Group, Nebula, New Scientist, Nexus for Exoplanet System Science, Nile, Nitrile, Nitrogen, Nitrogen cycle, Nitrogen dioxide, Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Non-equilibrium thermodynamics, Noogenesis, Nucleic acid, Nucleobase, Nucleoside, Nucleotide, Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt, Observable universe, Ocean current, Offspring, Oklo, Olivine, On the Origin of Species, Opportunity (rover), Organic compound, Organic redox reaction, Organism, Organometallic chemistry, Origin of water on Earth, Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres, Outer space, Oxford University Press, Oxygenate, Ozone, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, Paleontology, Panspermia, Penguin Books, Pentafluorophenyl esters, Pentose phosphate pathway, Peptide, Peptide nucleic acid, Pergamon Press, Peter F. Collier, Peter Schuster, PH, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Phosphate, Phosphodiester bond, Phospholipid, Phosphorylation, Photochemistry, Photon, Photosynthesis, Phronesis (journal), Phylogenetic tree, Phylogenomics, Phys.org, Physicist, Physics of Life Reviews, Physiological Reviews, Pilbara, Pilbara Craton, Plain, Planet, Planetary habitability, Planetesimal, Plate tectonics, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, Polymer, Polymerization, Polyphosphate, Pore space in soil, Portland cement, Portlandite, Potassium hydrogen phthalate, Potassium-40, Precambrian Research, Precursor (chemistry), Princeton University Press, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Proceedings of the Physical Society, Protein, Protein folding, Proteinoid, Proteome, Protocell, Proton, Protoplanetary disk, Protostar, Protozoa, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, Publishing houses in the Soviet Union, Purch Group, Purine, Putrefaction, Pyrimidine, Pyrite, Pyruvic acid, Quartz, Quartzite, Quasispecies model, Quebec, Racemic mixture, Radiation, Radionuclide, Rare Earth hypothesis, Red giant, Redox, Reducing atmosphere, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Reproduction, Reuters, Reversible process (thermodynamics), Ribose, Ribosome, Ribozyme, Richard Dawkins, Richard Laurence Millington Synge, River, RNA, RNA (journal), RNA world, Robert Hooke, Robert Shapiro (chemist), Rochester Institute of Technology, Routledge, Royal Society, Royal Society of Chemistry, S-Adenosyl methionine, Saturn, Science (journal), Science Advances, Science Daily, Scientific American, Seawater, Second law of thermodynamics, Secondary atmosphere, Selenium, Self-organization, Self-replication, Semipermeable membrane, Serpentine subgroup, Serpentinite, Sexual reproduction, Shadow biosphere, Sidney W. Fox, Sigma Xi, Silicate minerals, Small Solar System body, Soai reaction, Sol Spiegelman, Solar System, Solubility, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Space.com, Spacecraft, Spectroscopy, Spectrum, Sphalerite, SPIE, Spiegelman's Monster, Spitzer Space Telescope, Spontaneous symmetry breaking, Springer Science+Business Media, Stanley Miller, Star, Star formation, Stardust (spacecraft), Statistical fluctuations, Steen Rasmussen, Stellar age estimation, Stellar nucleosynthesis, Stephen Blair Hedges, Stereochemistry, Strecker amino acid synthesis, Stromatolite, Structure of the Earth, Stuart Kauffman, Sulfide, Sulfur, Sun, Sun Kwok, Sunlight, Supernova, Superorganism, System, T Tauri star, Taphonomy, Tar, Tersicoccus phoenicis, Texas Tech University, The Ancestor's Tale, The Astrophysical Journal, The Blind Watchmaker, The Daily Telegraph, The Independent, The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, The New York Times, The Quarterly Review of Biology, The Science of Nature, The Selfish Gene, Thermoacidophile, Thioacetic acid, Thioester, Tholin, Thomas Browne, Thomas Cavalier-Smith, Thomas Gold, Thomas Henry Huxley, Threose nucleic acid, Thymine, Titan (moon), Ton, Top-down and bottom-up design, Total organic carbon, Transition metal, Transworld Publishers, Triazine, Tripeptide, Tropical cyclone, Trusted Media Brands, Inc., Turbulence, Ultraviolet, United Lutheran Church in America, United States Geological Survey, Universe, Universe Today, University College London, University of Arizona, University of Chicago Press, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Glasgow, University of Hong Kong, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, University of Osnabrück, University of Tokyo, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Uracil, Uranium, Venus, Vesicle (biology and chemistry), Virus, Visible spectrum, Vitalism, Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit, W. W. Norton & Company, Walter Gilbert, Water, Water cycle, Water vapor, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Weizmann Institute of Science, Wellcome Trust, Western Australia, Wiley-VCH, Wind, Wired (magazine), Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, World Scientific, X-ray crystallography, Xanthine, Yale University Press, Year, Yellowstone National Park, Zircon, 81P/Wild. Expand index (648 more) » « Shrink index

A Short History of Nearly Everything

A Short History of Nearly Everything by American author Bill Bryson is a popular science book that explains some areas of science, using easily accessible language that appeals more so to the general public than many other books dedicated to the subject.

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Abiogenesis

Abiogenesis, or informally the origin of life,Compare: Also occasionally called biopoiesis.

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Abundance of the chemical elements

The abundance of the chemical elements is a measure of the occurrence of the chemical elements relative to all other elements in a given environment.

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Acetic acid

Acetic acid, systematically named ethanoic acid, is a colourless liquid organic compound with the chemical formula CH3COOH (also written as CH3CO2H or C2H4O2).

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Acetonitrile

Acetonitrile is the chemical compound with the formula.

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Acetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoA (acetyl coenzyme A) is a molecule that participates in many biochemical reactions in protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.

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Acid

An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid).

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Actinide

The actinide or actinoid (IUPAC nomenclature) series encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103, actinium through lawrencium.

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Active site

In biology, the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

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Adenine

Adenine (A, Ade) is a nucleobase (a purine derivative).

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Adenosine triphosphate

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that participates in many processes.

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Advances in Space Research

Advances in Space Research (ASR) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that is published 27 times per year by Elsevier.

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Aerobic organism

An aerobic organism or aerobe is an organism that can survive and grow in an oxygenated environment.

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Age of the Earth

The age of the Earth is 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years This age may represent the age of the Earth’s accretion, of core formation, or of the material from which the Earth formed.

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Age of the universe

In physical cosmology, the age of the universe is the time elapsed since the Big Bang.

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Agence France-Presse

Agence France-Presse (AFP) is an international news agency headquartered in Paris, France.

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Akilia

Akilia Island is an island in southwestern Greenland, about 22 kilometers south of Nuuk (Godthåb), at.

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Alabandite

Alabandite or alabandine is a rarely occurring manganese sulfide mineral.

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Alanine

Alanine (symbol Ala or A) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins.

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Alexander Butlerov

Alexander Mikhaylovich Butlerov (Алекса́ндр Миха́йлович Бу́тлеров; 15 September 1828 – 17 August 1886) was a Russian chemist, one of the principal creators of the theory of chemical structure (1857–1861), the first to incorporate double bonds into structural formulas, the discoverer of hexamine (1859), the discoverer of formaldehyde (1859) and the discoverer of the formose reaction (1861).

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Alexander Oparin

Alexander Ivanovich Oparin (Алекса́ндр Ива́нович Опа́рин) (– April 21, 1980) was a Soviet biochemist notable for his theories about the origin of life, and for his book The Origin of Life.

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Alexander Rich

Alexander Rich (November 15, 1924 – April 27, 2015) was an American biologist and biophysicist.

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Alexander Ross (writer)

Alexander Ross (c. 1590–1654) was a prolific Scottish writer and controversialist.

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Aliphatic compound

In organic chemistry, hydrocarbons (compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen) are divided into two classes: aromatic compounds and aliphatic compounds (G. aleiphar, fat, oil) also known as non-aromatic compounds.

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Aluminium-26

Aluminium-26, 26Al, is a radioactive isotope of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the modes beta-plus or electron capture, both resulting in the stable nuclide magnesium-26.

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American Association for the Advancement of Science

The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) is an American international non-profit organization with the stated goals of promoting cooperation among scientists, defending scientific freedom, encouraging scientific responsibility, and supporting scientific education and science outreach for the betterment of all humanity.

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American Astronomical Society

The American Astronomical Society (AAS, sometimes spoken as "double-A-S") is an American society of professional astronomers and other interested individuals, headquartered in Washington, DC.

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American Chemical Society

The American Chemical Society (ACS) is a scientific society based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry in the field of chemistry.

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American Geophysical Union

The American Geophysical Union (AGU) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization of geophysicists, consisting of over 62,000 members from 144 countries.

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American Institute of Physics

The American Institute of Physics (AIP) promotes science, the profession of physics, publishes physics journals, and produces publications for scientific and engineering societies.

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American Physiological Society

The American Physiological Society was founded in 1887 with 28 members.

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American Scientist

American Scientist (informally abbreviated AmSci) is an American bimonthly science and technology magazine published since 1913 by Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society.

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American Society for Microbiology

The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), originally the Society of American Bacteriologists, is a professional organization for scientists who study viruses, bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa as well as other aspects of microbiology.

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Ames Research Center

Ames Research Center (ARC), also known as NASA Ames, is a major NASA research center at Moffett Federal Airfield in California's Silicon Valley.

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Amino acid

Amino acids are organic compounds containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.

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Ammonia

Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3.

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Ammonium cyanide

Ammonium cyanide is an unstable inorganic compound with the formula NH4CN.

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Amphiphile

An amphiphile (from the Greek αμφις, amphis: both and φιλíα, philia: love, friendship) is a chemical compound possessing both hydrophilic (water-loving, polar) and lipophilic (fat-loving) properties.

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Anaerobic organism

An anaerobic organism or anaerobe is any organism that does not require oxygen for growth.

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Ancient Greek philosophy

Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC and continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Ancient Greece was part of the Roman Empire.

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Angewandte Chemie

Angewandte Chemie (meaning "Applied Chemistry") is a weekly peer-reviewed scientific journal that is published by Wiley-VCH on behalf of the German Chemical Society (Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker).

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Annual Review of Physical Chemistry

Annual Review of Physical Chemistry is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews.

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Annual Reviews (publisher)

Annual Reviews, located in Palo Alto California, Annual Reviews is a nonprofit publisher dedicated to synthesizing and integrating knowledge for the progress of science and the benefit of society.

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Antarctica

Antarctica is Earth's southernmost continent.

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Anthropic principle

The anthropic principle is a philosophical consideration that observations of the universe must be compatible with the conscious and sapient life that observes it.

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek FRS (24 October 1632 – 26 August 1723) was a Dutch businessman and scientist in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology.

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Apatite

Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually referring to hydroxylapatite, fluorapatite and chlorapatite, with high concentrations of OH−, F− and Cl− ions, respectively, in the crystal.

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Aphid

Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea.

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Archaea

Archaea (or or) constitute a domain of single-celled microorganisms.

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Archean

The Archean Eon (also spelled Archaean or Archæan) is one of the four geologic eons of Earth history, occurring (4 to 2.5 billion years ago).

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Archibald Macallum

Archibald Byron Macallum, FRS (April 7, 1858 – April 5, 1934) was a Canadian biochemist and founder of the National Research Council of Canada.

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Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics

Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research on all aspects of biochemistry and biophysics.

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Aristotle

Aristotle (Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs,; 384–322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece.

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Aromaticity

In organic chemistry, the term aromaticity is used to describe a cyclic (ring-shaped), planar (flat) molecule with a ring of resonance bonds that exhibits more stability than other geometric or connective arrangements with the same set of atoms.

