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116 relations: Academic detailing, Adherence (medicine), Analgesic, Antibiotic, Antimicrobial resistance, Asepsis, Bioavailability, Brand, Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines, Case study, Chemical stability, Clinic, Clinical pharmacy, Clinical trial, Cochrane (organisation), Community health center, Consensus decision-making, Country, Decomposition, Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines, Developing country, Diagnosis, Diarrhea, Disaster, Dispensary, Donation, Dosage form, Drug, Economic growth, Emergency management, Employment, English language, Epidemiology, Essential medicines, Essential medicines policies, Evidence, Evidence-based medicine, Expert, Expiration date, Extreme poverty, Famine, Fiscal year, Formulary (pharmacy), Freight transport, Generic drug, Government, Health, Health care, Hospital, Hospital pharmacy, ..., House, Human musculoskeletal system, Human resources, Human skin, Income, Indonesia, Influenza-like illness, Injection (medicine), Internet, Karachi, Leprosy, Literacy, Malnutrition, Management of dehydration, Manufacturing, Market price, Medical guideline, Medication, Medicine, Ministerial order, Multinational corporation, Number needed to treat, Nursing, Paracetamol, Patient, Pharmaceutical industry, Pharmaceutical sales representative, Pharmacist, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy, Pharmacy, Pharmacy and Therapeutics, Poverty, Prescription drug, Public health, Public sector, Quality assurance, Quality control, Randomized controlled trial, Refrigerator, Research, Retail, Retail clerk, Shelf life, Social class, Standard operating procedure, Substance abuse, Suppository, Syrup, Systematic review, Tablet (pharmacy), Teaching hospital, The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics, Training, Transport, Tuberculosis, Universities Allied for Essential Medicines, Vermin, Vitamin, Warehouse, Well-being, WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, Wholesaling, World Health Assembly, World Health Organization. Expand index (66 more) »
Academic detailing
Academic detailing is “university or non-commercial-based educational outreach.” The process involves face-to-face education of prescribers by trained health care professionals, typically pharmacists, physicians, or nurses.
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Adherence (medicine)
In medicine, compliance (also adherence, capacitance) describes the degree to which a patient correctly follows medical advice.
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Analgesic
An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain.
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Antibiotic
An antibiotic (from ancient Greek αντιβιοτικά, antibiotiká), also called an antibacterial, is a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections.
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Antimicrobial resistance
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) is the ability of a microbe to resist the effects of medication that once could successfully treat the microbe.
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Asepsis
Asepsis is the state of being free from disease-causing micro-organisms (such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses, pathogenic fungi, and parasites).
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Bioavailability
In pharmacology, bioavailability (BA or F) is a subcategory of absorption and is the fraction of an administered dose of unchanged drug that reaches the systemic circulation, one of the principal pharmacokinetic properties of drugs.
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Brand
A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or other feature that distinguishes an organization or product from its rivals in the eyes of the customer.
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Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines
The Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines is an international campaign started by Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) to increase the availability of essential medicines in developing countries.
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Case study
In the social sciences and life sciences, a case study is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a subject of study (the case), as well as its related contextual conditions.
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Chemical stability
Chemical stability when used in the technical sense in chemistry, means thermodynamic stability of a chemical system.
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Clinic
A clinic (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a healthcare facility that is primarily focused on the care of outpatients.
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Clinical pharmacy
Clinical pharmacy is the branch of pharmacy in which doctor of pharmacy provide patient care that optimizes the use of medication and promotes health, wellness, and disease prevention.
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Clinical trial
Clinical trials are experiments or observations done in clinical research.
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Cochrane (organisation)
Cochrane is a non-profit, non-governmental organization formed to organize medical research findings so as to facilitate evidence-based choices about health interventions faced by health professionals, patients, and policy makers.
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Community health center
A healthcare center, health center, or community health center is one of a network of clinics staffed by a group of general practitioners and nurses providing healthcare services to people in a certain area.
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Consensus decision-making
Consensus decision-making is a group decision-making process in which group members develop, and agree to support a decision in the best interest of the whole.
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Country
A country is a region that is identified as a distinct national entity in political geography.
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Decomposition
Decomposition is the process by which organic substances are broken down into simpler organic matter.
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Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines
The mission of the Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines of the World Health Organization is "to help save lives and improve health by closing the huge gap between the potential that essential drugs have to offer and the reality that for millions of people – particularly the poor and disadvantaged – medicines are unavailable, unaffordable, unsafe or improperly used." The EDM provides "global guidance on essential drugs and medicines, and working with countries – at their request – to implement national drug policies to ensure equity of access to essential drugs, drug quality and safety, and rational use of drugs.".
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Developing country
A developing country (or a low and middle income country (LMIC), less developed country, less economically developed country (LEDC), underdeveloped country) is a country with a less developed industrial base and a low Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries.
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Diagnosis
Diagnosis is the identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon.
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Diarrhea
Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose or liquid bowel movements each day.
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Disaster
A disaster is a serious disruption, occurring over a relatively short time, of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental loss and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources.
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Dispensary
A dispensary is an office in a school, hospital, industrial plant, or other organization that dispenses medications, medical supplies, and in some cases even medical and dental treatment.
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Donation
A donation is a gift for charity, humanitarian aid, or to benefit a cause.
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Dosage form
Dosage forms (also called unit doses) are pharmaceutical drug products in the form in which they are marketed for use, with a specific mixture of active ingredients and inactive components (excipients), in a particular configuration (such as a capsule shell, for example), and apportioned into a particular dose.
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Drug
A drug is any substance (other than food that provides nutritional support) that, when inhaled, injected, smoked, consumed, absorbed via a patch on the skin, or dissolved under the tongue causes a temporary physiological (and often psychological) change in the body.
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Economic growth
Economic growth is the increase in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time.
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Emergency management
Emergency management or disaster management is the organization and management of the resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies (preparedness, response, and recovery).
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Employment
Employment is a relationship between two parties, usually based on a contract where work is paid for, where one party, which may be a corporation, for profit, not-for-profit organization, co-operative or other entity is the employer and the other is the employee.
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English language
English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua franca.
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Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where) and determinants of health and disease conditions in defined populations.
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Essential medicines
Essential medicines, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), are the medicines that "satisfy the priority health care needs of the population".
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Essential medicines policies
A National Pharmaceuticals Policy is one that aims at ensuring that people get good quality drugs at the lowest possible price, and that doctors prescribe the minimum of required drugs in order to treat the patient's illness.
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Evidence
Evidence, broadly construed, is anything presented in support of an assertion.
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Evidence-based medicine
Evidence-based medicine (EBM) is an approach to medical practice intended to optimize decision-making by emphasizing the use of evidence from well-designed and well-conducted research.
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Expert
An expert is someone who has a prolonged or intense experience through practice and education in a particular field.
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Expiration date
An expiration date or expiry date is a previously determined date after which something should no longer be used, either by operation of law or by exceeding the anticipated shelf life for perishable goods.
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Extreme poverty
Extreme poverty, abject poverty, absolute poverty, destitution, or penury, was originally defined by the United Nations in 1995 as "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information.
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Famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, inflation, crop failure, population imbalance, or government policies.
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Fiscal year
A fiscal year (or financial year, or sometimes budget year) is the period used by governments for accounting and budget purposes, which vary between countries.
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Formulary (pharmacy)
At its most basic level, a formulary is a list of medicines.
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Freight transport
Freight transport is the physical process of transporting commodities and merchandise goods and cargo.
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Generic drug
A generic drug is a pharmaceutical drug that is equivalent to a brand-name product in dosage, strength, route of administration, quality, performance, and intended use, but does not carry the brand name.
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Government
A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state.
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Health
Health is the ability of a biological system to acquire, convert, allocate, distribute, and utilize energy with maximum efficiency.
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Health care
Health care or healthcare is the maintenance or improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in human beings.
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Hospital
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized medical and nursing staff and medical equipment.