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Artificial cell

An artificial cell or minimal cell is an engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a biological cell.

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Artificial life

Artificial life (often abbreviated ALife or A-Life) is a field of study wherein researchers examine systems related to natural life, its processes, and its evolution, through the use of simulations with computer models, robotics, and biochemistry.

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Artificial Life (journal)

Artificial Life is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers the study of man-made systems that exhibit the behavioral characteristics of natural living systems.

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Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only; it does not involve the fusion of gametes, and almost never changes the number of chromosomes.

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Associated Press

The Associated Press (AP) is a U.S.-based not-for-profit news agency headquartered in New York City.

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Asteroid

Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System.

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Astrobiology

Astrobiology is a branch of biology concerned with the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe.

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Astrobiology (journal)

Astrobiology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on the origin, evolution, distribution and future of life across the universe.

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Astrobiology Magazine

Astrobiology Magazine (exploring the solar system and beyond), or Astrobiology Mag, is an American NASA-sponsored international online popular science magazine containing popular science content, which refers to articles for the general reader on science and technology subjects.

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Astrochemistry

Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the Universe, and their interaction with radiation.

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Atmosphere

An atmosphere is a layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other material body, that is held in place by the gravity of that body.

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Atmosphere of Earth

The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity.

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ATP synthase

ATP synthase is an enzyme that creates the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

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Australian Broadcasting Corporation

The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) founded in 1929 is Australia's national broadcaster, funded by the Australian Federal Government but specifically independent of Government and politics in the Commonwealth.

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Autocatalysis

A single chemical reaction is said to be autocatalytic if one of the reaction products is also a catalyst for the same or a coupled reaction.

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Autocatalytic set

An autocatalytic set is a collection of entities, each of which can be created catalytically by other entities within the set, such that as a whole, the set is able to catalyze its own production.

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Autotroph

An autotroph ("self-feeding", from the Greek autos "self" and trophe "nourishing") or producer, is an organism that produces complex organic compounds (such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) from simple substances present in its surroundings, generally using energy from light (photosynthesis) or inorganic chemical reactions (chemosynthesis).

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Bacteria

Bacteria (common noun bacteria, singular bacterium) is a type of biological cell.

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Bantam Books

Bantam Books is an American publishing house owned entirely by parent company Random House, a subsidiary of Penguin Random House; it is an imprint of the Random House Publishing Group.

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BBC News

BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs.

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Belite

Belite is an industrial mineral important in Portland cement manufacture.

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Bicarbonate

In inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate (IUPAC-recommended nomenclature: hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid.

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Big Bang

The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution.

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Biochemistry

Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.

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Biochimie

Biochimie is a peer-reviewed scientific journal in the field of biochemistry, biophysics and molecular biology.

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Biogenesis

Biogenesis is the production of new living organisms or organelles.

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Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data.

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Biological immortality

Biological immortality (sometimes referred to bio-indefinite mortality) is a state in which the rate of mortality from senescence is stable or decreasing, thus decoupling it from chronological age.

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Biological pigment

Biological pigments, also known simply as pigments or biochromes, are substances produced by living organisms that have a color resulting from selective color absorption.

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Biology

Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their physical structure, chemical composition, function, development and evolution.

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Biology Direct

Biology Direct is an online open access scientific journal that publishes original, peer-reviewed research papers, reviews, hypotheses, comments and discovery notes in biology.

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BioMed Central

BioMed Central (BMC) is a United Kingdom-based, for-profit scientific open access publisher.

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BioSystems

BioSystems is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering experimental, computational, and theoretical research that links biology, evolution, and the information processing sciences.

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Bolide

A bolide (French via Latin from the Greek βολίς bolís, "missile") is an extremely bright meteor, especially one that explodes in the atmosphere.

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Boron

Boron is a chemical element with symbol B and atomic number 5.

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Brill Publishers

Brill (known as E. J. Brill, Koninklijke Brill, Brill Academic Publishers) is a Dutch international academic publisher founded in 1683 in Leiden, Netherlands.

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British Science Association

The British Science Association (BSA) is a charity and learned society founded in 1831 to aid in the promotion and development of science.

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Brucite

Brucite is the mineral form of magnesium hydroxide, with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2.

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Buckminsterfullerene

Buckminsterfullerene is a type of fullerene with the formula C60.

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Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society

Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society (BAAS; Bull. Am. Astron. Soc.) is the journal of record for the American Astronomical Society established in 1969.

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Calcium

Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20.

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Calcium phosphate

Calcium phosphate is a family of materials and minerals containing calcium ions (Ca2+) together with inorganic phosphate anions.

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Calcium silicate hydrate

Calcium silicate hydrate (or C-S-H) is the main product of the hydration of Portland cement and is primarily responsible for the strength in cement based materials.

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Cambrian explosion

The Cambrian explosion or Cambrian radiation was an event approximately in the Cambrian period when most major animal phyla appeared in the fossil record.

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Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press (CUP) is the publishing business of the University of Cambridge.

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Carbohydrate

A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (where m may be different from n).

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Carbon

Carbon (from carbo "coal") is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6.

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Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide (chemical formula) is a colorless gas with a density about 60% higher than that of dry air.

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Carbon fixation

Carbon fixation or сarbon assimilation is the conversion process of inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide) to organic compounds by living organisms.

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Carbon Mineral Challenge

The Carbon Mineral Challenge is a citizen science project dedicated to accelerating the discovery of carbon-bearing minerals.

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Carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air.

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Carbon monoxide dehydrogenase

In enzymology, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction The 3 substrates of this enzyme are CO, H2O, and A, whereas its two products are CO2 and AH2.

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Carbonate

In chemistry, a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid (H2CO3), characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula of.

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Carbon–hydrogen bond

The carbon-hydrogen bond (C–H bond) is a bond between carbon and hydrogen atoms that can be found in many organic compounds.

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Catalysis

Catalysis is the increase in the rate of a chemical reaction due to the participation of an additional substance called a catalysthttp://goldbook.iupac.org/C00876.html, which is not consumed in the catalyzed reaction and can continue to act repeatedly.

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Cavitation

Cavitation is the formation of vapour cavities in a liquid, small liquid-free zones ("bubbles" or "voids"), that are the consequence of forces acting upon the liquid.

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Cell growth

The term cell growth is used in the contexts of biological cell development and cell division (reproduction).

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Cell membrane

The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the extracellular space).

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Cellular respiration

Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

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Chalcopyrite

Chalcopyrite is a copper iron sulfide mineral that crystallizes in the tetragonal system.

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Charles Darwin

Charles Robert Darwin, (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.

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Charles Scribner's Sons

Charles Scribner's Sons, or simply Scribner's or Scribner, is an American publisher based in New York City, known for publishing American authors including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Kurt Vonnegut, Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Stephen King, Robert A. Heinlein, Thomas Wolfe, George Santayana, John Clellon Holmes, Don DeLillo, and Edith Wharton.

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ChemBioChem

ChemBioChem is a peer-reviewed journal of chemical biology, synthetic biology and bio-nanotechnology co-owned by 14 European chemical society members of ChemPubSoc Europe and published by Wiley-VCH.

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Chemical element

A chemical element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (that is, the same atomic number, or Z).

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Chemical evolution

Chemical evolution may refer to.

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Chemical reaction

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.

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Chemiosmosis

Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient.

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Chemistry

Chemistry is the scientific discipline involved with compounds composed of atoms, i.e. elements, and molecules, i.e. combinations of atoms: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other compounds.

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Chemistry World

Chemistry World is a monthly chemistry news magazine published by the Royal Society of Chemistry.

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Chemistry: A European Journal

Chemistry: A European Journal is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that publishes articles on all areas of chemistry and related fields.

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Chemosynthesis

In biochemistry, chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more carbon-containing molecules (usually carbon dioxide or methane) and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic compounds (e.g., hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide) or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis.

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Chemotroph

Chemotrophs are organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their environments.

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ChemPubSoc Europe

ChemPubSoc Europe is an organization of 16 continental European chemical societies, founded in the late 1990s as a consequence of the amalgamation of 14 chemical journals owned by national chemical societies into 11 European sister journals.

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Chirality

Chirality is a property of asymmetry important in several branches of science.

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Chirality (journal)

Chirality is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering chiral chemistry in relation with physiology.

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Chloroflexi (phylum)

The Chloroflexi or Chlorobacteria are a phylum of bacteria containing isolates with a diversity of phenotypes including members that are aerobic thermophiles, which use oxygen and grow well in high temperatures, anoxygenic phototrophs, which use light for photosynthesis (green non-sulfur bacteria), and anaerobic halorespirers, which uses halogenated organics (such as the toxic chlorinated ethenes and polychlorinated biphenyls) as electron acceptors.

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Christian de Duve

Christian René Marie Joseph, Viscount de Duve (2 October 1917 – 4 May 2013) was a Nobel Prize-winning Belgian cytologist and biochemist.

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Cinder cone

A cinder cone or scoria cone is a steep conical hill of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as either volcanic clinkers, cinders, volcanic ash, or scoria that has been built around a volcanic vent.

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Circular polarization

In electrodynamics, circular polarization of an electromagnetic wave is a polarization state in which, at each point, the electric field of the wave has a constant magnitude but its direction rotates with time at a steady rate in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the wave.

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Circumstellar envelope

A circumstellar envelope (CSE) is a part of a star that has a roughly spherical shape and is not gravitationally bound to the star core.

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Citric acid cycle

The citric acid cycle (CAC) – also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle or the Krebs cycle – is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide and chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

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Clay

Clay is a finely-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with possible traces of quartz (SiO2), metal oxides (Al2O3, MgO etc.) and organic matter.

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Cleanroom

A cleanroom or clean room is a situation, ordinarily utilized as a part of assembling, including of pharmaceutical items or logical research, and in addition aviation semiconductor building applications with a low level of natural toxins, for example, tiny, airborne organisms, vaporized particles, and concoction vapors.

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Clostridium

Clostridium is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria, which includes several significant human pathogens, including the causative agent of botulism and an important cause of diarrhea, Clostridium difficile.

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CO-methylating acetyl-CoA synthase

Acetyl-CoA Synthase (ACS), not to be confused with Acetyl-CoA Synthetase or Acetate-CoA Ligase (ADP forming), is a Nickel containing enzyme involved in the metabolic processes of cells.

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Coacervate

"'Coacervation"' is a unique type of electrostatically-driven liquid-liquid phase separation, resulting from association of oppositely charged macro-ions.

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Coenzyme A

Coenzyme A (CoA,SCoA,CoASH) is a coenzyme, notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidation of fatty acids, and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle.

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Cofactor (biochemistry)

A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound or metallic ion that is required for an enzyme's activity.

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Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press

Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press was founded in 1933 to aid in Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory's purpose of furthering the advance and spread of scientific knowledge.

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Colin Pittendrigh

Colin Pittendrigh (October 13, 1918 – March 19, 1996) "Colin Pittendrigh, 'Father of biological clock,' dies at 77", March 25, 1996, accessed April 9, 2011.

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Comet

A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process called outgassing.

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Common descent

Common descent describes how, in evolutionary biology, a group of organisms share a most recent common ancestor.

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Computer simulation

Computer simulation is the reproduction of the behavior of a system using a computer to simulate the outcomes of a mathematical model associated with said system.

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Conical intersection

In quantum chemistry, a conical intersection of two or more potential energy surfaces is the set of molecular geometry points where the potential energy surfaces are degenerate (intersect) and the non-adiabatic couplings between these states are non-vanishing.

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Continental crust

Continental crust is the layer of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks that forms the continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves.

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Convection

Convection is the heat transfer due to bulk movement of molecules within fluids such as gases and liquids, including molten rock (rheid).