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Hospital pharmacy
Hospital pharmacies are pharmacies usually found within the premises of a hospital.
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House
A house is a building that functions as a home.
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Human musculoskeletal system
The human musculoskeletal system (also known as the locomotor system, and previously the activity system) is an organ system that gives humans the ability to move using their muscular and skeletal systems.
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Human resources
Human resources are the people who make up the workforce of an organization, business sector, or economy.
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Human skin
The human skin is the outer covering of the body.
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Income
Income is the consumption and savings opportunity gained by an entity within a specified timeframe, which is generally expressed in monetary terms.
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Indonesia
Indonesia (or; Indonesian), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Republik Indonesia), is a transcontinental unitary sovereign state located mainly in Southeast Asia, with some territories in Oceania.
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Influenza-like illness
Influenza-like illness (ILI), also known as acute respiratory infection (ARI) and flu-like syndrome/symptoms, is a medical diagnosis of possible influenza or other illness causing a set of common symptoms.
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Injection (medicine)
Injection (often referred to as a "shot" in US English, or a "jab" in UK English) is the act of putting a liquid, especially a drug, into a person's body using a needle (usually a hypodermic needle) and a syringe.
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Internet
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide.
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Karachi
Karachi (کراچی; ALA-LC:,; ڪراچي) is the capital of the Pakistani province of Sindh.
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Leprosy
Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease (HD), is a long-term infection by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis.
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Literacy
Literacy is traditionally meant as the ability to read and write.
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Malnutrition
Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems.
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Management of dehydration
The management of dehydration typically involves the use of oral rehydration solution (ORS).
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Manufacturing
Manufacturing is the production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation.
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Market price
In economics, market price is the economic price for which a good or service is offered in the marketplace.
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Medical guideline
A medical guideline (also called a clinical guideline or clinical practice line) is a document with the aim of guiding decisions and criteria regarding diagnosis, management, and treatment in specific areas of healthcare.
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Medication
A medication (also referred to as medicine, pharmaceutical drug, or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease.
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Medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.
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Ministerial order
A ministerial decree or ministerial order is a decree by a ministry.
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Multinational corporation
A multinational corporation (MNC) or worldwide enterprise is a corporate organization that owns or controls production of goods or services in at least one country other than its home country.
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Number needed to treat
The number needed to treat (NNT) is an epidemiological measure used in communicating the effectiveness of a health-care intervention, typically a treatment with medication.
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Nursing
Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life.
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Paracetamol
--> Acetanilide was the first aniline derivative serendipitously found to possess analgesic as well as antipyretic properties, and was quickly introduced into medical practice under the name of Antifebrin by A. Cahn and P. Hepp in 1886. But its unacceptable toxic effects, the most alarming being cyanosis due to methemoglobinemia, prompted the search for less toxic aniline derivatives. Harmon Northrop Morse had already synthesised paracetamol at Johns Hopkins University via the reduction of ''p''-nitrophenol with tin in glacial acetic acid in 1877, but it was not until 1887 that clinical pharmacologist Joseph von Mering tried paracetamol on humans. In 1893, von Mering published a paper reporting on the clinical results of paracetamol with phenacetin, another aniline derivative. Von Mering claimed that, unlike phenacetin, paracetamol had a slight tendency to produce methemoglobinemia. Paracetamol was then quickly discarded in favor of phenacetin. The sales of phenacetin established Bayer as a leading pharmaceutical company. Overshadowed in part by aspirin, introduced into medicine by Heinrich Dreser in 1899, phenacetin was popular for many decades, particularly in widely advertised over-the-counter "headache mixtures", usually