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Cool early Earth

The cool early Earth (CEE) theory posits that for part of the Hadean geological eon, at the beginning of the Earth's history, it had a modest influx of bolides and a cool climate, allowing the presence of liquid water.

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Cornell University Press

The Cornell University Press is a division of Cornell University housed in Sage House, the former residence of Henry William Sage.

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Corrin

Corrin is a heterocyclic compound.

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Cosmic dust

Cosmic dust, also called extraterrestrial dust or space dust, is dust which exists in outer space, as well as all over planet Earth.

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Cosmic ray

Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation, mainly originating outside the Solar System and even from distant galaxies.

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Covalent bond

A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

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Craig Venter

John Craig Venter (born October 14, 1946) is an American biotechnologist, biochemist, geneticist, and businessman.

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Crust (geology)

In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite.

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Curiosity (rover)

Curiosity is a car-sized rover designed to explore Gale Crater on Mars as part of NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission (MSL).

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Current Opinion (Elsevier)

Current Opinion is a collection of review journals on various disciplines of the life sciences published by Elsevier.

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Cyanamide

Cyanamide is an organic compound with the formula CN2H2.

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Cyanide

A cyanide is a chemical compound that contains the group C≡N.

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Cyanoacetylene

Cyanoacetylene is an organic compound with formula or H-C≡C-C≡N.

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Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria, also known as Cyanophyta, are a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis, and are the only photosynthetic prokaryotes able to produce oxygen.

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Cysteine

Cysteine (symbol Cys or C) is a semi-essential proteinogenic amino acid with the formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2SH.

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Cytosine

Cytosine (C) is one of the four main bases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine, and thymine (uracil in RNA).

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D. Appleton & Company

D.

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David W. Deamer

David Wilson Deamer (born April 21, 1939) is an American biologist and Research Professor of Biomolecular Engineering at the University of California, Santa Cruz.

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Degasification

Degasification is the removal of dissolved gases from liquids, especially water or aqueous solutions.

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Dicarboxylic acid

A dicarboxylic acid is an organic compound containing two carboxyl functional groups (−COOH).

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Diffusion

Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of high concentration (or high chemical potential) to a region of low concentration (or low chemical potential) as a result of random motion of the molecules or atoms.

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DigiBarn Computer Museum

The DigiBarn Computer Museum, or simply DigiBarn, is a computer history museum in Boulder Creek, California, United States.

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Dipeptide

A dipeptide is a sometimes ambiguous designation of two classes of organic compounds: Its molecules contain either two amino acids joined by a single peptide bond or one amino acid with two peptide bonds.

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Discover (magazine)

Discover is an American general audience science magazine launched in October 1980 by Time Inc.

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Discovery, Inc.

Discovery, Inc. (formerly Discovery Communications) is an American mass media company based in Silver Spring, Maryland, first established in 1985.

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Dissipation

Dissipation is the result of an irreversible process that takes place in homogeneous thermodynamic systems.

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Dissipative system

A dissipative system is a thermodynamically open system which is operating out of, and often far from, thermodynamic equilibrium in an environment with which it exchanges energy and matter.

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DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a thread-like chain of nucleotides carrying the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

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DNA replication

In molecular biology, DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule.

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Domain (biology)

In biological taxonomy, a domain (Latin: regio), also superkingdom or empire, is the highest taxonomic rank of organisms in the three-domain system of taxonomy designed by Carl Woese, an American microbiologist and biophysicist.

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Dover Publications

Dover Publications, also known as Dover Books, is an American book publisher founded in 1941 by Hayward Cirker and his wife, Blanche.

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E. O. Wilson

Edward Osborne Wilson (born June 10, 1929), usually cited as E. O. Wilson, is an American biologist, researcher, theorist, naturalist and author.

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Earliest known life forms

The earliest known life forms on Earth are putative fossilized microorganisms found in hydrothermal vent precipitates.

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Earth and Planetary Science Letters

Earth and Planetary Science Letters is a weekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on physical, chemical and mechanical processes of the Earth and other planets, including extrasolar ones.

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Egypt

Egypt (مِصر, مَصر, Khēmi), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula.

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Electrochemical gradient

An electrochemical gradient is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane.

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Electroweak interaction

In particle physics, the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetism and the weak interaction.

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Elements (journal)

Elements: An International Magazine of Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Petrology is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by 17 scientific societies: Mineralogical Society of America, Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Mineralogical Association of Canada, Geochemical Society, Clay Minerals Society, European Association of Geochemistry, International Association of GeoChemistry, Société Française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie, Association of Applied Geochemists,,, International Association of Geoanalysts, Polskie Towarzystwo Mineralogiczne (Mineralogical Society of Poland), Sociedad Española de Mineralogía (Spanish Mineralogical Society), Swiss Society of Mineralogy and Petrology, Meteoritical Society, and the Japan Association of Mineralogical Sciences.

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Elsevier

Elsevier is an information and analytics company and one of the world's major providers of scientific, technical, and medical information.

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Emergence

In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when "the whole is greater than the sum of the parts," meaning the whole has properties its parts do not have.

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Enantiomer

In chemistry, an enantiomer, also known as an optical isomer (and archaically termed antipode or optical antipode), is one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are non-superposable (not identical), much as one's left and right hands are the same except for being reversed along one axis (the hands cannot be made to appear identical simply by reorientation).

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Enantiomeric excess

Enantiomeric excess (ee) is a measurement of purity used for chiral substances.

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Energy

In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object.

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Entropy

In statistical mechanics, entropy is an extensive property of a thermodynamic system.

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Entropy and life

Research concerning the relationship between the thermodynamic quantity entropy and the evolution of life began around the turn of the 20th century.

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Entropy production

Entropy production determines the performance of thermal machines such as power plants, heat engines, refrigerators, heat pumps, and air conditioners.

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Enzyme

Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts.

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Eoarchean

The Eoarchean (also spelled Eoarchaean) is the first era of the Archean Eon of the geologic record for which the Earth has a solid crust.

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Erwin Schrödinger

Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger (12 August 1887 – 4 January 1961), sometimes written as or, was a Nobel Prize-winning Austrian physicist who developed a number of fundamental results in the field of quantum theory, which formed the basis of wave mechanics: he formulated the wave equation (stationary and time-dependent Schrödinger equation) and revealed the identity of his development of the formalism and matrix mechanics.

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Eternal inflation

Eternal inflation is a hypothetical inflationary universe model, which is itself an outgrowth or extension of the Big Bang theory.

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Ethology

Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait.

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Eugene Koonin

Eugene Viktorovich Koonin (Russian: Евге́ний Ви́кторович Ку́нин) (born October 26, 1956) is a Russian-American biologist and Senior Investigator at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).

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Eukaryote

Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes, unlike Prokaryotes (Bacteria and other Archaea).

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European Molecular Biology Organization

The European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) is a professional organization of life scientists in Europe.

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Eutectic system

A eutectic system from the Greek "ευ" (eu.

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Evolution

Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.

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Excite

Excite (stylized as excite) is an internet portal launched in December 1995 that provides a variety of content including news and weather, a metasearch engine, a web-based email, instant messaging, stock quotes, and a customizable user homepage.

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Excited state

In quantum mechanics, an excited state of a system (such as an atom, molecule or nucleus) is any quantum state of the system that has a higher energy than the ground state (that is, more energy than the absolute minimum).

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Exoplanet

An exoplanet or extrasolar planet is a planet outside our solar system.

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Exothermic reaction

An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy by light or heat.

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Extinction

In biology, extinction is the termination of an organism or of a group of organisms (taxon), normally a species.

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Extremophile

An extremophile (from Latin extremus meaning "extreme" and Greek philiā (φιλία) meaning "love") is an organism that thrives in physically or geochemically extreme conditions that are detrimental to most life on Earth.

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Faraday Discussions

Faraday Discussions is a scientific journal publishing original research papers presented at a long-running series of conferences on physical chemistry, chemical physics and biophysical chemistry which are also called Faraday Discussions, together with a record of the comments made at the meeting.

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Feedback

Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop.

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Fermentation

Fermentation is a metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen.

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Ferredoxin

Ferredoxins (from Latin ferrum: iron + redox, often abbreviated "fd") are iron-sulfur proteins that mediate electron transfer in a range of metabolic reactions.

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Flavin mononucleotide

Flavin mononucleotide (FMN), or riboflavin-5′-phosphate, is a biomolecule produced from riboflavin (vitamin B2) by the enzyme riboflavin kinase and functions as prosthetic group of various oxidoreductases including NADH dehydrogenase as well as cofactor in biological blue-light photo receptors.

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Fly

True flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- di- "two", and πτερόν pteron "wings".

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Formamide

Formamide, also known as methanamide, is an amide derived from formic acid.

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Formamide-based prebiotic chemistry

Formamide-based prebiotic chemistry refers to ongoing scientific efforts aimed at reconstructing the beginnings of life on our planet assuming that formamide could accumulate in sufficiently high amounts to serve as the building block and reaction medium for the synthesis of the first biogenic molecules.

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Formic acid

Formic acid, systematically named methanoic acid, is the simplest carboxylic acid.

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Formose reaction

The formose reaction, discovered by Aleksandr Butlerov in 1861 and hence, also known as the Butlerov reaction, involves the formation of sugars from formaldehyde.

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Francesco Redi

Francesco Redi (18 February 1626 – 1 March 1697) was an Italian physician, naturalist, biologist and poet.

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Freeman Dyson

Freeman John Dyson (born 15 December 1923) is an English-born American theoretical physicist and mathematician.

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Fullerene

A fullerene is a molecule of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, and many other shapes.

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Gabon

Gabon, officially the Gabonese Republic (République gabonaise), is a sovereign state on the west coast of Central Africa.

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GADV-protein world hypothesis

GADV-protein world is a hypothetical stage of abiogenesis.

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Galaxy

A galaxy is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter.

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Galena

Galena, also called lead glance, is the natural mineral form of lead(II) sulfide.

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Gard model

In evolutionary biology, the GARD (Graded Autocatalysis Replication Domain) model is a general kinetic model for homeostatic-growth and fission of compositional-assemblies, with specific application towards lipids.

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Garnet

Garnets are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives.

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Günter Wächtershäuser

Günter Wächtershäuser (born 1938 in Gießen), a German chemist turned patent lawyer, is widely known for his work on the origin of life, and in particular his iron-sulfur world theory, a theory that life on Earth had hydrothermal origins.

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Gene

In biology, a gene is a sequence of DNA or RNA that codes for a molecule that has a function.

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Genes (journal)

Genes is a quarterly peer-reviewed open access scientific journal that is published by MDPI.

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Genetic code

The genetic code is the set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences) into proteins.

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Genome

In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is the genetic material of an organism.

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Geochemistry

Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans.

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Geoffrey W. Hoffmann

Geoffrey W. Hoffmann, (born October 20, 1944) is an Australian-Canadian theoretical biologist.

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Geologic time scale

The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that relates geological strata (stratigraphy) to time.

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Geological Society of London

The Geological Society of London, known commonly as the Geological Society, is a learned society based in the United Kingdom.

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Geophysics

Geophysics is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis.

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Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth.

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Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker

The Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (GDCh) is a learned society and professional association founded in 1949 to represent the interests of German chemists in local, national and international contexts.

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Geyser

A geyser is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam.

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Geyserite

Geyserite is a form of opaline silica that is often found around hot springs and geysers.

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Giant planet

A giant planet is any massive planet.

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Glenn Research Center

NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field is a NASA center, located within the cities of Brook Park and Cleveland between Cleveland Hopkins International Airport and the Rocky River Reservation of Cleveland Metroparks, with a subsidiary facility in Sandusky, Ohio.

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Glutamic acid

Glutamic acid (symbol Glu or E) is an α-amino acid with formula.

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Glyceraldehyde

Glyceraldehyde (glyceral) is a triose monosaccharide with chemical formula C3H6O3.

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Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GA3P, GADP, GAP, TP, GALP or PGAL, is the metabolite that occurs as an intermediate in several central pathways of all organisms.

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Glycine

Glycine (symbol Gly or G) is the amino acid that has a single hydrogen atom as its side chain.

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Glycol nucleic acid

Glycol nucleic acid (GNA) is a polymer similar to DNA or RNA but differing in the composition of its "backbone".

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Glycolaldehyde

Glycolaldehyde is the organic compound with the formula HOCH2-CHO.

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Glycolysis

Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+.

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Goddard Space Flight Center

The Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is a major NASA space research laboratory located approximately northeast of Washington, D.C. in Greenbelt, Maryland, United States.

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Graham Cairns-Smith

Alexander Graham Cairns-Smith FRSE (24 November 1931 – 26 August 2016) was an organic chemist and molecular biologist at the University of Glasgow.

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Gravity

Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass or energy—including planets, stars, galaxies, and even light—are brought toward (or gravitate toward) one another.

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Great Oxygenation Event

The Great Oxygenation Event, the beginning of which is commonly known in scientific media as the Great Oxidation Event (GOE, also called the Oxygen Catastrophe, Oxygen Crisis, Oxygen Holocaust, Oxygen Revolution, or Great Oxidation) was the biologically induced appearance of dioxygen (O2) in Earth's atmosphere.

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Greenwood Publishing Group

ABC-CLIO/Greenwood is an educational and academic publisher (middle school through university level) which is today part of ABC-CLIO.

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Guanine

Guanine (or G, Gua) is one of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine (uracil in RNA).

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Hadean

The Hadean is a geologic eon of the Earth predating the Archean.

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Half-life

Half-life (symbol t1⁄2) is the time required for a quantity to reduce to half its initial value.

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Harcourt (publisher)

Harcourt was a United States publishing firm with a long history of publishing fiction and nonfiction for adults and children.

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Harold Urey

Harold Clayton Urey (April 29, 1893 – January 5, 1981) was an American physical chemist whose pioneering work on isotopes earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1934 for the discovery of deuterium.

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Harvard University

Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

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Harvard University Press

Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing.

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Hawaii

Hawaii (Hawaii) is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States, having received statehood on August 21, 1959.

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Heat

In thermodynamics, heat is energy transferred from one system to another as a result of thermal interactions.

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Helium

Helium (from lit) is a chemical element with symbol He and atomic number 2.

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Helvetica Chimica Acta

Helvetica Chimica Acta is a scientific journal founded by the.

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Henri Bergson

Henri-Louis Bergson (18 October 1859 – 4 January 1941) was a French-Jewish philosopher who was influential in the tradition of continental philosophy, especially during the first half of the 20th century until World War II.

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Henry Charlton Bastian

Henry Charlton Bastian (26 April 1837 in Truro, Cornwall, England – 17 November 1915 in Chesham Bois, Buckinghamshire) was an English physiologist and neurologist.

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Heritability

Heritability is a statistic used in the fields of breeding and genetics that estimates the degree of variation in a phenotypic trait in a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population.

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History of Earth

The history of Earth concerns the development of planet Earth from its formation to the present day.

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Holtzbrinck Publishing Group

Holtzbrinck Publishing Group is a privately-held Stuttgart-based company which owns publishing companies worldwide.

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Homochirality

Homochirality is a uniformity of chirality, or handedness.

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Homocysteine

Homocysteine is a non-proteinogenic α-amino acid.

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Hot spring

A hot spring is a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater that rises from the Earth's crust.

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Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (HMH) is an educational and trade publisher in the United States.

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Howard Hughes Medical Institute

The Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) is an American non-profit medical research organization based in Chevy Chase, Maryland.

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Hydrocarbon

In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon.

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Hydrogen

Hydrogen is a chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1.

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Hydrogen cyanide

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), sometimes called prussic acid, is a chemical compound with the chemical formula HCN.

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Hydrogen sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide is the chemical compound with the chemical formula H2S.

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Hydrogenation

Hydrogenation – to treat with hydrogen – is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen (H2) and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel, palladium or platinum.

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Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere (from Greek ὕδωρ hydōr, "water" and σφαῖρα sphaira, "sphere") is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite.

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Hydrothermal vent

A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated water issues.

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Hydroxylation

Hydroxylation is a chemical process that introduces a hydroxyl group (-OH) into an organic compound.

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Hypercycle (chemistry)

In chemistry, a hypercycle is an abstract model of organization of self-replicating molecules connected in a cyclic, autocatalytic manner.

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Hyperthermophile

A hyperthermophile is an organism that thrives in extremely hot environments—from 60 °C (140 °F) upwards.

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Hypothesis

A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon.

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Hypothetical types of biochemistry

Hypothetical types of biochemistry are forms of biochemistry speculated to be scientifically viable but not proven to exist at this time.

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Icarus (journal)

Icarus is a scientific journal dedicated to the field of planetary science.

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Ilya Prigogine

Viscount Ilya Romanovich Prigogine (Илья́ Рома́нович Приго́жин; 28 May 2003) was a physical chemist and Nobel laureate noted for his work on dissipative structures, complex systems, and irreversibility.

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Imaginova

Imaginova Corporation is a U.S. digital commerce company based in Watsonville, California.

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Impact event

An impact event is a collision between astronomical objects causing measurable effects.

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Indian Academy of Sciences

The Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore was founded by C. V. Raman, and was registered as a Society on 24 April 1934.

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Indian National Science Academy

The Indian National Science Academy (INSA) in New Delhi is the apex body of Indian scientists representing all branches of science and technology.

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Information

Information is any entity or form that provides the answer to a question of some kind or resolves uncertainty.

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Information theory

Information theory studies the quantification, storage, and communication of information.

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Inorganic compound

An inorganic compound is typically a chemical compound that lacks C-H bonds, that is, a compound that is not an organic compound, but the distinction is not defined or even of particular interest.

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International Journal of Astrobiology

The International Journal of Astrobiology (IJA) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal established in 2002 and published by Cambridge University Press that covers research on the prebiotic chemistry, origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life on Earth and beyond, SETI (Search for extraterrestrial intelligence), societal and educational aspects of astrobiology.

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International Journal of Molecular Sciences

The International Journal of Molecular Sciences (IJMS) is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal covering research in chemistry, molecular physics (chemical physics and physical chemistry), and molecular biology.

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International Microbiology

International Microbiology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer and the official journal of the Spanish Society for Microbiology.

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International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB) is an international non-governmental organisation concerned with biochemistry and molecular biology.

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Interplanetary contamination

Interplanetary contamination refers to biological contamination of a planetary body by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberate or unintentional.

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Interstellar cloud

An interstellar cloud is generally an accumulation of gas, plasma, and dust in our and other galaxies.

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Interstellar ice

Interstellar ice consists of grains of volatiles in the ice phase that form in the interstellar medium.

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Interstellar medium

In astronomy, the interstellar medium (ISM) is the matter and radiation that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy.

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Ion

An ion is an atom or molecule that has a non-zero net electrical charge (its total number of electrons is not equal to its total number of protons).

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Ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation (ionising radiation) is radiation that carries enough energy to liberate electrons from atoms or molecules, thereby ionizing them.

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IOP Publishing

IOP Publishing (previously named Institute of Physics Publishing) is the publishing company of the Institute of Physics.

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IRAS 16293-2422

IRAS 16293-2422 is a triple protostar system consisting of a binary star (A1/A2) with a 47 astronomical unit (AU) separation and a removed third star (B) 750AU distant, all having masses similar to that of the Sun.

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Iron

Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from ferrum) and atomic number 26.

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Iron–sulfur world hypothesis

The iron–sulfur world hypothesis is a set of proposals for the origin of life and the early evolution of life advanced in a series of articles between 1988 and 1992 by Günter Wächtershäuser, a Munich patent lawyer with a degree in chemistry, who had been encouraged and supported by philosopher Karl R. Popper to publish his ideas.

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Irradiation

Irradiation is the process by which an object is exposed to radiation.

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Isotope

Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number.

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Isua Greenstone Belt

The Isua Greenstone Belt is an Archean greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland.

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J. B. S. Haldane

John Burdon Sanderson Haldane (5 November 18921 December 1964) was an English scientist known for his work in the study of physiology, genetics, evolutionary biology, and in mathematics, where he made innovative contributions to the fields of statistics and biostatistics.

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J. Craig Venter Institute

The J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI) is a non-profit genomics research institute founded by J. Craig Venter, Ph.D. in October 2006.

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Jack Hills

The Jack Hills are a range of hills in Mid West Western Australia.

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Jack W. Szostak

Jack William Szostak (born November 9, 1952) is a Canadian American biologist of Polish British descent, Nobel Prize laureate, Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School, and Alexander Rich Distinguished Investigator at Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston.

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Jeewanu

Jeewanu (Sanskrit for "particles of life") are synthetic chemical particles that possess cell-like structure and seem to have some functional properties; that is, they are a model of primitive cells, or protocells.

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Jeremy England

Jeremy England is an American physicist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology best known for his statistical physics arguments to explain the spontaneous emergence of life, and consequently, the modern synthesis of evolution.

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Joan Oró

s Joan Oró i Florensa (October 26, 1923 in Lleida, Spain – September 2, 2004 in Barcelona, Spain) was a Spanish biochemist, whose research has been of importance in understanding the origin of life.

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John Desmond Bernal

John Desmond Bernal (10 May 1901 – 15 September 1971) was an Irish scientist who pioneered the use of X-ray crystallography in molecular biology.

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John Murray (publisher)

John Murray is a British publisher, known for the authors it has published in its history, including Jane Austen, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Lord Byron, Charles Lyell, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Herman Melville, Edward Whymper, and Charles Darwin.

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John Sutherland (chemist)

John David Sutherland (born 24 July 1962) is a British chemist at Medical Research Council (MRC), Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB), Protein & Nucleic Acid Chemistry Division.

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John Tyndall

John Tyndall FRS (2 August 1820 – 4 December 1893) was a prominent 19th-century physicist.

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John Wiley & Sons

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., also referred to as Wiley, is a global publishing company that specializes in academic publishing.

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Joseph Dalton Hooker

Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker (30 June 1817 – 10 December 1911) was a British botanist and explorer in the 19th century.

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Joseph Henry Press

Joseph Henry Press is an American publisher which is an imprint of the National Academies Press, publisher for the United States National Academy of Sciences.

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Journal of Biosciences

The Journal of Biosciences is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Indian Academy of Sciences, Bengaluru, India.

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Journal of Chemical Physics

The Journal of Chemical Physics is a scientific journal published by the American Institute of Physics that carries research papers on chemical physics.

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Journal of Geophysical Research

The Journal of Geophysical Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal.

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Journal of Molecular Biology

The Journal of Molecular Biology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published weekly by Elsevier.

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Journal of Molecular Evolution

The Journal of Molecular Evolution is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers molecular evolution.

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Journal of Physical Chemistry A

The Journal of Physical Chemistry A is a scientific journal which reports research on the chemistry of molecules - including their dynamics, spectroscopy, kinetics, structure, bonding, and quantum chemistry.

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Journal of the American Chemical Society

The Journal of the American Chemical Society (also known as JACS) is a weekly peer-reviewed scientific journal that was established in 1879 by the American Chemical Society.

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Journal of Theoretical Biology

The Journal of Theoretical Biology is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering theoretical biology, as well as mathematical and computational aspects of biology.