containing phenacetin, an aminopyrine derivative of aspirin, caffeine, and sometimes a barbiturate. Paracetamol is the active metabolite of phenacetin and acetanilide, both once popular as analgesics and antipyretics in their own right. However, unlike phenacetin, acetanilide and their combinations, paracetamol is not considered carcinogenic at therapeutic doses. Von Mering's claims remained essentially unchallenged for half a century, until two teams of researchers from the United States analyzed the metabolism of acetanilide and paracetamol. In 1947 David Lester and Leon Greenberg found strong evidence that paracetamol was a major metabolite of acetanilide in human blood, and in a subsequent study they reported that large doses of paracetamol given to albino rats did not cause methemoglobinemia. In three papers published in the September 1948 issue of the Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Bernard Brodie, Julius Axelrod and Frederick Flinn confirmed using more specific methods that paracetamol was the major metabolite of acetanilide in human blood, and established that it was just as efficacious an analgesic as its precursor. They also suggested that methemoglobinemia is produced in humans mainly by another metabolite, phenylhydroxylamine. A follow-up paper by Brodie and Axelrod in 1949 established that phenacetin was also metabolised to paracetamol. This led to a "rediscovery" of paracetamol. It has been suggested that contamination of paracetamol with 4-aminophenol, the substance von Mering synthesised it from, may be the cause for his spurious findings. Paracetamol was first marketed in the United States in 1950 under the name Triagesic, a combination of paracetamol, aspirin, and caffeine. Reports in 1951 of three users stricken with the blood disease agranulocytosis led to its removal from the marketplace, and it took several years until it became clear that the disease was unconnected. Paracetamol was marketed in 1953 by Sterling-Winthrop Co. as Panadol, available only by prescription, and promoted as preferable to aspirin since it was safe for children and people with ulcers. In 1955, paracetamol was marketed as Children's Tylenol Elixir by McNeil Laboratories. In 1956, 500 mg tablets of paracetamol went on sale in the United Kingdom under the trade name Panadol, produced by Frederick Stearns & Co, a subsidiary of Sterling Drug Inc. In 1963, paracetamol was added to the British Pharmacopoeia, and has gained popularity since then as an analgesic agent with few side-effects and little interaction with other pharmaceutical agents. Concerns about paracetamol's safety delayed its widespread acceptance until the 1970s, but in the 1980s paracetamol sales exceeded those of aspirin in many countries, including the United Kingdom. This was accompanied by the commercial demise of phenacetin, blamed as the cause of analgesic nephropathy and hematological toxicity. In 1988 Sterling Winthrop was acquired by Eastman Kodak which sold the over the counter drug rights to SmithKline Beecham in 1994. Available without a prescription since 1959, it has since become a common household drug. Patents on paracetamol have long expired, and generic versions of the drug are widely available.
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Patient
A patient is any recipient of health care services.
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Pharmaceutical industry
The pharmaceutical industry (or medicine industry) is the commercial industry that discovers, develops, produces, and markets drugs or pharmaceutical drugs for use as different types of medicine and medications.
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Pharmaceutical sales representative
Pharmaceutical sales representatives (formerly detailmen) are salespeople employed by pharmaceutical companies to persuade doctors to prescribe their drugs to patients.
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Pharmacist
Pharmacists, also known as chemists (Commonwealth English) or druggists (North American and, archaically, Commonwealth English), are health professionals who practice in pharmacy, the field of health sciences focusing on safe and effective medication use.
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Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics (from Ancient Greek pharmakon "drug" and kinetikos "moving, putting in motion"; see chemical kinetics), sometimes abbreviated as PK, is a branch of pharmacology dedicated to determining the fate of substances administered to a living organism.
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Pharmacology
Pharmacology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of drug action, where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (from within body) molecule which exerts a biochemical or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism (sometimes the word pharmacon is used as a term to encompass these endogenous and exogenous bioactive species).
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Pharmacotherapy
Pharmacotherapy is therapy using pharmaceutical drugs, as distinguished from therapy using surgery (surgical therapy), radiation (radiation therapy), movement (physical therapy), or other modes.
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Pharmacy
Pharmacy is the science and technique of preparing and dispensing drugs.
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Pharmacy and Therapeutics
Pharmacy and Therapeutics is a committee at a hospital or an insurance plan that meets to decide which drugs will appear on that entity's drug formulary.
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Poverty
Poverty is the scarcity or the lack of a certain (variant) amount of material possessions or money.