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Julius Rebek

Julius Rebek, Jr. (born April 11, 1944) is a Hungarian-born American chemist and expert on molecular self-assembly.

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Kalmbach Publishing

Kalmbach Publishing Co. is an American publisher of books and magazines, many of them railroad-related, located in Waukesha, Wisconsin.

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Karl Popper

Sir Karl Raimund Popper (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austrian-British philosopher and professor.

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Lacustrine plain

Lacustrine Plains (or lake plains) are lakes that get filled by incoming sediment.

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Lake

A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land, apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake.

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Lars Onsager

Lars Onsager (November 27, 1903 – October 5, 1976) was a Norwegian-born American physical chemist and theoretical physicist.

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Last universal common ancestor

The last universal common ancestor (LUCA), also called the last universal ancestor (LUA), cenancestor, or (incorrectlyThere is a common misconception that definitions of LUCA and progenote are the same; however, progenote is defined as an organism “still in the process of evolving the relationship between genotype and phenotype”, and it is only hypothesed that LUCA is a progenote.) progenote, is the most recent population of organisms from which all organisms now living on Earth have a common descent.

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Late Heavy Bombardment

The Late Heavy Bombardment (abbreviated LHB and also known as the lunar cataclysm) is an event thought to have occurred approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years (Ga) ago, at a time corresponding to the Neohadean and Eoarchean eras on Earth.

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Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) is an American federal research facility in Livermore, California, United States, founded by the University of California, Berkeley in 1952.

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Lazzaro Spallanzani

Lazzaro Spallanzani (10 January 1729 – 12 February 1799) was an Italian Catholic priest, biologist and physiologist who made important contributions to the experimental study of bodily functions, animal reproduction, and animal echolocation.

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Leiden University

Leiden University (abbreviated as LEI; Universiteit Leiden), founded in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands.

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Leslie Orgel

Leslie Eleazer Orgel FRS (12 January 1927 – 27 October 2007) was a British chemist.

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Life

Life is a characteristic that distinguishes physical entities that do have biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased, or because they never had such functions and are classified as inanimate.

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Light-year

The light-year is a unit of length used to express astronomical distances and measures about 9.5 trillion kilometres or 5.9 trillion miles.

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Lightning

Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge that occurs typically during a thunderstorm.

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Lineage (evolution)

An evolutionary lineage is a temporal series of organisms, populations, cells, or genes connected by a continuous line of descent from ancestor to descendent.

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Lipid

In biology and biochemistry, a lipid is a biomolecule that is soluble in nonpolar solvents.

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Lipid bilayer

The lipid bilayer (or phospholipid bilayer) is a thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules.

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List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules

This is a list of molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium and circumstellar envelopes, grouped by the number of component atoms.

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List of microorganisms tested in outer space

The survival of some microorganisms exposed to outer space has been studied using both simulated facilities and low Earth orbit exposures.

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Longman

Longman, commonly known as Pearson Longman, is a publishing company founded in London, England, in 1724 and is owned by Pearson PLC.

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Louis Pasteur

Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization.

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Ludwig Boltzmann

Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann (February 20, 1844 – September 5, 1906) was an Austrian physicist and philosopher whose greatest achievement was in the development of statistical mechanics, which explains and predicts how the properties of atoms (such as mass, charge, and structure) determine the physical properties of matter (such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion).

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Luleå University of Technology

Luleå University of Technology (Luleå tekniska universitet) of Sweden is Scandinavia's northernmost university of technology.

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Lunar and Planetary Institute

The Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) is a scientific research institute dedicated to study of the solar system, its formation, evolution, and current state.

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Mackinawite

Mackinawite is an iron nickel sulfide mineral with formula (Fe,Ni)1 + xS (where x.

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Macmillan Publishers

Macmillan Publishers Ltd (occasionally known as the Macmillan Group) is an international publishing company owned by Holtzbrinck Publishing Group.

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Macmillan Publishers (United States)

Macmillan Publishers USA was the former name of a now mostly defunct American publishing company.

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Macromolecule

A macromolecule is a very large molecule, such as protein, commonly created by the polymerization of smaller subunits (monomers).

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Mafic

Mafic is an adjective describing a silicate mineral or igneous rock that is rich in magnesium and iron, and is thus a portmanteau of magnesium and '''f'''err'''ic'''.

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Maggot

A maggot is the larva of a fly (order Diptera); it is applied in particular to the larvae of Brachycera flies, such as houseflies, cheese flies, and blowflies, rather than larvae of the Nematocera, such as mosquitoes and Crane flies.

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Manfred Eigen

Manfred Eigen (born 9 May 1927) is a German biophysical chemist who won the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on measuring fast chemical reactions.

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Mantle (geology)

The mantle is a layer inside a terrestrial planet and some other rocky planetary bodies.

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Mantle convection

Mantle convection is the slow creeping motion of Earth's solid silicate mantle caused by convection currents carrying heat from the interior of the Earth to the surface.

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Mars

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System after Mercury.

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Mars rover

A Mars rover is an automated motor vehicle that propels itself across the surface of the planet Mars upon arrival.

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Martian meteorite

A Martian meteorite is a rock that formed on the planet Mars and was then ejected from Mars by the impact of an asteroid or comet, and finally landed on the Earth.

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Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.

Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. is a privately held independent publishing company founded by its president, Mary Ann Liebert, in 1980.

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Massachusetts Institute of Technology

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.

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McGraw-Hill Education

McGraw-Hill Education (MHE) is a learning science company and one of the "big three" educational publishers that provides customized educational content, software, and services for pre-K through postgraduate education.

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MDPI

MDPI is an organisational acronym used by two related organisations, Molecular Diversity Preservation International and Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, which were both co-founded by Shu-Kun Lin.

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Mediocrity principle

The mediocrity principle is the philosophical notion that "if an item is drawn at random from one of several sets or categories, it's likelier to come from the most numerous category than from any one of the less numerous categories".

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Melvin Calvin

Melvin Ellis Calvin (April 8, 1911 – January 8, 1997) was an American biochemist most famed for discovering the Calvin cycle along with Andrew Benson and James Bassham, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

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Mercury (planet)

Mercury is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar System.

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Metabolism

Metabolism (from μεταβολή metabolē, "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of organisms.

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Meteorite

A meteorite is a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid, that originates in outer space and survives its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon.

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Meteoroid

A meteoroid is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space.

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Methane

Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula (one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen).

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Methanogen

Methanogens are microorganisms that produce methane as a metabolic byproduct in anoxic conditions.

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Methanol

Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol among others, is a chemical with the formula CH3OH (a methyl group linked to a hydroxyl group, often abbreviated MeOH).

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Methylation

In the chemical sciences, methylation denotes the addition of a methyl group on a substrate, or the substitution of an atom (or group) by a methyl group.

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Methylidyne radical

Methylidyne (also systematically named hydridocarbon(•)), also called carbyne, is an organic compound with the chemical formula CH• (also written as). Methylidyne is the simplest carbyne.

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Micelle

A micelle or micella (plural micelles or micellae, respectively) is an aggregate (or supramolecular assembly) of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid colloid.

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Micro-encapsulation

Microencapsulation is a process in which tiny particles or droplets are surrounded by a coating to give small capsules, of many useful properties.

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Microbial mat

A microbial mat is a multi-layered sheet of microorganisms, mainly bacteria and archaea.

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Microbiological Research

Microbiological Research is an academic journal in microbiology, published by Elsevier.

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Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews

Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews (published as MMBR) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Society for Microbiology.

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Microorganism

A microorganism, or microbe, is a microscopic organism, which may exist in its single-celled form or in a colony of cells. The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from ancient times, such as in Jain scriptures from 6th century BC India and the 1st century BC book On Agriculture by Marcus Terentius Varro. Microbiology, the scientific study of microorganisms, began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In the 1880s Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax. Microorganisms include all unicellular organisms and so are extremely diverse. Of the three domains of life identified by Carl Woese, all of the Archaea and Bacteria are microorganisms. These were previously grouped together in the two domain system as Prokaryotes, the other being the eukaryotes. The third domain Eukaryota includes all multicellular organisms and many unicellular protists and protozoans. Some protists are related to animals and some to green plants. Many of the multicellular organisms are microscopic, namely micro-animals, some fungi and some algae, but these are not discussed here. They live in almost every habitat from the poles to the equator, deserts, geysers, rocks and the deep sea. Some are adapted to extremes such as very hot or very cold conditions, others to high pressure and a few such as Deinococcus radiodurans to high radiation environments. Microorganisms also make up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms. A December 2017 report stated that 3.45 billion year old Australian rocks once contained microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on Earth. Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment foods, treat sewage, produce fuel, enzymes and other bioactive compounds. They are essential tools in biology as model organisms and have been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism. They are a vital component of fertile soils. In the human body microorganisms make up the human microbiota including the essential gut flora. They are the pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases and as such are the target of hygiene measures.

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Miller–Urey experiment

The Miller–Urey experiment (or Miller experiment) was a chemical experiment that simulated the conditions thought at the time to be present on the early Earth, and tested the chemical origin of life under those conditions.

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Mindspark Interactive Network

Mindspark Interactive Network, Inc. was an operating business unit of IAC known for the development and marketing of entertainment and personal computing software, as well as mobile application development.

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Mineralogical Society of America

The Mineralogical Society of America (MSA) is a scientific membership organization.

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MIT Press

The MIT Press is a university press affiliated with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts (United States).

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Mitosis

In cell biology, mitosis is a part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei.

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Molecular biology

Molecular biology is a branch of biology which concerns the molecular basis of biological activity between biomolecules in the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA, proteins and their biosynthesis, as well as the regulation of these interactions.

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Molecular cloud

A molecular cloud, sometimes called a stellar nursery (if star formation is occurring within), is a type of interstellar cloud, the density and size of which permit the formation of molecules, most commonly molecular hydrogen (H2).

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Molecular Systems Biology

Molecular Systems Biology is an open-access peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing research within systems biology at the molecular level, including genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, microbial systems, the integration of cell signaling and regulatory networks, and synthetic biology.

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Molecule

A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

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Molybdenum

Molybdenum is a chemical element with symbol Mo and atomic number 42.

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Molybdopterin

Molybdopterins are a class of cofactors found in most molybdenum (Mo) and all tungsten (W) enzymes.

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Monazite

Monazite is a reddish-brown phosphate mineral containing rare-earth metals.

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Monomer

A monomer (mono-, "one" + -mer, "part") is a molecule that "can undergo polymerization thereby contributing constitutional units to the essential structure of a macromolecule".

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Montana State University

Montana State University (MSU) is a land-grant university located in Bozeman, Montana, United States.

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Montmorillonite

Montmorillonite is a very soft phyllosilicate group of minerals that form when they precipitate from water solution as microscopic crystals, known as clay. It is named after Montmorillon in France. Montmorillonite, a member of the smectite group, is a 2:1 clay, meaning that it has two tetrahedral sheets of silica sandwiching a central octahedral sheet of alumina. The particles are plate-shaped with an average diameter around 1 μm and a thickness of 9.6 nm; magnification of about 25,000 times, using an electron microscope, is required to "see" individual clay particles. Members of this group include saponite. Montmorillonite is a subclass of smectite, a 2:1 phyllosilicate mineral characterized as having greater than 50% octahedral charge; its cation exchange capacity is due to isomorphous substitution of Mg for Al in the central alumina plane. The substitution of lower valence cations in such instances leaves the nearby oxygen atoms with a net negative charge that can attract cations. In contrast, beidellite is smectite with greater than 50% tetrahedral charge originating from isomorphous substitution of Al for Si in the silica sheet. The individual crystals of montmorillonite clay are not tightly bound hence water can intervene, causing the clay to swell. The water content of montmorillonite is variable and it increases greatly in volume when it absorbs water. Chemically, it is hydrated sodium calcium aluminium magnesium silicate hydroxide (Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2(Si4O10)(OH)2·nH2O. Potassium, iron, and other cations are common substitutes, and the exact ratio of cations varies with source. It often occurs intermixed with chlorite, muscovite, illite, cookeite, and kaolinite.

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Moon

The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth and is Earth's only permanent natural satellite.

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Multiverse

The multiverse (or meta-universe) is a hypothetical group of multiple separate universes including the universe in which humans live.

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Murchison meteorite

The Murchison meteorite is a large meteorite that fell to earth near Murchison, Victoria, in Australia, in 1969.

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Mycoplasma laboratorium

Mycoplasma laboratorium is a designed, partially synthetic species of bacterium derived from the genome of Mycoplasma genitalium.

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Narryer Gneiss Terrane

The Narryer Gneiss Terrane is a geological complex in Western Australia that is composed of a tectonically interleaved and polydeformed mixture of granite, mafic intrusions and metasedimentary rocks in excess of 3.3 billion years old, with the majority of the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in excess of 3.6 billion years old.

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NASA

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.

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NASA Astrobiology Institute

The NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI) was established in 1998 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) "to develop the field of astrobiology and provide a scientific framework for flight missions." The NAI is a virtual, distributed organization that integrates astrobiology research and training programs in concert with the national and international science communities.

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National Academy of Sciences

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization.

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National Geographic Society

The National Geographic Society (NGS), headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States, is one of the largest non-profit scientific and educational institutions in the world.

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National Science Foundation

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering.

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Natural abundance

In physics, natural abundance (NA) refers to the abundance of isotopes of a chemical element as naturally found on a planet.

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Natural nuclear fission reactor

A natural nuclear fission reactor is a uranium deposit where self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions have occurred.

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Natural selection

Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.

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Nature (journal)

Nature is a British multidisciplinary scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869.

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Nature Chemistry

Nature Chemistry is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group.

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Nature Communications

Nature Communications is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal published by the Nature Publishing Group since 2010.

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Nature Geoscience

Nature Geoscience is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Nature Publishing Group.

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Nature Publishing Group

Nature Publishing Group is a division of the international scientific publishing company Springer Nature that publishes academic journals, magazines, online databases, and services in science and medicine.

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Nebula

A nebula (Latin for "cloud" or "fog"; pl. nebulae, nebulæ, or nebulas) is an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases.

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New Scientist

New Scientist, first published on 22 November 1956, is a weekly, English-language magazine that covers all aspects of science and technology.

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Nexus for Exoplanet System Science

The Nexus for Exoplanet System Science (NExSS) initiative is a National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) virtual institute designed to foster interdisciplinary collaboration in the search for life on exoplanets.

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Nile

The Nile River (النيل, Egyptian Arabic en-Nīl, Standard Arabic an-Nīl; ⲫⲓⲁⲣⲱ, P(h)iaro; Ancient Egyptian: Ḥ'pī and Jtrw; Biblical Hebrew:, Ha-Ye'or or, Ha-Shiḥor) is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa, and is commonly regarded as the longest river in the world, though some sources cite the Amazon River as the longest.

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Nitrile

A nitrile is any organic compound that has a −C≡N functional group.

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Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7.

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Nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems.

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Nitrogen dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula.

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Nobel Prize in Chemistry

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi) is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry.

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Non-equilibrium thermodynamics

Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with physical systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium but can be described in terms of variables (non-equilibrium state variables) that represent an extrapolation of the variables used to specify the system in thermodynamic equilibrium.

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Noogenesis

Noogenesis (Ancient Greek: νοῦς.

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Nucleic acid

Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or small biomolecules, essential to all known forms of life.

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Nucleobase

Nucleobases, also known as nitrogenous bases or often simply bases, are nitrogen-containing biological compounds that form nucleosides, which in turn are components of nucleotides, with all of these monomers constituting the basic building blocks of nucleic acids.

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Nucleoside

Nucleosides are glycosylamines that can be thought of as nucleotides without a phosphate group.

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Nucleotide

Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as the monomer units for forming the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules within all life-forms on Earth.

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Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt

The Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt (NGB) is a sequence of metamorphosed mafic to ultramafic volcanic and associated sedimentary rocks (a greenstone belt) located on the eastern shore of Hudson Bay, 40 km southeast of Inukjuak, Quebec.

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Observable universe

The observable universe is a spherical region of the Universe comprising all matter that can be observed from Earth at the present time, because electromagnetic radiation from these objects has had time to reach Earth since the beginning of the cosmological expansion.

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Ocean current

An ocean current is a seasonal directed movement of sea water generated by forces acting upon this mean flow, such as wind, the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbing, temperature and salinity differences, while tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon.

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Offspring

In biology, offspring are the young born of living organisms, produced either by a single organism or, in the case of sexual reproduction, two organisms.

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Oklo

Oklo is a region near the town of Franceville, in the Haut-Ogooué province of the Central African state of Gabon.

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Olivine

The mineral olivine is a magnesium iron silicate with the formula (Mg2+, Fe2+)2SiO4.

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On the Origin of Species

On the Origin of Species (or more completely, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life),The book's full original title was On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.

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Opportunity (rover)

Opportunity, also known as MER-B (Mars Exploration Rover – B) or MER-1, is a robotic rover active on Mars since 2004.

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Organic compound

In chemistry, an organic compound is generally any chemical compound that contains carbon.

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Organic redox reaction

Organic reductions or organic oxidations or organic redox reactions are redox reactions that take place with organic compounds.

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Organism

In biology, an organism (from Greek: ὀργανισμός, organismos) is any individual entity that exhibits the properties of life.

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Organometallic chemistry

Organometallic chemistry is the study of organometallic compounds, chemical compounds containing at least one chemical bond between a carbon atom of an organic molecule and a metal, including alkaline, alkaline earth, and transition metals, and sometimes broadened to include metalloids like boron, silicon, and tin, as well.

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Origin of water on Earth

The origin of water on Earth, or the reason that there is clearly more liquid water on Earth than on the other rocky planets of the Solar System, is not completely understood.

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Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres

Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres is a peer-reviewed scientific journal established in 1968 covering astrobiology and origins of life research.

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Outer space

Outer space, or just space, is the expanse that exists beyond the Earth and between celestial bodies.

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Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press (OUP) is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press.

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Oxygenate

Oxygenated chemical compounds contain oxygen as a part of their chemical structure.

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Ozone

Ozone, or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula.

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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology ("Palaeo3") is a peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing multidisciplinary studies and comprehensive reviews in the field of palaeoenvironmental geology.

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Paleontology

Paleontology or palaeontology is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch (roughly 11,700 years before present).

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Panspermia

Panspermia is the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed by space dust, meteoroids, asteroids, comets, planetoids, and also by spacecraft carrying unintended contamination by microorganisms.

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Penguin Books

Penguin Books is a British publishing house.

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Pentafluorophenyl esters

Pentafluorophenyl (PFP) esters are chemical compounds widely used in attaching fluorophores such as fluorescein or haptens to primary amines in biomolecules.

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Pentose phosphate pathway

The pentose phosphate pathway (also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a metabolic pathway parallel to glycolysis.

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Peptide

Peptides (from Gr.: πεπτός, peptós "digested"; derived from πέσσειν, péssein "to digest") are short chains of amino acid monomers linked by peptide (amide) bonds.

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Peptide nucleic acid

Peptide nucleic acid (PNA) is an artificially synthesized polymer similar to DNA or RNA.

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Pergamon Press

Pergamon Press was an Oxford-based publishing house, founded by Paul Rosbaud and Robert Maxwell, which published scientific and medical books and journals.

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Peter F. Collier

Peter Fenelon Collier (December 12, 1849 – April 23, 1909) was an Irish publisher, the founder of the publishing company P.F. Collier & Son, and in 1888 founded Collier's Weekly.

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Peter Schuster

Peter K. Schuster (born 7 March 1941) is a theoretical chemist known for his work with the German Nobel Laureate Manfred Eigen in developing the quasispecies model.

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PH

In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Royal Society.

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Phosphate

A phosphate is chemical derivative of phosphoric acid.

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Phosphodiester bond

A phosphodiester bond occurs when exactly two of the hydroxyl groups in phosphoric acid react with hydroxyl groups on other molecules to form two ester bonds.

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Phospholipid

Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes.

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Phosphorylation

In chemistry, phosphorylation of a molecule is the attachment of a phosphoryl group.

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Photochemistry

Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light.

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Photon

The photon is a type of elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force (even when static via virtual particles).

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Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities (energy transformation).

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Phronesis (journal)

Phronesis is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering the study of ancient philosophy.

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Phylogenetic tree

A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or "tree" showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities—their phylogeny—based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics.

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Phylogenomics

Phylogenomics is the intersection of the fields of evolution and genomics.

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Phys.org

Phys.org is a science, research and technology news aggregator where much of the content is republished directly from press releases and news agencies-in a practice known as churnalism.

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Physicist

A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe.

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Physics of Life Reviews

Physics of Life Reviews is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on living systems.

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Physiological Reviews

Physiological Reviews is a journal published quarterly by the American Physiological Society.

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Pilbara

The Pilbara is a large, dry, thinly populated region in the north of Western Australia.

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Pilbara Craton

The Pilbara Craton is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere located in Pilbara, Western Australia.

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Plain

In geography, a plain is a flat, sweeping landmass that generally does not change much in elevation.

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Planet

A planet is an astronomical body orbiting a star or stellar remnant that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.

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Planetary habitability

Planetary habitability is the measure of a planet's or a natural satellite's potential to have habitable environments hospitable to life, or its ability to generate life endogenously.

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Planetesimal

Planetesimals are solid objects thought to exist in protoplanetary disks and in debris disks.

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Plate tectonics

Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the τεκτονικός "pertaining to building") is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth's lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago.

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Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, also polyaromatic hydrocarbons or polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) are hydrocarbons—organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen—that are composed of multiple aromatic rings (organic rings in which the electrons are delocalized).

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Polymer

A polymer (Greek poly-, "many" + -mer, "part") is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits.

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Polymerization

In polymer chemistry, polymerization is a process of reacting monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to form polymer chains or three-dimensional networks.

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Polyphosphate

Polyphosphates are salts or esters of polymeric oxyanions formed from tetrahedral PO4 (phosphate) structural units linked together by sharing oxygen atoms.

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Pore space in soil

The pore space of soil contains the liquid and gas phases of soil, i.e., everything but the solid phase that contains mainly minerals of varying sizes as well as organic compounds.

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Portland cement

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-specialty grout.

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Portlandite

Portlandite is an oxide mineral.

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Potassium hydrogen phthalate

Potassium hydrogen phthalate, often called simply KHP, is an acidic salt compound.

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Potassium-40

Potassium-40 (40K) is a radioactive isotope of potassium which has a very long half-life of 1.251 years.

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Precambrian Research

Precambrian Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the geology of the Earth and its planetary neighbors.

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Precursor (chemistry)

In chemistry, a precursor is a compound that participates in a chemical reaction that produces another compound.

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Princeton University Press

Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University.

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) is the official scientific journal of the National Academy of Sciences, published since 1915.

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Proceedings of the Physical Society

The Proceedings of the Physical Society was a journal on the subject of physics, originally associated with the Physical Society of London, England.

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Protein

Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues.