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Prescription drug
A prescription drug (also prescription medication or prescription medicine) is a pharmaceutical drug that legally requires a medical prescription to be dispensed.
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Public health
Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting human health through organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals".
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Public sector
The public sector (also called the state sector) is the part of the economy composed of both public services and public enterprises.
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Quality assurance
Quality assurance (QA) is a way of preventing mistakes and defects in manufactured products and avoiding problems when delivering solutions or services to customers; which ISO 9000 defines as "part of quality management focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled".
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Quality control
Quality control, or QC for short, is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in production.
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Randomized controlled trial
A randomized controlled trial (or randomized control trial; RCT) is a type of scientific (often medical) experiment which aims to reduce bias when testing a new treatment.
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Refrigerator
A refrigerator (colloquially fridge, or fridgefreezer in the UK) is a popular household appliance that consists of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic or chemical) that transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room.
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Research
Research comprises "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications." It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories.
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Retail
Retail is the process of selling consumer goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit.
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Retail clerk
A retail clerk, also known as a salesclerk, shop clerk, retail associate or (in the United Kingdom) shop assistant or customer service assistant, is a service occupation in a retail business.
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Shelf life
Shelf life is the length of time that a commodity may be stored without becoming unfit for use, consumption, or sale.
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Social class
A social class is a set of subjectively defined concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes.
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Standard operating procedure
A standard operating procedure, or SOP, is a set of step-by-step instructions compiled by an organization to help workers carry out complex routine operations.
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Substance abuse
Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of a drug in which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or others, and is a form of substance-related disorder.
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Suppository
A suppository is a solid dosage form that is inserted into the rectum (rectal suppository), vagina (vaginal suppository), or urethra (urethral suppository), where it dissolves or melts and exerts local or systemic effects.
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Syrup
In cooking, a syrup or sirup (from شراب; sharāb, beverage, wine and sirupus) is a condiment that is a thick, viscous liquid consisting primarily of a solution of sugar in water, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars but showing little tendency to deposit crystals.
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Systematic review
Systematic reviews are a type of literature review that uses systematic methods to collect secondary data, critically appraise research studies, and synthesize studies.
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Tablet (pharmacy)
A tablet is a pharmaceutical dosage form.
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Teaching hospital
A teaching hospital is a hospital or medical center that provides medical education and training to future and current health professionals.
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The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics
The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics (commonly referred to as The Medical Letter) is a peer-reviewed biweekly medical journal providing evaluations of pharmaceutical drugs.
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Training
Training is teaching, or developing in oneself or others, any skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies.
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Transport
Transport or transportation is the movement of humans, animals and goods from one location to another.
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Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB).
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Universities Allied for Essential Medicines
Universities Allied for Essential Medicines (UAEM) is a student-led organization working to improve access to and affordability of medicines around the world, and to increase research and development of drugs for neglected tropical diseases.
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Vermin
Vermin (colloquially varmint or varmit) are pests or nuisance animals, that spread diseases or destroy crops or livestock.
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Vitamin
A vitamin is an organic molecule (or related set of molecules) which is an essential micronutrient - that is, a substance which an organism needs in small quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism - but cannot synthesize it (either at all, or in sufficient quantities), and therefore it must be obtained through the diet.
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Warehouse
A warehouse is a commercial building for storage of goods.
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Well-being
Well-being, wellbeing, or wellness is a general term for the condition of an individual or group.
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WHO Model List of Essential Medicines
The WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (EML), published by the World Health Organization (WHO), contains the medications considered to be most effective and safe to meet the most important needs in a health system.
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Wholesaling
Wholesaling, jobbing, or distributing is the sale of goods or merchandise to retailers; to industrial, commercial, institutional, or other professional business users; or to other wholesalers and related subordinated services.
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World Health Assembly
The World Health Assembly (WHA) is the forum through which the World Health Organization (WHO) is governed by its 194 member states.
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World Health Organization
The World Health Organization (WHO; French: Organisation mondiale de la santé) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health.
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References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries