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Protein folding

Protein folding is the physical process by which a protein chain acquires its native 3-dimensional structure, a conformation that is usually biologically functional, in an expeditious and reproducible manner.

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Proteinoid

Proteinoids, or thermal proteins, are protein-like, often cross-linked molecules formed abiotically from amino acids.

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Proteome

The proteome is the entire set of proteins that is, or can be, expressed by a genome, cell, tissue, or organism at a certain time.

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Protocell

A protocell (or protobiont) is a self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical collection of lipids proposed as a stepping-stone to the origin of life.

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Proton

| magnetic_moment.

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Protoplanetary disk

A protoplanetary disk is a rotating circumstellar disk of dense gas and dust surrounding a young newly formed star, a T Tauri star, or Herbig Ae/Be star.

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Protostar

A protostar is a very young star that is still gathering mass from its parent molecular cloud.

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Protozoa

Protozoa (also protozoan, plural protozoans) is an informal term for single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, which feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris.

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Pseudodoxia Epidemica

Pseudodoxia Epidemica or Enquiries into very many received tenets and commonly presumed truths, also known simply as Pseudodoxia Epidemica or Vulgar Errors, is a work by Thomas Browne challenging and refuting the "vulgar" or common errors and superstitions of his age.

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Publishing houses in the Soviet Union

Publishing houses in the Soviet Union, were a series of publishing enterprises which existed in the Soviet Union.

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Purch Group

Purch Group, Inc. formerly known as TechMediaNetworks, Inc.

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Purine

A purine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound that consists of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring.

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Putrefaction

Putrefaction is the fifth stage of death, following pallor mortis, algor mortis, rigor mortis, and livor mortis.

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Pyrimidine

Pyrimidine is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound similar to pyridine.

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Pyrite

The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, also known as fool's gold, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula FeS2 (iron(II) disulfide).

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Pyruvic acid

Pyruvic acid (CH3COCOOH) is the simplest of the alpha-keto acids, with a carboxylic acid and a ketone functional group.

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Quartz

Quartz is a mineral composed of silicon and oxygen atoms in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical formula of SiO2.

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Quartzite

Quartzite (from Quarzit) is a hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock which was originally pure quartz sandstone.

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Quasispecies model

The quasispecies model is a description of the process of the Darwinian evolution of certain self-replicating entities within the framework of physical chemistry.

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Quebec

Quebec (Québec)According to the Canadian government, Québec (with the acute accent) is the official name in French and Quebec (without the accent) is the province's official name in English; the name is.

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Racemic mixture

In chemistry, a racemic mixture, or racemate, is one that has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule.

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Radiation

In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium.

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Radionuclide

A radionuclide (radioactive nuclide, radioisotope or radioactive isotope) is an atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable.

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Rare Earth hypothesis

In planetary astronomy and astrobiology, the Rare Earth Hypothesis argues that the origin of life and the evolution of biological complexity such as sexually reproducing, multicellular organisms on Earth (and, subsequently, human intelligence) required an improbable combination of astrophysical and geological events and circumstances.

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Red giant

A red giant is a luminous giant star of low or intermediate mass (roughly 0.3–8 solar masses) in a late phase of stellar evolution.

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Redox

Redox (short for reduction–oxidation reaction) (pronunciation: or) is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed.

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Reducing atmosphere

A reducing atmosphere is an atmospheric condition in which oxidation is prevented by removal of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours, and which may contain actively reducing gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and gases such as hydrogen sulphide that would be oxidized by any present oxygen.

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Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, or RPI, is a private research university and space-grant institution located in Troy, New York, with two additional campuses in Hartford and Groton, Connecticut.

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Reproduction

Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parents".

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Reuters

Reuters is an international news agency headquartered in London, United Kingdom.

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Reversible process (thermodynamics)

In thermodynamics, a reversible process is a process whose direction can be "reversed" by inducing infinitesimal changes to some property of the system via its surroundings, with no increase in entropy.

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Ribose

Ribose is a carbohydrate with the formula C5H10O5; specifically, it is a pentose monosaccharide (simple sugar) with linear form H−(C.

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Ribosome

The ribosome is a complex molecular machine, found within all living cells, that serves as the site of biological protein synthesis (translation).

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Ribozyme

Ribozymes (ribonucleic acid enzymes) are RNA molecules that are capable of catalyzing specific biochemical reactions, similar to the action of protein enzymes.

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Richard Dawkins

Clinton Richard Dawkins (born 26 March 1941) is an English ethologist, evolutionary biologist, and author.

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Richard Laurence Millington Synge

Richard Laurence Millington Synge FRS (Liverpool, 28 October 1914 – Norwich, 18 August 1994) was a British biochemist, and shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of partition chromatography with Archer Martin.

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River

A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river.

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RNA

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.

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RNA (journal)

RNA is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research on all aspects of RNA molecules, including their structures, metabolism, functions, and evolution.

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RNA world

The RNA world is a hypothetical stage in the evolutionary history of life on Earth, in which self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated before the evolution of DNA and proteins.

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Robert Hooke

Robert Hooke FRS (– 3 March 1703) was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath.

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Robert Shapiro (chemist)

Robert Shapiro (28 November 1935 – 15 June 2011) was professor emeritus of chemistry at New York University.

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Rochester Institute of Technology

Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) is a private doctoral university within the town of Henrietta in the Rochester, New York metropolitan area.

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Routledge

Routledge is a British multinational publisher.

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Royal Society

The President, Council and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, commonly known as the Royal Society, is a learned society.

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Royal Society of Chemistry

The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) is a learned society (professional association) in the United Kingdom with the goal of "advancing the chemical sciences".

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S-Adenosyl methionine

S-Adenosyl methionineSAM-e, SAMe, SAM, S-Adenosyl-L-methionine, AdoMet, ademetionine is a common cosubstrate involved in methyl group transfers, transsulfuration, and aminopropylation.

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Saturn

Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter.

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Science (journal)

Science, also widely referred to as Science Magazine, is the peer-reviewed academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and one of the world's top academic journals.

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Science Advances

Science Advances is a peer-reviewed multidisciplinary open-access scientific journal established in early 2015.

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Science Daily

Science Daily is an American website that aggregates press releases and publishes lightly edited press releases (a practice called churnalism) about science, similar to Phys.org and EurekAlert!.

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Scientific American

Scientific American (informally abbreviated SciAm) is an American popular science magazine.

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Seawater

Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean.

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Second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system can never decrease over time.

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Secondary atmosphere

A secondary atmosphere is an atmosphere of a planet that did not form by accretion during the formation of the planet's star.

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Selenium

Selenium is a chemical element with symbol Se and atomic number 34.

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Self-organization

Self-organization, also called (in the social sciences) spontaneous order, is a process where some form of overall order arises from local interactions between parts of an initially disordered system.

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Self-replication

Self-replication is any behavior of a dynamical system that yields construction of an identical copy of itself.

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Semipermeable membrane

A semipermeable membrane is a type of biological or synthetic, polymeric membrane that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass through it by diffusion—or occasionally by more specialized processes of facilitated diffusion, passive transport or active transport.

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Serpentine subgroup

The serpentine subgroup (part of the kaolinite-serpentine group) are greenish, brownish, or spotted minerals commonly found in serpentinite rocks.

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Serpentinite

Serpentinite is a rock composed of one or more serpentine group minerals, the name originating from the similarity of the texture of the rock to that of the skin of a snake.

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Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction is a form of reproduction where two morphologically distinct types of specialized reproductive cells called gametes fuse together, involving a female's large ovum (or egg) and a male's smaller sperm.

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Shadow biosphere

A shadow biosphere is a hypothetical microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life.

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Sidney W. Fox

Sidney Walter Fox (24 March 1912 – 10 August 1998) was a Los Angeles-born biochemist responsible for discoveries on the origins of life.

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Sigma Xi

Sigma Xi: The Scientific Research Honor Society (ΣΞ) is a non-profit honor society for scientists and engineers which was founded in 1886 at Cornell University by a junior faculty member and a handful of graduate students.

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Silicate minerals

Silicate minerals are rock-forming minerals with predominantly silicate anions.

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Small Solar System body

A small Solar System body (SSSB) is an object in the Solar System that is neither a planet, nor a dwarf planet, nor a natural satellite.

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Soai reaction

In organic chemistry, the Soai reaction is the alkylation of pyrimidine-5-carbaldehyde with diisopropylzinc.

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Sol Spiegelman

Sol Spiegelman (December 14, 1914 – January 20, 1983) was an American molecular biologist.

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Solar System

The Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies.

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Solubility

Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent.

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Southern Illinois University Carbondale

Southern Illinois University (known colloquially as SIU or SIU Carbondale) is a public research university located in Carbondale, Illinois, United States.

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Space.com

Space.com is a space and astronomy news website.

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Spacecraft

A spacecraft is a vehicle or machine designed to fly in outer space.

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Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation.

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Spectrum

A spectrum (plural spectra or spectrums) is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary, without steps, across a continuum.

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Sphalerite

Sphalerite ((Zn, Fe)S) is a mineral that is the chief ore of zinc.

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SPIE

SPIE is an international not-for-profit professional society for optics and photonics technology, founded in 1955.

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Spiegelman's Monster

Spiegelman's Monster is the name given to an RNA chain of only 218 nucleotides that is able to be reproduced by the RNA replication enzyme RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, also called RNA replicase.

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Spitzer Space Telescope

The Spitzer Space Telescope (SST), formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), is an infrared space telescope launched in 2003 and still operating as of 2018.

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Spontaneous symmetry breaking

Spontaneous symmetry breaking is a spontaneous process of symmetry breaking, by which a physical system in a symmetric state ends up in an asymmetric state.

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Springer Science+Business Media

Springer Science+Business Media or Springer, part of Springer Nature since 2015, is a global publishing company that publishes books, e-books and peer-reviewed journals in science, humanities, technical and medical (STM) publishing.

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Stanley Miller

Stanley Lloyd Miller (March 7, 1930 – May 20, 2007) was an American chemist who made landmark experiments in the origin of life by demonstrating that a wide range of vital organic compounds can be synthesized by fairly simple chemical processes from inorganic substances.

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Star

A star is type of astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity.

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Star formation

Star formation is the process by which dense regions within molecular clouds in interstellar space, sometimes referred to as "stellar nurseries" or "star-forming regions", collapse and form stars.

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Stardust (spacecraft)

Stardust was a 390 kilogram robotic space probe launched by NASA on 7 February 1999.

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Statistical fluctuations

Statistical fluctuations are fluctuations in quantities derived from many identical random processes.

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Steen Rasmussen

Steen Rasmussen (born 7 July 1955) is a Danish physicist mainly working in the areas of artificial life and complex systems.

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Stellar age estimation

Various methods and tools are involved in stellar age estimation, an attempt to identify within reasonable degrees of confidence what the age of a star is.

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Stellar nucleosynthesis

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the theory explaining the creation (nucleosynthesis) of chemical elements by nuclear fusion reactions between atoms within the stars.

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Stephen Blair Hedges

Stephen Blair Hedges (known as S. Blair Hedges) is Laura H. Carnell Professor of Science and director of the Center for Biodiversity at Temple University where he researches the tree of life and leads conservation efforts in Haiti and elsewhere.

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Stereochemistry

Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, involves the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation.

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Strecker amino acid synthesis

The Strecker amino acid synthesis, also known simply as the Strecker synthesis, was discovered by German chemist Adolph Strecker, and is a term used for a series of chemical reactions that synthesize an amino acid from an aldehyde or ketone.

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Stromatolite

Stromatolites or stromatoliths (from Greek στρῶμα strōma "layer, stratum" (GEN στρώματος strōmatos), and λίθος lithos "rock") are layered mounds, columns, and sheet-like sedimentary rocks that were originally formed by the growth of layer upon layer of cyanobacteria, a single-celled photosynthesizing microbe.

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Structure of the Earth

The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells: an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous asthenosphere and mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core.

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Stuart Kauffman

Stuart Alan Kauffman (born September 28, 1939) is an American medical doctor, theoretical biologist, and complex systems researcher who studies the origin of life on Earth.

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Sulfide

Sulfide (systematically named sulfanediide, and sulfide(2−)) (British English sulphide) is an inorganic anion of sulfur with the chemical formula S2− or a compound containing one or more S2− ions.

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Sulfur

Sulfur or sulphur is a chemical element with symbol S and atomic number 16.

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Sun

The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System.

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Sun Kwok

Sun Kwok (Chinese:郭新) is a Hong Kong astronomer specialized in the study of planetary nebulae.

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Sunlight

Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light.

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Supernova

A supernova (plural: supernovae or supernovas, abbreviations: SN and SNe) is a transient astronomical event that occurs during the last stellar evolutionary stages of a star's life, either a massive star or a white dwarf, whose destruction is marked by one final, titanic explosion.

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Superorganism

A superorganism or supraorganism (the latter is less frequently used but more etymologically correct) is a group of synergetically interacting organisms of the same species.

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System

A system is a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming an integrated whole.

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T Tauri star

T Tauri stars (TTS) are a class of variable stars associated with youth.

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Taphonomy

Taphonomy is the study of how organisms decay and become fossilized.

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Tar

Tar is a dark brown or black viscous liquid of hydrocarbons and free carbon, obtained from a wide variety of organic materials through destructive distillation.

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Tersicoccus phoenicis

Tersicoccus phoenicis is a member of the bacterial family Micrococcaceae.

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Texas Tech University

Texas Tech University, often referred to as Texas Tech, Tech, or TTU, is a public research university in Lubbock, Texas.

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The Ancestor's Tale

The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life is a 2004 popular science book by Richard Dawkins, with contributions from Dawkins' research assistant Yan Wong.

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The Astrophysical Journal

The Astrophysical Journal, often abbreviated ApJ (pronounced "ap jay") in references and speech, is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of astrophysics and astronomy, established in 1895 by American astronomers George Ellery Hale and James Edward Keeler.

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The Blind Watchmaker

The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe without Design is a 1986 book by Richard Dawkins, in which the author presents an explanation of, and argument for, the theory of evolution by means of natural selection.

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The Daily Telegraph

The Daily Telegraph, commonly referred to simply as The Telegraph, is a national British daily broadsheet newspaper published in London by Telegraph Media Group and distributed across the United Kingdom and internationally.

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The Independent

The Independent is a British online newspaper.

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The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin

The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin is a book published in 1887 edited by Francis Darwin about his father Charles Darwin.

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The New York Times

The New York Times (sometimes abbreviated as The NYT or The Times) is an American newspaper based in New York City with worldwide influence and readership.

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The Quarterly Review of Biology

The Quarterly Review of Biology is a peer reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of biology.

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The Science of Nature

The Science of Nature, formerly Naturwissenschaften, is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science+Business Media covering all aspects of the natural sciences relating to questions of biological significance.

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The Selfish Gene

The Selfish Gene is a 1976 book on evolution by Richard Dawkins, in which the author builds upon the principal theory of George C. Williams's Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966).

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Thermoacidophile

A thermoacidophile is an extremophilic microorganism that is both thermophilic and acidophilic; i.e., it can grow under conditions of high temperature and low pH.

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Thioacetic acid

Thioacetic acid is an organosulfur compound with the molecular formula CH3COSH.

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Thioester

In chemistry thioesters are compounds with the functional group R–S–CO–R'.

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Tholin

Tholins (after the Greek θολός (tholós) "hazy" or "muddy"; from the ancient Greek word meaning "sepia ink") are a wide variety of organic compounds formed by solar ultraviolet irradiation or cosmic rays from simple carbon-containing compounds such as carbon dioxide, methane or ethane, often in combination with nitrogen.

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Thomas Browne

Sir Thomas Browne (19 October 1605 – 19 October 1682) was an English polymath and author of varied works which reveal his wide learning in diverse fields including science and medicine, religion and the esoteric.

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Thomas Cavalier-Smith

Thomas (Tom) Cavalier-Smith, FRS, FRSC, NERC Professorial Fellow (born 21 October 1942), is a Professor of Evolutionary Biology in the Department of Zoology, at the University of Oxford.

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Thomas Gold

Thomas Gold (May 22, 1920June 22, 2004) was an Austrian-born astrophysicist, a professor of astronomy at Cornell University, a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, and a Fellow of the Royal Society (London).

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Thomas Henry Huxley

Thomas Henry Huxley (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English biologist specialising in comparative anatomy.

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Threose nucleic acid

Threose nucleic acid (TNA) is an artificial genetic polymer invented by Albert Eschenmoser.

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Thymine

---> Thymine (T, Thy) is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T.

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Titan (moon)

Titan is the largest moon of Saturn.

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Ton

The ton is a unit of measure.

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Top-down and bottom-up design

Top-down and bottom-up are both strategies of information processing and knowledge ordering, used in a variety of fields including software, humanistic and scientific theories (see systemics), and management and organization.

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Total organic carbon

Total organic carbon (TOC) is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical manufacturing equipment.

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Transition metal

In chemistry, the term transition metal (or transition element) has three possible meanings.

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Transworld Publishers

Transworld Publishers Inc. is a British publishing house in Ealing, London that is a division of Penguin Random House, one of the world's largest mass media groups.

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Triazine

A triazine is class of nitrogen-containing heterocycles.

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Tripeptide

A tripeptide is a peptide consisting of three amino acids joined by peptide bonds.

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Tropical cyclone

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain.

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Trusted Media Brands, Inc.

Trusted Media Brands, Inc. (TMBI), formerly known as the Reader's Digest Association, Inc. (RDA), is an American multi-platform media and publishing company that is co-headquartered in New York City and White Plains, New York.

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Turbulence

In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is any pattern of fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity.

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Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet (UV) is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays.

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United Lutheran Church in America

The United Lutheran Church in America (ULCA) was established in 1918 in commemoration of the 400th anniversary of the Protestant Reformation after negotiations among several American Lutheran national synods resulted in the merger of three German-language synods: the General Synod (founded in 1820), the General Council (1867), and the United Synod of the South (1863).

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United States Geological Survey

The United States Geological Survey (USGS, formerly simply Geological Survey) is a scientific agency of the United States government.

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Universe

The Universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy.

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Universe Today

Universe Today (UT) is a popular North American-based non-commercial space and astronomy news website.

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University College London

University College London (UCL) is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London.

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University of Arizona

The University of Arizona (also referred to as U of A, UA, or Arizona) is a public research university in Tucson, Arizona.

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University of Chicago Press

The University of Chicago Press is the largest and one of the oldest university presses in the United States.

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University of Colorado Boulder

The University of Colorado Boulder (commonly referred to as CU or Colorado) is a public research university located in Boulder, Colorado, United States.

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University of Glasgow

The University of Glasgow (Oilthigh Ghlaschu; Universitas Glasguensis; abbreviated as Glas. in post-nominals) is the fourth-oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotland's four ancient universities.

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University of Hong Kong

The University of Hong Kong (often abbreviated as HKU) is a public research university located in Pokfulam, Hong Kong.

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University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

The University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign (also known as U of I, Illinois, or colloquially as the University of Illinois or UIUC) is a public research university in the U.S. state of Illinois and the flagship institution of the University of Illinois System.

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University of Osnabrück

The University of Osnabrück (Universität Osnabrück) is a public research university located in the city of Osnabrück in Lower Saxony, Germany.

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University of Tokyo

, abbreviated as or UTokyo, is a public research university located in Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan.

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University of Washington

The University of Washington (commonly referred to as UW, simply Washington, or informally U-Dub) is a public research university in Seattle, Washington.

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University of Wisconsin–Madison

The University of Wisconsin–Madison (also known as University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin, UW, or regionally as UW–Madison, or simply Madison) is a public research university in Madison, Wisconsin, United States.

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Uracil

Uracil (U) is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of RNA that are represented by the letters A, G, C and U. The others are adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).

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Uranium

Uranium is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92.

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Venus

Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days.

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Vesicle (biology and chemistry)

In cell biology, a vesicle is a small structure within a cell, or extracellular, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer.

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Virus

A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms.

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Visible spectrum

The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye.

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Vitalism

Vitalism is the belief that "living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things".

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Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit

Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits, also known as VMS ore deposits, are a type of metal sulfide ore deposit, mainly copper-zinc which are associated with and created by volcanic-associated hydrothermal events in submarine environments.

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W. W. Norton & Company

W.

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Walter Gilbert

Walter Gilbert (born March 21, 1932) is an American biochemist, physicist, molecular biology pioneer, and Nobel laureate.

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Water

Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth's streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms.

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Water cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth.

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Water vapor

No description.

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Weidenfeld & Nicolson

Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd (established 1948), often shortened to W&N or Weidenfeld, is a British publisher of fiction and reference books.

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Weizmann Institute of Science

The Weizmann Institute of Science (מכון ויצמן למדע Machon Weizmann LeMada) is a public research university in Rehovot, Israel, established in 1934, 14 years before the State of Israel.

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Wellcome Trust

The Wellcome Trust is a biomedical research charity based in London, United Kingdom.

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Western Australia

Western Australia (abbreviated as WA) is a state occupying the entire western third of Australia.

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Wiley-VCH

Wiley-VCH is a German publisher owned by John Wiley & Sons.

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Wind

Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale.

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Wired (magazine)

Wired is a monthly American magazine, published in print and online editions, that focuses on how emerging technologies affect culture, the economy, and politics.

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Wood–Ljungdahl pathway

The Wood–Ljungdahl pathway is a set of biochemical reactions used by some bacteria and archaea called acetogens.

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World Scientific

World Scientific Publishing is an academic publisher of scientific, technical, and medical books and journals headquartered in Singapore.

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X-ray crystallography

X-ray crystallography is a technique used for determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline atoms cause a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions.

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Xanthine

Xanthine (or; archaically xanthic acid) (3,7-dihydropurine-2,6-dione), is a purine base found in most human body tissues and fluids and in other organisms.

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Yale University Press

Yale University Press is a university press associated with Yale University.

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Year

A year is the orbital period of the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun.

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Yellowstone National Park

Yellowstone National Park is an American national park located in Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho.

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Zircon

Zircon is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates.

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81P/Wild

Comet 81P/Wild, also known as Wild 2 (pronounced "vilt two"), is a comet named after Swiss astronomer Paul Wild, who discovered it on January 6, 1978, using a 40-cm Schmidt telescope at Zimmerwald, Switzerland.

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Abiogenesis and Biogenesis, Abiogenisis, Abiogensis, Abiotic genesis, Ambiogenesis, Beginning of life, Biopoesis, Biopoiesis, Dawn of life, Development of life, Early Earth Chemistry, Generatio spontanea, Haldane-Oparin hypothesis, How Life Began, Life origin, Life origins, Life's origins, Lipid world, On the origin of life, OoL, Origin of Life, Origin of life, Origin of life (science), Origin of life on Earth, Origins of Life, Origins of life, Origins-of-life research, Prebiotic (chemistry), Prebiotic evolution, Precellular evolution, Primeval soup, Primitive soup, Primordial cell, Primordial ooze, Primordial sea, Probiotic soup, The Origins of Life, The begining of life, The beginning of life, The origin of life, The origin of life on Earth, The origins of life.

References

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis

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